Journal of Materials Processing Technology 210 (2010) 415422

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Materials Processing Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jmatprotec

Development of forging process design to close internal voids

Hideki Kakimoto a, , Takefumi Arikawa a , Yoichi Takahashi b , Tatsuya Tanaka c , Yutaka Imaida c
Mechanical Working Research Section, Materials Research Laboratory, KOBE STEEL,LTD., 1-5-5 Takatsukadai, Nishi-Ku, Kobe, Hyogo 651-2271, Japan Development Section Technology Department, Steel Casting & Forging Division, Iron and Steel Department, KOBE STEEL,LTD., 2-3-1 Shinhama, Araicho, Takasago, Hyogo 676-8670, Japan c Applied Materials Engineering Laboratory, Faculty of Engineering and Science, Doshisha University, 1-3 Tataramiyakodani, Kyotanabe, Kyoto 610-0394, Japan
b a

a r t i c l e

i n f o

a b s t r a c t
In this study, the closing behavior of internal voids was examined by a deformation analysis involving the 2-D nite element method (FEM), which simulates voids in steel ingots in the compression process (upset process). In the compression process, a model experiment that uses internal voids was carried out to conrm the accuracy of the deformation analysis. By comparing the model experiment with the analytical results, it was conrmed to simulate the internal void behavior by this analysis. The relationship between the reduction ratio and the void shape/void position was investigated by the analysis. In the forging process, the closing evaluation value of internal voids (Q value) was calculated by a model experiment and 3-D FEM. Using the analysis results, a limit value of the closing behavior of voids was quantied, and it is now understood that the voids close at more than Q = 0.21. In addition, the forging process of lling the above-mentioned value was designed by the Taguchi method. The predicted Q value in the case of using the Taguchi method almost corresponds to the value calculated by the deformation analysis. It was claried that the process is capable of being designed simply. Crown Copyright 2009 Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Article history: Received 5 May 2009 Received in revised form 23 September 2009 Accepted 23 September 2009

Keywords: Open-die forging Numerical simulation Process design Void behavior

1. Introduction Recent years have seen an upward tendency in the diameters of steel ingots in response to the upsizing of products in order to achieve a desired forging ratio. However, as steel ingots increase in diameter, such problems as internal voids called cavity defects, segregation, and large crystal grains become more serious. A study conducted by Ono et al. (1995) revealed that it was difcult to homogenize the inside of steel ingots with a press in free forging. Upset (compression) and extend forging must be performed a few times to make the inside of steel ingots sound and nally manufacture products from them. Watanabe (2002) investigated the effect of stress and strain caused by the extend forging process on the internal quality. Kopp and Schultes (1982) conducted a theoretical analysis of the compression process to determine whether the quality of large-size free-forged products was improved. Bondnar and Bramtt (1987) examined a physical model of pressure welding using cylindrical plasticine, Park and Yang (1997) investigated the effect of the surface cooling temperature of steel ingots, and

Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: kakimoto.hideki@kobelco.com (H. Kakimoto), arikawa.takefumi@kobelco.com (T. Arikawa), takahashi.yoichi1@kobelco.com (Y. Takahashi), tatanaka@mail.doshisha.ac.jp (T. Tanaka), yimaida@mail.doshisha.ac.jp (Y. Imaida).

Ono et al. (1994) studied the effect of the cooling of steel ingot surfaces on the closing of internal voids through an analytical approach. Wang and Ren (1993) also performed an investigation into the relationship between the strain and the closing of voids. In connection with the extend forging process, Araki et al. (1985) scrutinized the effect of various extend forging methods due to a change in the density of powder sintered compacts, Rodic et al. (1987) calculated proper operation conditions for the closing of internal voids in rolling or forging, and Sun and Guo (1987) introduced void closing parameters using the nite element analysis. In addition to the above-mentioned studies, Cho et al. (1998) investigated the effect of different forging methods for extend forging on the hydrostatic stress or axial stress, and Banaszek et al. (2004) studied die shapes and the distribution characteristic of the reduction ratio. A report was made by Nakasaki et al. (2006) on the application of hydrostatic integral parameters to rolling. As described above, a wide range of studies has been conducted with regard to the compression and extend forging processes alone. However, it is necessary to elucidate the deformation behavior of internal voids, which occur in the upper area of steel ingots when they are cast, and optimize each process because these voids are forwarded to the extend forging process through the compression process. On the other hand, forging conditions, such as the shape of cross-sections, the shape of dies, the reduction ratio and the temperature distribution, differ among steel ingots, and this is an obstacle to simplifying these processes.

