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Seminar report Graphene electronics
Dept. OI Electronics and communication Engg. 1 College oI engineering Thalassery


CONTENTS

1. ABSTRACT..........................................................................................4
2. INTRODUCTION..........................................................................5-8
2.1Carbon vs. Silicon
2.2 Forms oI Carbon
. GRAPHENE................................................................................9-11
3.1 Introduction
3.2 2-D Crystals
3.3 Materials That Should Not Exist
3.4 Discovery oI Graphene
4. GRAPHENE FABRICATION...................................................12-1
4.1 Mechanical exIoliation oI graphite
4.2 Epitaxial growth on silicon carbide
4.3 Chemicals Vapor Deposition
5. PROPERTIES OF GRAPHENE................................................14-16
5.1 Atomic structure
5.2 Electronic properties
5.3 Optical Properties
5.4 Thermal Properties
5.5 Mechanical Properties
6. POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS.................................................17-20
6.1 Graphene nanoribbons
6.2 Graphene Transistors
6.3 Integrated Circuits
6.4 Transparent conducting electrodes
6.5 Solar cells
6.6 Ultra-capacitors
6.7 Graphene Bio-devices
6.8 Single molecule gas detection
7. LIMITATIONS..................................................................................21
8. FUTURE ASPECTS..........................................................................22
9. CONCLUSION...................................................................................2
10. BIBLIOGRAPHY.............................................................................24


1.ABSTRACT

Materials are the basis oI almost all new discoveries in science. The development oI
new materials can lead to the uncovering entire new Iields oI study, as well as new solutions to
problems that may have been thought to be unsolvable. One such material is graphene, a
deceptively simple arrangement oI carbon atoms. This new material has leapt to the IoreIront oI
material science and has numerous possible applications. It also allows Ior the observation oI
electrons in an almost zero resistance environment. Graphene may not yet be commercially
viable but in the coming years is almost certainly going to be applied in many diIIerent Iields.
This paper is a brieI review oI graphene and some oI its properties and applications. Just one
atom thick and less than IiIty atoms (a Iew nanometres) wide, the tiny transistors made Irom
graphene pave the way Ior a new breed oI computer chips smaller and Iaster than those based on
silicon.

2. INTRODUCTION

Silicon has provided the electronics industry a solid base oI Iavorable
properties capitalizing on which various advancements in electronics has been made (in terms oI
speed and size). But now it seems that silicon is approaching its limits. Most oI the engineers and
scientists think that it will eventually become too complex and expensive to reduce the size oI
silicon chips. Also, the speeds oI silicon chips have stuck in the gigahertz range. So as the
electronics world is looking Ior new candidate materials, Graphene seems to oIIers an
exceptional choice. Graphene is a Iorm oI carbon. As a material it is completely new not only the
thinnest ever but also the strongest. As a conductor oI electricity it perIorms as well as copper.
As a conductor oI heat it outperIorms all other known materials. It is almost completely
transparent, yet so dense that not even helium, the smallest gas atom, can pass through it.
Graphene has rapidly changed its status Irom being an unexpected and sometimes unwelcome
newcomer to a rising star and to a reigning champion. Research on graphene has electronic
properties is now matured but is unlikely to start Iading any time soon, especially because oI the
virtually unexplored opportunity to control quantum transport by strain engineering and various
structural modiIications. Even aIter that, graphene will continue to stand out in the arsenal oI
condensed matter physics. Research on graphene has non-electronic properties is just gearing up,
and this should bring up new phenomena that may well sustain, iI not expand, the graphene
boom.
2.1 Carbon vs. Silicon:

