E.

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT THEORIES COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORIES by Jean Piaget He described the mechanism by which the mind processes new information. He also said that a person understands whatever information fits into his established view of the world. He believes that children are neither driven by undesirable instinct nor molded by environmental influences. Piaget described four stages of cognitive development and relates them to a person's ability to understand and assimilate new information. 4 Stages:1. Sensorimotor 2. Preoperational 3. Concrete Operations 4. Formal Operations 1. Sensorimotor (birth to about age 2) > the child learns about himself and his environment through motor and reflex actions. > Thought derives from sensation and movement. The child learns that he is separate from his environment and that aspects of his environment -- his parents or favorite toy -- continue to exist even though they may be outside the reach of his senses. 2. Preoperational (2 to 7 yr) > the child begins to use symbols to represent objects. > Early in this stage he also personifies objects. > Oriented to the present, the child has difficulty conceptualizing time. His thinking is influenced by fantasy -- the way he'd like things to be -- and he assumes that others see situations from his viewpoint. 3. Concrete Operations (7-11y/o) >Children at this stage have acquired the concept of reversibility in that they understand that the amount of liquid doesn't change when it's poured into a different shaped glass. Children also now have the ability to "add, subtract, multiply, and divide; to place numbers in order by size; and to classify objects by any number of criteria 3. Formal Operations (11yrs and beyond) > At this stage, "preadolescent begins to be able to think abstractly and to see possibilities beyond the here and now (Slavin, pg. 39)." The preadolescent begins to gain cognitive abilities similar to adults and begins to develop throughout adulthood. When preadolescents and adolescents have reached this stage, they are able to think about their own thinking (Slavin, pg. 40). PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORIES by Erik Erikson The word 'psychosocial' is Erikson's term, effectively from the words psychological (mind) and social (relationships). Erikson believed that his psychosocial principle is genetically inevitable in shaping human development. It occurs in all people. Erikson, like Freud, was largely concerned with how personality and behaviour is influenced after birth - not before birth - and especially during childhood. In the 'nature v nurture' (genes v experience) debate, Erikson was firmly focused on nurture and experience. Stage 1 Trust vs. Mistrust (birth to 1 yrs) The balance of trust with mistrust depends largely on the quality of maternal relationship and depend on the social care and comfort the primary caregiver has provided The child will let mother out of sight w/o anxiety & rage because she has become an inner certainty as well as an outer predictability. If infants needs are met, and are shown genuine affection they think the world are safe and dependable If care is inadequate, inconsistent or negative, he approaches the world with fear and suspicion Stage 2 - Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1-3yrs) A stage where society creates on children a new conflict that is, whether to assert their will or not If denied autonomy, the child will turn against him/herself urges to manipulate & discriminate. When parents are patient, accepting and encouraging, children acquire a sense of independence. When children are not allowed such freedom, and are over-protected, they may doubt their ability to deal with the environment Stage 3 - Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6yrs) During this stage, children gain greater freedom in exploring their environment and often attempt tasks that parents do not approve. Initiative adds to autonomy the quality of undertaking, planning, and attacking a task for the sake of being active and on the move. The child feels guilt over the goals contemplated and the acts initiated in exuberant enjoyment of new locomoter and mental powers. Parents who allow their children freedom to explore and master new tasks are allowing them to develop initiative Parents who curtail this freedom make the children feel their activities are pointless and children become passive and guilty about doing things in their own.