0924-0136/$ see front matter. Crown Copyright 2009 Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2009.09.022

416

H. Kakimoto et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 210 (2010) 415422

In this study, 2-D deformation analysis simulating internal voids in steel ingots was carried out and the closing behavior of internal voids in the compression process was examined. Regarding the extend forging process, the closing evaluation value of internal voids (Q value) was calculated and the limit value of the closing of internal voids was quantied based on the results of a model experiment and 3-D deformation analysis. A forging process design approach was also developed, which easily determines the forging conditions using quality engineering, and the effect of the forging conditions on the closing of internal voids was studied. 2. Closing behavior of internal voids in the compression process 2.1. Comparison between analytical model and model experiment results The compression process requires the relationship between the positions and sizes of voids and the reduction ratio to be claried in connection with the behavior of cavity defects formed during the casting of steel ingots. So, the closing behavior of voids was examined by performing an analysis with a void whose position and size were changed using general-purpose software (Forge2D) based on the nite element method. Provided with material-to-material contact judgment and re-mesh functions, this software is capable of investigating the closing behavior of internal voids. A schematic of the analytical model is shown in Fig. 1. A 1/2 axisymmetric model with a simplied steel ingot shape as shown in the gure was used for this study. The model experiment was rst conducted to check the behavior of the internal void in deformation analysis. In this step, the dimensions of the void in an experimental material with a changed reduction ratio were measured with the aid of X-ray CT without cross-sectioning the material. Then, the material was cut, and the shape of the void in the cross-section was compared with the results of the analysis. The experimental specimen consists of three pieces. One is the thick-walled cylinder. And the other parts are drilling simulated a void. The specimen is made by combining the parts of simulated a void and the thick-walled cylinder. Pure aluminum 1070 annealed at 450 C for 3 h in advance was used for the dimensional measurement by X-ray CT. The H0 /D0 of the material for the model experiment was dened as 2.0 for the purpose of observation from

Fig. 1. Analytical model.

Fig. 2. Relationship between reduction ratio and void shape (d/d0 and h/h0 ) in the case of analytical result and experimental result.

Fig. 3. Internal void shape comparison with experimental result (left) and analytical result (right) (equivalent strain distribution).

H. Kakimoto et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 210 (2010) 415422 Table 1 Analytical model (ingot shape H0 /D0 = 1.5). h0 /d0 1 2 5 T/H0 1/2 1/4 d0 /D0 0.01 0.05 0.1 0.2

417

the state with no strain given to the center of the material to the state with strain given. The shape h0 /d0 , diameter d0 /D0 , and position T/H0 of the void were set at 5, 0.08, and 1/2, respectively. With regard to the friction coefcient for the deformation analysis, on the other hand, the Coulomb friction was determined, = 0.15 in this study, so that the maximum diameter obtained in the model experiment would be matched. Flow stress data was additionally collected as material data for the analysis from a compression test using a test material. Eq. (1) is a ow stress equation. It was separately conrmed that the compression load measured in the experiment and the analysis result matched to within 3%. = 91.10.287 (1)
Fig. 5. Relationship between void shape (d0 /D0 ) and critical upset ratio (H0 /D0 = 1.5).