We currently live in the age oI silicon nanotechnology. Silicon based transistors drive
the modern computing revolution. The size oI transistors has consistently been decreasing
allowing more transistors to be packed onto a single chip thereby increasing computer power.
This rate approximately Iollows Moore`s law which states that the number oI transistors on a
chip is doubling approximately once every 2 years. The economic reason Ior such a phenomenal
rate is the $1 trillion computer market is driven by a worldwide demand Ior Iaster and more
aIIordable computers.
The physical reason behind the growth rate is the ability oI engineers and scientists to
Iashion silicon into smaller and more eIIicient computer circuitry. The most recent Intel
processor has a transistor with a channel length oI 45 nm a true nanotechnology. More recently
this ability to control silicon Iabrication has extended into the mechanical realm where interest in
silicon as a mechanical material has driven MEMS technology. Silicon MEMS are Iinding
applications in a wide array oI products. Silicon Iabrication processes and equipment are readily
available due to the microelectronics boom making silicon a natural choice Ior MEMS.
But is silicon the best choice? A potential alternative to silicon is carbon which Iorms several
distinct structures that have superior electrical, mechanical, and thermal properties to silicon.

2.2 Forms of Carbon:
Carbon sits directly above silicon on the periodic table and thereIore both have 4 valence
electrons. However, unlike silicon, carbon`s 4 valence electrons have very similar energies, so
their wave Iunctions mix easily Iacilitating hybridization. In carbon, these valence electrons give
rise to 2s, 2px, 2py, and 2pz orbitals while the 2 inner shell electrons belong to a spherically
symmetric1s orbital that is tightly bound and has an energy Iar Irom the Fermi energy oI carbon.
For this reason, only the electrons in the 2s and 2p orbitals contribute to the solid-state properties
oI graphite. This unique ability to hybridize sets carbon apart Irom other elements and allows
carbon to Iorm 0D,1D, 2D, and 3D structures.
2.2.1 Diamond
The three dimensional Iorm oI carbon is diamond. It is sp3 bonded Iorming 4 covalent bonds
with the neighboring carbon atoms into a Iace-centered cubic atomic structure. Because the
carbon-carbon covalent bond is one oI the strongest in nature, diamond has a remarkably high
Young`s modulus and high thermal conductivity. Un-doped diamond has no Iree electrons and is
a wide band gap (~5.5 eV) insulator. The exceptional physical properties and clever advertising
such as Diamonds are Iorever contribute to its appeal as a sought aIter gem. When
Figure 1: a)Diamond lattice. b)Hope Diamond. c) Lab grown diamond.

Properly cut and polished, it is set to make beautiIul pieces oI jewelry. The smaller deIective
crystals are used as reinIorcement in tool bits which utilize its superior hardness Ior cutting
applications. The high thermal conductivity oI diamond makes it a potentially useIul material
Ior microelectronics where heat dissipation is currently a major problem. However, diamond`s
scarcity makes this unappealing. To this end, scientists and engineers are trying to grow large
diamond waIers. One method to do so is chemical vapor deposition (CVD) where solid carbon is
deposited Irom carbon containing gases such as methane or ethylene. By controlling the growth
conditions, it is possible to produce deIect Iree diamonds oI limited size. Currently research is
ongoing to scale the technology up to waIer size diamond growth. It is only with such large scale
growth that diamond will make any technological impact beyond its current industrial uses in the
machining industry.

2.. Fullerenes and nano-tubes:
More exotic Iorms oI carbon are the low dimensional Iorms known as the Iullerenes which
consist oI the 0-dimensional C-60 molecule and its 1-dimensional derivative, carbon nanotubes.
A single walled carbon nano-tube is a single layer oI graphite, reIerred to as graphene, rolled into
a cylindrical tube with a 1 nm diameter. Carbon nanotubes can be metals or semiconductors and
have mechanical properties similar to diamond. They attracted

Figure: A Nanotube Schematic

Figure: C-60 fullurenes

a lot oI attention Irom the research community and dominated the scientiIic headlines during
the1990s and early 2000. This interest in nanotubes was partly responsible Ior the resurgent
interest in graphene as a potentially important and interesting material Ior electrical and
mechanical applications.