Stage 4 - Industry vs. Inferiority (6-12 yrs) To bring a productive situation to completion is an aim which gradually supersedes the whims and wishes of play. It reflects the determination of children to master what they are doing so that they develop a successful sense of modestyindustry Parents , teachers who support, reward and praise children are encouraging and help in developing childrens sense of industry Those who ignore and deride childrens effort are strengthening feelings of inferiority. Stage 5 - Identity vs. Role Confusion (12-20 yrs) As young adults, they seek independence from parents, achieve physical maturity & are concerned about what kind of persons they are becoming. The adolescent is newly concerned with how they appear to others.The inability to settle on a school or occupational identity is disturbing. Seeking to find an identity, adolescents try on many new roles if they experience continuity in their perception of self identity develops When the adolescents fails to develop a sense of identity, he/she experiences role confusion or a negative identity Stage 6 - Intimacy vs. Isolation (20-40 yrs) Young adults reach out and make contact with other people and to fuse ones identity with that others to develop intimate relationship. Central to intimacy is the ability to share with and care for others Failure to establish and intimate relationship results to a feeling of isolation Stage 7 - Generativity vs. Stagnation(40-65 yrs) Generativity is the concern in establishing and guiding the next generation. Simply having or wanting children doesn't achieve generativity. Socially-valued work and disciples are also expressions of generativity. Generativity has to do with parental responsibility, interest in producing and guiding the next generation. Stagnation is a condition in w/c individuals are not able to find meaning and purpose in life and has little interest in self improvement or in making contributions in society. Stage 8 - Ego Integrity vs. Despair (old age to death) Ego integrity is the ego's accumulated assurance of its capacity for order &meaning. Despair is signified by a fear of one's own death, as well as the loss of self-sufficiency,& of loved partners & friends. Erikson tells us, won't fear life if their elders have integrity enough not to fear death. Some feel a sense of satisfaction with their lifes accomplishment, achieving a sense of integrity. Others experience despair, feeling that the time is too short for an attempt to start another life and to try out alternative roads to integrity PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES by Sigmund Freud > Also known as psychosexual > Radically new approach to the analysis and treatment of abnormal adult behavior. MORAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY by Lawrence Kohlberg Psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg modified and expanded upon Jean Piaget's work to form a theory that explained the development of moral reasoning. Kohlberg extended Piagets theory, proposing that moral development is a continual process that occurs throughout the lifespan. Kohlberg's six stages can be more generally grouped into three levels of two stages each Stages cannot be skipped; each provides a new and necessary perspective, more comprehensive and differentiated than its predecessors but integrated w/ them. a. Level 1 (Pre-Conventional) 1. Obedience and punishment orientation (How can I avoid punishment?) 2. Self-interest orientation (What's in it for me?) (Paying for a benefit) b. Level 2 (Conventional) 3. Interpersonal accord and conformity (Social norms) (The good boy/good girl attitude) 4. Authority and social-order maintaining orientation (Law and order morality) c. Level 3 (Post-Conventional) 5. Social contract orientation 6. Universal ethical principles (Principled conscience) > Often manifested by avoiding punishment and receiving benefits in return. > a child with preconventional morality has not yet adopted or internalized society's conventions regarding what is right or wrong, but instead focuses largely on external consequences that certain actions may bring. > Those who reason in a conventional way judge the morality of actions by comparing them to society's views and expectations.

> It is characterized by an acceptance of society's conventions concerning right and wrong. At this level an individual obeys rules and follows society's norms even when there are no consequences for obedience or disobedience. > There is a growing realization that individuals are separate entities from society, & that the individuals own perspective may take precedence over societys view; they may disobey rules inconsistent w/ their own principles. These people live by their own abstract principles about right and wrongprinciples that typically include such basic human rights as life, liberty, and justice. Because of this levels nature of self before others. > Manifested by mutual agreements and consistent principles F. LEARNING THEORIES > It is based on what is currently known help explain how people learn, and therefore, serve as guides for classroom teachers. 1. BEHAVIORAL & ASSOCIATIVE LEARNING THEORIES Prefer to concentrate on actual behaviour Conclusions based on observations of external manifestations of learning. 1.1 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING by Ivan Pavlov This is a disciplined account of our common-sense experience of learning by association although that is often much more complex than a reflex process, and is much exploited in advertising. Believes that individual learns when a previously neutral stimulus is paired w/ unconditioned stimulus. ex. "smell of baking" -- "kitchen at home in childhoodand associates with "love and care". (Smell creates potent conditioning because of the way it is perceived by the brain.) "sitting at a desk" -"classroom at school" and hence perhaps with "humiliation and failure"... Steps in Classical Conditioning a. Before Conditioning The dog does not salivate at the sound of the bell but salivates only when the food appears. The food is an unconditioned stimulus, a stimulus that automatically elicits an unlearned (unconditioned)response. The salivation is the unconditioned response, an automatic, unlearned to response to a particular stimulus (food) The sound of the bell is a neural stimulus, one that does not ordinarily elicit a reflex response. response, an automatic response. b. Conditioning Proper > The experimenter repeatedly pairs the neutral and the unconditioned stimulus pairs the neutral and the unconditioned stimulus (bell and food). Every time the bell rings, food appears and the dog salivates in response to the food. c. After conditioning > The dog salivates at the sound of the bell. The dog has learned 1.2 CONNECTIONISM by Edward Thorndike The most basic form of learning is trial and error learning. Learning is incremental not insightful. Learning is not mediated by ideas. All mammals learn in the same manner. theory of Thorndike represents the original S-R framework of behavioral psychology: Learning is the result of associations forming between stimuli and responses. Such associations or "habits" become strengthened or weakened by the nature and frequency of the S-R pairings. three primary laws: law of effect; law of readiness; and law of exercise (1) law of effect - When an organisms response is accompanied or followed by satisfactory state, the strength of the connection is increased. - Rewards, successes or positive reinforcement further learning , while punishment, failure or negative experiences hinder it.Rresponses to a situation which are followed by a rewarding state of affairs will be strengthened and become habitual responses to that situation, - Interference with goal directed behaviour causes frustration and causing someone to do something they do not want to do is also frustrating.