The relationship between the reduction ratio and the diameter and height of the void in the model experiment and the deformation analysis is shown in Fig. 2. In Fig. 3, the shapes of the internal void obtained at different reduction ratios in the model experiment and the deformation analysis are compared. From these gures, the void shape of the analytical result and that obtained from the experimental result at each reduction ratio are in close agreement with each other, and the reduction percentage of the void height and the increase percentage of the void diameter also match accurately. These facts indicate that the closing behavior of internal voids can be claried by making use of the deformation analysis. 2.2. Effect of the shapes, positions, and sizes of voids In this study, the shape of steel ingots was kept constant, H0 /D0 = 1.5, and the shape of the void (diameter: d0 , height: h0 ) and the void central position (T) shown in Fig. 1 were changed. The analysis conditions are given in Table 1. A total of 24 cases (3 2 4) were calculated as shown in the table to derive the reduction ratio at which the closing behavior and area of the internal void reduced to zero at each reduction ratio (hereinafter called the limit critical

upset ratio). Shown in Fig. 4 is the relationship between the reduction ratio and the area ratio of the internal void (S/S0 ) with different void shapes and positions. The result implies that as the aspect ratio of the void shape (h0 /d0 ) and the distance from the center to the position of the void increase, the void is less likely to close. In Fig. 5, the relationship between the void diameter/steel ingot diameter (d0 /D0 ) and the critical upset ratio at which the internal void closed under the condition of the steel ingot shape H0 /D0 = 1.5 and different void shapes (h0 /d0 ) and positions (T/H0 ) is shown. The gure indicates that the critical upset ratio does not show a signicant change even if the void diameter (d0 /D0 ) changes. On the other hand, as the void shape (h0 /d0 ) increases, the critical upset ratio rises because the void becomes longer in the same direction as the compression direction. Judging from the gure, a reduction ratio of at least 75% is required to close voids when the void shape is h0 /d0 = 5 or below, and the possibility that voids will completely close in the compression process is small. 3. Closing behavior of internal voids in the extend forging process 3.1. Model experiment of internal void closing If an internal void is large in size in the compression process as described earlier, it may remain with 3545% of its initial area and must, therefore, be completely closed in the following extend forging process. As the rst step of this experiment, a model experiment was performed to make clear the closing behavior of internal voids in the extend forging process. The shapes of the material used for the experiment are shown in Fig. 6. Lead was selected as the material because it shows a similar behavior to the deformation of

Fig. 4. Relationship between reduction ratio and void area ratio in case of changing void shape and position.

Fig. 6. Experimental material shape.

418

H. Kakimoto et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 210 (2010) 415422

Fig. 7. Appearance of forging method.

hot-rolled steel. This study considered a situation in which materials underwent the extend forging process just after compression, and a situation with the shape of the cross-section changed by preforming. For these different situations, two models, a cylindrical model of an initial size of 40 L36 (Model 1) and a 35 35 L36 prismatic model (Model 2), were prepared. This study also assumed a void that was a through hole of 0.05 in d0 /D0 and 2. A scheme of the die shapes used for the experiment is shown in Fig. 7, and the experimental conditions for each of Models 1 and 2 are stated in Table 2. The used dies were a at top die and a bottom die that was wider than the experimental materials. Both ends (1 and 2) were rst pressed, followed by the central area (3), and nally either end (same position as 4:1), resulting in areas with the same reduction ratio and different times of press (2 and 4) and areas with the same number of times of press and different reduction ratios (3 and 4). After the experiment, the materials were cross-sectioned, and the area of the internal void was measured by measuring the longer and shorter diameters of the through hole. The relationship between the reduction ratio and the internal void area ratio before and after deformation is shown in Fig. 8. This result indicates that the void area ratio of both Models 1 and 2 is almost the same irrespective of the number of times of press if the total reduction ratio is the same. So, strain is considered the predominating factor over the closing of voids. Given below is the quadratic approximate equation with which the relationship between the reduction ratio and the internal void area ratio was obtained from the minimum square method in the experiment using Model 2 shown in Fig. 8(B). The correlation coefcient is 0.986. Y = 0.0027X 2 0.1044X + 1 (2)

Fig. 8. Relationship between reduction ratio and void area ratio.