2.2.Graphene and Graphite:
Graphene and Graphite are the two dimensional sp2 hybridized Iorms oI carbon Iound in
pencil lead. Graphite is a layered material Iormed by stacks 41 oI graphene sheets separated by
0.3 nm and held together by weak vander Waals Iorces. The weak interaction between the sheets
allows them to slide relatively easily across one another. This gives pencils their writing ability
and graphite its lubricating properties, however the nature oI this interaction between layers is
not entirely understood. A single 2-D sheet oI graphene is a hexagonal structure with each atom
Iorming 3 bonds with each oI its nearest neighbors. These are known as the sigma bonds oriented
towards these neighboring atoms and Iormed Irom 3 oI the valence electrons. These covalent
carbon-carbon bonds are nearly equivalent to the bonds holding diamond together giving
graphene similar mechanical and thermal properties as diamond. The Iourth valence electron
does not participate in covalent bonding. It is in the 2pz state oriented perpendicular to the sheet
oI graphite and Iorms a conducting sigma band. The remarkable electronic properties oI carbon
nanotubes are a direct consequence oI the peculiar band structure oI graphene, a zero band gap
semiconductor with 2 linearly dispersing bands that touch at the corners oI the Iirst Brillion zone.
Bulk graphite has been studied Ior decades but until recently there were no experiments on
graphene. This was due to the diIIiculty in separating and isolating single layers oI graphene Ior
study

3. GRAPHENE
3.1 Introduction
Graphene is the name given to a Ilat monolayer oI carbon atoms tightly packed into a two
dimensional (2D) honeycomb lattice, and is a basic building block Ior graphitic materials oI all
other dimensionalities. It can be wrapped up into 0D Iullerenes, rolled into1D nanotubes or
stacked into 3D graphite. Theoretically, graphene (or '2D graphite) has been studied Ior sixty
years, and is widely used Ior describing properties oI various carbon-based materials. Forty years
later, it was realized that graphene also provides an excellent condensed-matter analogue oI
(21)-dimensional quantum electrodynamics, which propelled graphene into a thriving
theoretical toy model. On the other hand, although known as an integral part oI 3D materials,
graphene was presumed not to exist in the Iree state, being described as an 'academic material
and was believed to be unstable with respect to the Iormation oI curved structures such as soot,
Iullerenes and nanotubes. Suddenly, the vintage model turned into reality, when Iree-standing
graphene was unexpectedly Iound three years ago and especially when the Iollow-up
experiments conIirmed that its charge carriers were indeed mass-less Dirac Iermions. So, the
graphene 'gold rush has begun.

Figure 4: Structure of Graphites


.2 2-D Crystals
BeIore reviewing the earlier work on graphene, it is useIul to deIine what 2D crystals are.
Obviously, a single atomic plane is a 2D crystal, whereas100 layers should be considered as a
thin Iilm oI a 3D material. But how many layers are needed beIore the structure is regarded as
3D? For the case oI graphene, the situation has recently become reasonably clear. It was shown
that the electronic structure rapidly evolves with the number oI layers, approaching the 3D limit
oI graphite at10 layers. Moreover, only graphene and, to a good approximation, its bi-layer has
simple electronic spectra: they are both zero-gap semiconductors (they can also be reIerred to as
zero-overlap semimetals) with one type oI electron and one type oI hole. For three or more
layers, the spectra become increasingly complicated: Several charge carriers appear, and the
conduction and valence bands start notably overlapping. This allows single-, double- and Iew- (3
to 10) layer graphene to be distinguished as three diIIerent types oI 2D crystals ('graphenes).
.Materials That Should Not Exist
More than 70 years ago, Landau and Peierls argued that strictly two-dimensional (2D)
crystals were thermodynamically unstable and could not exist. Their theory pointed out that a
divergent contribution oI thermal Iluctuations in low-dimensional crystal lattices should lead to
such displacements oI atoms that they become comparable to interatomic distances at any Iinite
temperature. The argument was later extended by Mermin and is strongly supported by a whole
omnibus oI experimental observations. Indeed, the melting temperature oI thin Iilms rapidly
decreases with decreasing thickness, and they become unstable (segregate into islands or
decompose) at a thickness oI, typically, dozens oI atomic layers
15,16
. For this reason,
atomic monolayers have so Iar been known only as an integral part oI larger 3D structures, usually
grown epitaxially on top oI monocrystals with matching crystal lattices. Without such a 3D base,
2D materials were presumed not to exist until 2004, when the common wisdom was Ilaunted by
the experimental discovery oI graphene and other Iree-standing 2D atomic crystals (Ior example,
single-layer boron nitride and halI-layer BSCCO). These crystals could be obtained on top oI
non-crystalline substrates, in liquid suspension and as suspended membranes.
Importantly, the 2D crystals were Iound not only to be continuous but to exhibit high
crystal quality. The latter is most obvious Ior the case oI graphene, in which charge
carriers can travel thousands interatomic distances without scattering. With the beneIit
oI hindsight, the existence oI such one-atom-thick crystals can be reconciled with theory.
Indeed, it can be argued that the obtained 2D crystallites are quenched in a metastable
state because they are extracted Irom 3D materials, whereas their small size (1mm)
and strong interatomic bonds assure that thermal Iluctuations cannot lead to the
generation oI dislocations or other crystal deIects even at elevated temperature.
A complementary viewpoint is that the extracted 2D crystals become intrinsically
stable by gentle crumpling in the third dimension on a lateral scale oI -10nm
18,19
. Such
3D warping observed experimentally
18
leads to a gain in elastic energy but suppresses
thermal vibrations (anomalously large in 2D), which above a certain temperature can
minimize the total Iree energy
19
.