a. When someone is ready to perform some act, to do so is satisfying. b. When someone is ready to perform some act, not to do so is annoying. c. When someone is not ready to perform some act and is forced to do so, it is annoying. (2) law of readiness - a series of responses can be chained together to satisfy some goal which will result in annoyance if blocked,. - A learner maybe satisified or frustrated depeding on his/her stage of readiness. The learner should be biologically prepared. 3. Law of Exercise - connections become strengthened with practice and weakened when practice is discontinued. A corollary of the law of effect was that responses that reduce the likelihood of achieving a rewarding state (i.e., punishments, failures) will decrease in strength. -We learn by doing. We forget by not doing, although to a small extent only. a. Connections between a stimulus and a response are strengthened as they are used (law of use) b. Connections between a stimulus and a response are weakened as they are not used (law of disuse) 1.2 REINFORCEMENT & OPERANT CONITIONING by Burrhus F. Skinner We can find examples of operant conditioning at work all around us. Consider the case of children completing homework to earn a reward from a parent or teacher, or employees finishing projects to receive praise or promotions. In these examples, the promise or possibility of rewards causes an increase in behavior, but operant conditioning can also be used to decrease a behavior. The removal of an undesirable outcome or the use of punishment can be used to decrease or prevent undesirable behaviors. For example, a child may be told they will lose recess privileges if they talk out of turn in class. This potential for punishment may lead to a decrease in disruptive behaviors. Components of Operant Conditioning Reinforcement is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows. There are two kinds of reinforcers: Positive reinforcers are favorable events or outcomes that are presented after the behavior. In situations that reflect positive reinforcement, a response or behavior is strengthened by the addition of something, such as praise or a direct reward. Negative reinforcers involve the removal of an unfavorable events or outcomes after the display of a behavior. In these situations, a response is strengthened by the removal of something considered unpleasant. In both of these cases of reinforcement, the behavior increases. Punishment, on the other hand, is the presentation of an adverse event or outcome that causes a decrease in the behavior it follows. There are two kinds of punishment: Positive punishment, sometimes referred to as punishment by application, involves the presentation of an unfavorable event or outcome in order to weaken the response it follows. Negative punishment, also known as punishment by removal, occurs when an favorable event or outcome is removed after a behavior occurs.In both of these cases of punishment, the behavior decreases. 2. BANDURAS SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY by Albert Bandura > It is also called as observational learning theory People learn through observing others behavior, attitudes, and outcomes of those behaviors. Most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others, one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action. (Bandura). Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, and environmental influences Necessary conditions for effective modeling: 1. Attention various factors increase or decrease the amount of attention paid. Includes distinctiveness, affective valence, prevalence, complexity, functional value. Ones characteristics (e.g. sensory capacities, arousal level, perceptual set, past reinforcement) affect attention. 2. Retention remembering what you paid attention to. Includes symbolic coding, mental images, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor rehearsal 3. Reproduction reproducing the image. Including physical capabilities, and self-observation of reproduction. 4. Motivation having a good reason to imitate. Includes motives such as past (i.e. traditional behaviorism), promised (imagined incentives) and vicarious (seeing and recalling the reinforced model) Prepared by: KRISTINE MAY A. CACERES MAED-MATH