where X is the reduction ratio, Y is the internal void area ratio, and X is equal to or smaller than 0.21. For the result of the experiment using Model 1, the equation derived by translating the equation shown above in the incremental direction of the reduction ratio
Table 2 Experimental conditions.

is shown in Fig. 8(A). As the result of Model 1 shows, an initial reduction ratio of about 10% does not affect the central area, but the internal void increases in size probably because the central area is subjected to tensile stress due to the small reduction. The behavior of the internal void area ratio after the central area was excluded is similar to that in Model 2 as a result of, in our view, an increase in the contact length between the dies and the material with an increase in the reduction ratio. 3.2. Calculation of an internal void closing evaluation index by deformation analysis The quantication of the closing behavior of internal voids is an essential factor for process design for the closing of internal voids. An internal void closing evaluation index Q utilizing Oyanes equation has been proposed by Ono et al. (1993), and the closing behavior of internal voids was quantied by the equation in this study. The internal void closing evaluation index (hereinafter referred to as the Q value) is dened by the equation shown below.
f n

Number 1 Model 1 R-1 R-2 R-3 R-4 Model 2 S-1 S-2 2 3 Redution ratio/% 5 10 7.5 15 5.7 11.4 5 10 7.5 15 5.7 11.4 10 20 15 15 11.4 22.9 5 10 7.5 5.7 11.4 4

Press place

Upper Upper Upper Upper and lower Upper Upper

Q =

m / eq )deq

(
i=1

m / eq )

i eq

(3)

where m is hydrostatic stress, eq is equivalent stress, eq is equivalent strain, f is nal equivalent strain, and n is number of step.

H. Kakimoto et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 210 (2010) 415422

419

Fig. 9. Analytical model.

Fig. 10. Cross-section shape comparison with experimental result (right) and analytical result (left).

The analysis conducted in this study used the same conditions of the model experiment to calculate the Q value. An analytical model is shown in Fig. 9. Using a 1/2 axisymmetric model as the analytical model, void shapes were compared with a through hole present. Stress and strain components were integrated with regard to each step and each element using Eq. (3) shown above with no through hole. The friction coefcient and ow stress used for the analysis are shown in Table 3. For these values, the ones calculated by Taura et al. (1981) were used. Representative examples of the shapes of the cross-sections obtained in the experiment and analysis of Models 1 and 2 are shown in Fig. 10, and the internal void area ratios obtained from the experiment and analysis results are compared in Fig. 11. The result shown in Fig. 11 proves good matching between the void shape and the area ratio. The relationship between the Q value derived from the analysis and the internal void area ratio obtained from the experiment is shown in Fig. 12. It was conrmed from the result that the Q value at which internal voids close in the extend forging process was 0.21 or over irrespective of the initial shape of the cross-section. 3.3. Process design approach in the extend forging process In the extend forging process, the initial state of materials cannot be taken into account because press operators perform operations according to operation instructions. In fact, however, the initial state of materials, particularly their temperature distribution, is
Table 3 Analytical conditions. Friction coefcient Flow stress (MPa) 0.30 = 46.2 0.194 0.026

quite different depending on the time from the end of heating to the start of forging. Taking this fact into account, the setting of forging conditions according to the state of each material is considered an efcient approach to the closing of internal voids. However, it is difcult to analyze deformation by changing the temperature condition based on each material. So, this study used the quality engineering proposed by Taguchi (1999) as a means of obtaining forging conditions in an efcient manner. As described earlier, internal voids seem to close when the Q value is 0.21 or over. On the other hand, this internal void closing

Fig. 11. Void area ratio comparison with analytical result and experimental result.