.4 Discovery Of Graphene
Graphene has oI course always existed; the crucial thing was to be able to spot it. Similarly,
other naturally occurring Iorms oI carbon have appeared beIore scientists when they viewed
them in the right way: Iirst nanotubes and then hollow balls oI carbon, Iullerenes. Trapped inside
graphite, graphene was waiting to be released. No-one really thought that it was possible. That
pessimistic assumption was put to rest in 2004. A. K. GEIM, in collaboration with then
postdoctoral associate K. S. NOVOSELOV and his co-workers at the University oI Manchester
in England, was studying a variety oI approaches to making even thinner samples oI graphite. At
that time, most laboratories began such attempts with soot, but Geim and his colleagues
serendipitously started with bits oI debris leIt over aIter splitting graphite by brute Iorce.

Figure 5: A. K. GEIM and K. S. NOVOSELOV
They simply stuck a Ilake oI graphite debris onto plastic adhesive tape, Iolded the sticky side oI
the tape over the Ilake and then pulled the tape apart, cleaving the Ilake in two. As the
experimenters repeated the process, the resulting Iragments grew thinner. Once the investigators
had many thin Iragments, they meticulously examined the pieces- and were astonished to Iind
that some were only one atom thick. Even more unexpectedly, the newly identiIied bits oI
graphene turned out to have high crystal quality and to be chemically stable even at room
temperature. The experimental discovery oI graphene led to a deluge oI international research
interest. Not only is it the thinnest oI all possible materials, it is also extremely strong and stiII.
Moreover, in its pure Iorm it conducts electrons Iaster at room temperature than any other
substance. Engineers at laboratories worldwide are currently scrutinizing the stuII to determine
whether it can be Iabricated into products such as supertough composites, smart displays,
ultraIast transistors and quantum-dot computers. Since its discovery in 2004, graphene has been
viewed as a promising new electronic material because it oIIers superior electron mobility,
mechanical strength and thermal conductivity. These characteristics are crucial as electronic
devices become smaller and smaller, presenting engineers with a Iundamental problem oI
keeping the devices cool enough to operate eIIiciently.

4. GRAPHENE FABRICATION
The most common method oI graphene Iabrication is exIoliation which Iinds its roots
with a technique that has been around Ior centuries writing with a graphite pencil. By writing
with a pencil you create many graphene sheets spread over your paper. UnIortunately this
method is uncontrollable and you are typically leIt with many sheets oI varying thicknesses. II
you want to study a single graphene sheet you need to locate it. The problem amounts to trying
to Iind a needle in a haystack.