420

H. Kakimoto et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 210 (2010) 415422

Fig. 13. Cross-sectional temperature distribution of material (cross-section shape = 1.00). Table 5 Example of K and m in case of 1300 C. Fig. 12. Relationship between Q value and void area ratio of experimental result. Strain rate 0.02 0.2 2 K 15.02 31.99 40.44 m 0.143 0.206 0.208

evaluation index is a function of equivalent strain, equivalent stress, and hydrostatic stress and greatly affected by the shape and temperature distribution of the material, the shapes of the dies, and the reduction ratio. It is, therefore, necessary to quantify the relationship between these forging conditions and the internal void closing evaluation index. In this study, a quality engineering approach was applied in order to quantitatively identify the effect of each factor on the internal void closing evaluation index, and a process design method was established using that approach. As the rst step, four factors affecting the closing of internal voids and three levels were selected, and a deformation analysis was conducted based on an orthogonal table (L9). Following the deformation analysis, the sensitivity was calculated, and the degree of its effect was examined. The four factors and their levels are shown in Table 4. The selected factors are: (A) cross-section shape (width/height), (B) die shape, (C) reduction ratio, and (D) temperature distribution. As shown in the table, two at dies were used. Flat Die 2 was 1.6 times longer than Flat Die 1 in the axial direction of the material. In pressing, the material was forged in the axial direction by applying pressure to the top and bottom faces and then turned upside down and forged in the same manner. Two temperature distributions inside the cross-section of the material were set: 1200 C uniformly over the entire cross-section, and 1200 C at the center and 1000 C and 900 C at the surface center. The minimum Q value was calculated in the axial direction at the center of the material obtained from the deformation analysis. The temperature distributions inside the cross-section of the material are shown in Fig. 13. The analytical model was 1/2 symmetrical as shown in the gure. The following equation using the strain rate sensitivity index m was adopted for the ow stress for the deformation analysis. = Km
Table 4 Factors and levels for Taguchi method. Control factor (A) Cross-section shape (B) Dies shape Upper Lower (C) Reduction (%) (D) Temperature distribution ( C) Level 1 1.00 Flat 1 Flat 1 10% 2 1200 constant Level 2 1.25 Flat 1 Wide 15% 2 12001000 Level 3 1.50 Flat 2 Flat 2 20% 2 1200900

where K is the constant relating to temperature and material and is the strain rate. K and m were determined based on the results of compression tests that were conducted at six different temperatures from 800 C to 1300 C at 100 C intervals and three strain rates of 0.02, 0.2, and 2. In the deformation analysis, an approximate equation was interpolated and extrapolated. Examples of the K and m values obtained in the compression tests are shown in Table 5. For the friction coefcient, the Coulomb friction coefcient = 0.15 obtained by Kakimoto et al. (2008) in an extend forging experiment was used. Now, the Q value is no dimension, and the ow stress ratio is important. So the units are not relevant for the general results achieved. A factorial effect diagram of the sensitivity in connection with the Q value obtained in the analysis is shown in Fig. 14, and a table of variance analysis relating to the sensitivity is given in Table 6. The results shown in the table indicate the marked effects

(4)

Fig. 14. Sensitivity for Q value.

H. Kakimoto et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 210 (2010) 415422 Table 6 Analysis of variance table. Factor A B C D e Total F 2 2 2 2 0 8 S 22.330 234.876 157.474 56.510 0 471.189 V 11.165 117.438 78.737 28.255 0 S 22.330 234.876 157.474 56.510 0 471.189 (%) 4.74 49.85 33.42 11.99 0 100

421

of (B) die shape, (C) reduction ratio, and (D) temperature distribution. In quality engineering, the sensitivity is calculated on the assumption that there is no interaction. It can be said that there is no interaction if the sensitivity matches with the predicted tendency. Contrary to this, if there is interaction, the sensitivity is signicantly deviated from the predicted result. Judging from Fig. 14, the effect on the Q value increases in order of the upperlower asymmetrical die, Flat Die 2, and Flat Die 1 in (B) die shape, as the reduction ratio increases in (C) reduction ratio, and when a difference in the temperature distribution is assigned in (D) temperature distribution. On the other hand, the effect of the difference in (A) cross-section shape on the Q value is small, which is in agreement with the predicted result and indicates that there is no interaction among the factors selected in this study. The width of the sensitivity becomes narrow in order of (B) die shape, (C) reduction ratio, (D) temperature distribution, and (A) cross-section shape, demonstrating that the degree of the effect on the Q value decreases. With regard to the die shape, the effect of the upperlower asymmetrical dies on the Q value is strong as already mentioned, and the longer one of the upperlower asymmetrical dies exerts a greater effect on the Q value. In general, the internal equivalent strain of the material and the hydrostatic strain increase because the material comes closer to the plane strain state with a longer die. Additionally, when asymmetrical dies are used, asymmetrical deformation occurs and the equivalent strain increases due to the difference in the contact area between the dies and the material. The sensitivity levels of the die shapes used for this study are as shown in Fig. 14, but are expected to considerably change if the length of the dies is changed. The sensitivity levels tend to increase almost linearly with an increase in the reduction ratio. More specically, only the area close to the surface deforms and strain does not reach the inside of the material at a low reduction ratio, but the equivalent strain increases as the reduction ratio rises. Regarding the temperature distribution, it is conrmed that the Q value shows an upward tendency with a drop of the surface temperature because a difference of the ow stress arises as a result of a surface temperature drop, the widthwise deformation is restrained, and the hydrostatic stress into the material increases. Finally, the Q value tends to increase as the width and height of the material increase. This is probably because if the material is wide, the restraint force produced by the friction between the dies and the material makes the material less likely to spread the width and the hydrostatic stress into the material increases. These facts mean that both the equivalent strain and the hydrostatic stress must be increased to close internal voids. As for the forging conditions, it is desirable that the cross-section of the material be a rectangular shape that is wide in the widthwise direction, the dies be as long as possible so that the plane strain state can be achieved wherever possible, and the reduction ratio be increased with a temperature distribution assigned. On the other hand, it is difcult to fulll all equipment requirements, such as press capability. For this reason, the optimum forging conditions capable of meeting the limit value of the Q value obtained as described earlier must be set. In quality engineering, Qe and m can be calculated from the equation shown below assuming that the estimated Q value is Qe ,

Fig. 15. Q value distribution at the material center.

the sensitivity is m, and the total average value of the sensitivity is ma , Ai , Bi , Ci , and Di are the sensitivity values of the respective factors at each level. Qe = 10m/20 m = Ai + Bi + Ci + Di 3ma (5) (6)

where i = 1, 2, and 3 represent the levels. The forging process design is considered feasible by selecting the level of each factor in the equation shown above with the estimated value Qe as a target value. So, the level of each of the die shape, the cross-section shape, and the temperature distribution was selected from Table 4, and a reduction ratio fullling the set target value was calculated. In this study, Q = 0.21 obtained in the model experiment of the extend forging process was set as a target value Qe = 0.21, the actual forging process was taken into account in the selection of each factor, and Level 1 (A1 ) showing a general cross-section shape and Level 3 (B3 ) representing upperlower at dies were selected for the cross-section shape and for the die shape, respectively. Additionally, Level 2 (D2 ), or a normal operation state, was selected for the temperature distribution. The sensitivity of the reduction ratio calculated by substituting these values into Eqs. (4) and (5) was 15.45, and a reduction ratio of 16.0% was obtained twice. In determining the reduction ratio from the sensitivity value, it was calculated from the proportional distribution between levels. The predicted value of the above-mentioned internal void closing evaluation index was veried by conducting a deformation analysis under the conditions stated earlier. The Q value distribution obtained from the deformation analysis is shown in Fig. 15. The horizontal axis in the gure shows the area from 0.1 to 0.9 of the entire length except both ends in the axial direction. Judging from the result, the minimum value of the Q value obtained in the deformation analysis is in close agreement with the calculated value using the sensitivity and the Q value can be estimated from the sensitivity value. As a result, the process design capable of fullling Q = 0.21 is considered easily feasible by making use of the result in Fig. 14. 4. Conclusions The closing behavior of internal voids was discussed using a deformation analysis approach. The results obtained in this study are summarized below. (1) As the result of an investigation into the relationship between the shapes, sizes, and positions of voids and the reduction ratio through the deformation analysis, the reduction ratio of 75% or over is required to close voids in the compression process. (2) The internal void closing evaluation index was quantied through the model experiment and 3-D deformation analysis,