Following are some methods of extraction of graphene:
4.1 Mechanical Exfoliation Of Graphite:
A single plane oI carbon atoms, graphene can be isolated using an exceedingly simple
method: In 2004, the University oI Manchester`s Andre Geim and colleagues used common,
clear cellophane tape to peel oII weakly bound layers Irom bulk graphite. That process can
produce millimeter-sized graphene Ilakes and is still common, particularly among researchers
exploring graphene`s astonishing electronic properties.

4 .2 Epitaxial Growth On Silicon Carbide:
Yet another method oI obtaining graphene is to heat silicon carbide to high temperatures
(~1100C) to reduce it to graphene. This process produces a sample size that is dependent upon
the size oI the SiC substrate used. The Iace oI the silicon carbide used Ior graphene creation, the
silicon-terminated or carbon-terminated highly inIluences the thickness, mobility and carrier
density oI the grapheme.

4 . Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD):
Recently, two groupsone led by MIT`s Jing Kong, the other by Byung Hee Hong oI SKKU
University in South Koreaused chemical vapor deposition oI methane to grow graphene on thin
nickel Iilms. The graphene was then either patterned lithographically or transIerred onto silicon
or plastic. The SKKU team has now adapted that approach to a scalable industrial manuIacturing
process that uses copper rather than Ni. In roll-to-roll production, as outlined in the Iigure,
graphene-laden Cu was pressed against a polymer support, bathed in an etchant that removed the
Cu, and then dry-transIerred to another Ilexible polymer. To increase the Iilm`s conductivity,
multiple layers oI graphene were stacked together and chemically doped in a bath similar to that
used Ior etching. The technique which currently seems to have the greatest potential Ior mass
production is the direct growth oI graphene. There are some other methods such as Graphite
oxide reduction and Pyrolysis of sodium ethoxide which are quite economical but they lead to
poor quality graphene crystals.

Figure 7: CVD process for Graphene Fabrication

5. PROPERTIES OF GRAPHENE
5.1 Atomic structure:
The atomic structure oI isolated, single-layer graphene was studied by transmission
electron microscopy (TEM) on sheets oI graphene suspended between bars oI a metallic grid.
Electron diIIraction patterns showed the expected hexagonal lattice oI graphene. Suspended
graphene also showed "rippling" oI the Ilat sheet, with amplitude oI about one nanometer. These
ripples may be intrinsic to graphene as a result oI the instability oI two-dimensional crystals, or
may be extrinsic, originating Irom the ubiquitous dirt seen in all TEM images oI graphene.

Figure 8: suspended graphene showing ~rippling of the flat sheet

5.2 Electronic properties:
Most oI the experimental research on graphene Iocuses on the electronic properties. Graphene
diIIers Irom most conventional three-dimensional materials.
5.2.1 High Electron Mobility:- Experimental results Irom transport measurements show that
graphene has a remarkably high electron mobility at room temperature, with reported values in
excess oI 15,000 cm2/Vs. Additionally, the symmetry oI the experimentally measured
conductance indicates that the mobility Ior holes and electrons should be nearly the same.
5.2.2 Intrinsic graphene is a semi-metal or zero-gap semiconductor:- It was realized early
on that the E-k relation is linear Ior low energies near the six corners oI the two-dimensional
hexagonal Brillion zone, leading to zero eIIective mass Ior electrons and holes .Due to this linear
(or 'conical") dispersion relation atlow energies, electrons and holes near these six points, two oI
which are in equivalent, behave like relativistic particles described by the Dirac equation
Iorspin1/2 particles. Hence, the electrons and holes are called Dirac Iermions.
5.2. Low resistivity and better current capacity & temperature conductivity:-
The resistivity oI the graphene sheet can be as low as 0.01cm. This is less than the
resistivity oI silver, the lowest resistivity substance known. Graphene nanoribbons exhibit an
impressive breakdown current density that is related to the resistivity. Graphene is being studied
as apotential replacement Ior copper in on-chip interconnects, the tiny wires that are used to
connect transistors and other devices on integrated circuits. In addition to the high current
carrying capacity, graphene nanoribbons also have excellent thermal conductivity.
5.2.4 Highly modifiable electrical properties:-Despite being a zero-band gap semiconductor
will extremely low resistivity, Graphene can be tweaked to take on all the three roles oI
conductor, semi-conductor and even insulator(as graphene oxide).
5.2.5 High frequency operation:- Graphene is estimated to operate at tera hertz Irequencies i.e.
trillions oI operations per second. The key advantage oI graphene technology is that electrons
move at a very high velocity, thus allowing to obtain high speed and high perIormance
transistors
5. Optical properties:
5..1 High Opacity:- Graphene's unique electronic properties produce an unexpectedly high
opacity Ior an atomic monolayer, with a startlingly simple value: it absorbs au 2.3 oI white
light, where u is the Iine-structure constant.

Fig:9 photograph of graphene in transmitted light

.. Saturable absorption:- Graphene can be saturated readily under strong excitation over
the visible to near-inIrared region, due to the universal optical absorption and zero band gap.
This has relevance Ior the mode locking oI Iiber lasers, where Iullband mode locking has been
achieved by graphene-based saturable absorber. Due to this special property graphene has wide
application in ultraIast photonics.

.Thermal properties:-
The near-room temperature thermal conductivity oI graphene was recently measured to be
between (4.840.44) 103 to (5.300.48) 103W/mK. These measurements are in excess oI those
measured Ior carbon nanotubes or diamond. The ballistic thermal conductance oI graphene is
isotropic.
.Mechanical properties:-
As oI 2009, graphene appears to be one oI the strongest materials ever tested. Measurements
have shown that graphene has a breaking strength 200 times greater than steel, a bulk strength
oI130GPa. However, the process oI separating it Irom graphite, where it occurs naturally, will
require some technological development beIore it is economical enough to be used in industrial
processes.

6. POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS
The possible practical applications Ior graphene have received much attention. So Iar, most oI
them exist only in our Iantasies, but many are already being tested, also by Geim and Novoselov
themselves. Graphene`s conducting ability has spurred a great deal oI interest. Graphene
transistors are predicted to be substantially Iaster than those made out oI silicon today. In order
Ior computer chips to become Iaster and more energy eIIicient they have to be smaller. Silicon
hits a size boundary where the material ceases to Iunction. The limit Ior graphene is even lower,
so graphene components could be packed on a chip more tightly than today. One milestone was
passed a Iew years ago when its key component, a graphene transistor, was presented that was as
Iast as its silicon counterpart. So Iar, graphene computers are nothing but a distant dream,
although paper-thin transparent computer monitors that can be rolled up and carried in a hand
bag have already appeared in commercials Ior tomorrow`s consumer electronics. Since graphene
is practically transparent (up to nearly98) while simultaneously being able to conduct
electricity, it would be suitable Ior the production oI transparent touch screens, light panels and
maybe even solar cells. Also plastics could be made into electronic conductors iI only1 oI
graphene were mixed into them. Likewise by mixing in just a Iraction oI as per mile oI graphene,
the heat resistance oI plastics would increase by 30 C while at the same time making them
more mechanically robust. This resilience could be utilized in new super strong materials, which
are also thin, elastic and lightweight. In the Iuture, satellites, airplanes, and cars could be
manuIactured out oI the new composite materials
6.1 Graphene nanoribbons:-
Graphene nanoribbons (GNRs) are essentially single layers oI graphene that are cut in a
particular pattern to give it certain electrical properties. Depending on how the un-bonded edges
are conIigured, they can either be in a zigzag or armchair conIiguration. Experimental results
show that the energy gaps do increase with decreasing GNR width. Their 2D structure, high
current capacity and thermal conductivity, and low noise also make GNRs a possible alternative
to copper Ior integrated circuit interconnects.

Fig 10: GNRs with their corresponding atomic force microscopic image
6.2 Graphene transistors:-
Due to its high electronic quality, graphene has also attracted the interest oI technologists who
see it as a way oI constructing ballistic transistors. Graphene exhibits a pronounced response to
perpendicular external electric Iields, allowing one to build FETs (Iield-eIIect transistors).
Facing the Iact that current graphene transistors show a very poor on-oII ratio, researchers are
trying to Iind ways Ior improvement.