422

H. Kakimoto et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 210 (2010) 415422 Zur weiteren Verbesserung der Qualitaet grosser Freiformschmiedeprodukte durch theoretische Analyse der Umformvorgaenge. Starl Eisen 102 (23), 11771182. Nakasaki, M., Takasu, I., Utsunomiya, H., 2006. Application of hydrostatic integration parameter for free-forging and rolling. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 177 (13), 521524. Ono, S., Minami, K., Ochiai, T., Iwadate, T., Nakata, S., 1995. Void consolidation during open-die forging for ultralarge rotor shafts. 1st Report. Formulation of voidclosing behavior. J. JSME C 61 (585), 387392. Ono, S., Minami, K., Iwadate, T., Murai, E., 1994. Three-dimensional simulation on the internal void closure in a ultra large ingot using a pre-cooling ingot forging process. J. JSTP 35 (405), 12011206. Ono, S., Minami, K., Murai, E., Iwadate, T., 1993. The Proceedings of the 1993 Japanese Spring Conference for the Technology of Plasticity, pp. 693696. Park, C.Y., Yang, D.Y., 1997. Modelling of void crushing for large-ingot hot forging. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 67 (1/3), 195200. Rodic, T., Stok, B., Gologtanc, F., Owen, D.R.J., 1987. Finite element modelling of a radial forging process. Adv. Technol. Plast. 1987 (2), 10651072. Sun, J.-X., Guo, H.G., 1987. Analysis of the closing and consolidation of internal cavities in heavy rotor forgings by nite element method. Adv. Technol. Plast. 1987 (2), 10591064. Taguchi, G., 1999. Mathematical Principle of Quality Engineering. Japanese Standards Association. Taura, R., Iibuse, J., Tsukamoto, A., 1981. About plasticity processing simulation by the lead. In: The Proceedings of the 32rd Japanese Joint Conference for the Technology of Plasticity, pp. 207210. Wang, Z., Ren, M., 1993. Investigation of the mechanism of void closing and optimization of forming procedure for large forgings. Adv. Technol. Plast. 1993 (2), 11811186. Watanabe, K., 2002. Closing behavior of internal cavities in heavy ingot forging. Research report of Kyusyukyouritsu University 26, pp. 1318.

and it was conrmed that voids close in the extend forging process when the internal void closing evaluation index Q is 0.21 or over. (3) Through an examination of a forging process design approach using quality engineering, the degree of the effect of each of the cross-section shape, the die shape, the reduction ratio, and the temperature distribution on the closing of voids was identied quantitatively, making the forging process design capable of fullling the target value feasible. References
Araki, S., Tsuda, T., Matsushita, T., 1985. Study on pressure welding of internal cavity by forging. 1. Forging elongation analysis by rigid plasticity nite element method considering axial offset. In: The Proceedings of the 36th Japanese Joint Conference for the Technology of Plasticity, pp. 397404. Banaszek, G., Dyja, H., Berski, S., Janik, M., 2004. Theoretical and experimental analysis of the effect of die shape on the internal quality of forged rods. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 153/154, 571577. Bondnar, R.L., Bramtt, B.L., 1987. Physical modeling of centerline consolidation in heavy forgings using plasticine. Mech. Work Steel Process 24, 237256. Cho, J.R., Bae, W.B., Kim, Y.H., Choi, S.S., Kim, D.K., 1998. Process design of the cold forging of a billet by forward and backward extrusion. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 80/81, 161165. Kakimoto, H., Takahashi, Y., Takamori, H., 2008. Process design of extended forging process by numerical simulation. J. JSTP 49 (568), 403408. Kopp, R., Schultes, T., 1982. Zur weiteren Verbesserung der Qualitaet grosser Freiformschmiedeprodukte durch theoretische Analyse der Umformvorgaenge,