Fig 11: Schematic representation of graphene transistor
Transistors less than one-quarter the size oI the tiniest silicon ones - and
potentially more eIIicient - can be made using sheets oI carbon just one-tenth oI a nanometre
thick, research shows. Unlike other experimental nanoscopic transistors, the new components
require neither complex manuIacturing nor cryogenic cooling. The transistors are made oI
graphene, a sheet oI carbon atoms in a Ilat honeycomb arrangement. Graphene makes graphite
when stacked in layers, and carbon nanotubes when rolled into a tube. Graphene also conducts
electricity Iaster than most materials since electrons can travel through in straight lines between
atoms without being scattered. This could ultimately mean Iaster, more eIIicient electronic
components that also require less power.
The Iirst graphene transistor was demonstrated in 2004. But this leaked current and could
never switch it oII, because electrons hopped too easily between the carbon atoms. We have now
made a graphene transistor that does not leak current that can control the Ilow oI just a single
electron eIIiciently. The leak-Iree transistor is made Irom a "nano-ribbon" oI graphene less than
10 nanometres wide and just a single carbon atom thick (0.1 nm). The device not only works at
room temperature but, unlike other transistors oI a similar size, it is relatively simple to make.
The ribbon at the heart oI the device, as well as the surrounding connections, can be cut Irom a
graphene sheet using electron beam lithography - the same method used to make silicon devices.
In February 2010, researchers at IBM reported that they have been able to create
graphene transistors with an on and oII rate oI100 gigahertz, Iar exceeding the rates oI previous
attempts, and exceeding the speed oI silicon. The 240 nm graphene transistors made at IBM were
made using extant silicon manuIacturing equipment, meaning that Ior the Iirst time graphene
transistors are a conceivable though still IanciIulreplacement Ior silicon.
6. Integrated circuits:-
Graphene has the ideal properties to be an excellent component oI integrated circuits.
Graphene has a high carrier mobility, as well as low noise, allowing it to be used as the channel
in a FET. The issue is that single sheets oI graphene are hard to produce, and even harder to
make on top oI an appropriate substrate. Researchers are looking into methods oI transIerring
single graphene sheets Irom their source oI origin (mechanical exIoliation on SiO2/ Si or thermal
graphitization oI a SiC surIace) onto a target substrate oI interest. In 2008, the smallest transistor
so Iar, one atom thick,10 atoms wide was made oI graphene. In May 2009 a team Irom StanIord
University, University oI Florida and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory announced that
they have created an n-type transistor, which means that both n and p-type transistors have now
been created with graphene. At the same time, the researchers at the Politecnico di Milano
demonstrated the Iirst Iunctional graphene integrated circuit a complementary inverter consisting
oI one p- and one n-type graphene transistor. However, this inverter also suIIered Irom a very
low voltage gain.
6.4 Transparent conducting electrodes:-
Graphene's high electrical conductivity and high optical transparency make it a candidate
Ior transparent conducting electrodes, required Ior such applications as touch screens, liquid
crystal displays, organic photovoltaic cells, and organic light-emitting diodes. In particular,
graphene's mechanical strength and Ilexibility are advantageous compared to indium tin oxide,
which is brittle, and graphene Iilms may be deposited Irom solution over large areas. A power
conversion eIIiciency (PCE) up to1.71 was demonstrated, which is 5.2 oI the PCE oI a
control device based on indium-tin-oxide.

6.5 Solar cells:-
The USC Viterbi School oI Engineering lab reported the large scale production oI highly
transparent graphene Iilms by chemical vapor deposition three years ago. The USC team has
produced graphene/polymer sheets ranging in sizes up to150 square centimeters that in turn can
be used to create dense arrays oI Ilexible OPV(organic photovoltaic) cells. It may eventually be
possible to run printing presses laying extensive areas covered with inexpensive solar cells, much
like newspaper presses print newspapers (roll-to-roll).

6.6 Ultra-capacitors:-
Due to the extremely high surIace area to mass ratio oI graphene, one potential application is in
the conductive plates oI ultra capacitors. It is believed that graphene could be used to produce
ultra capacitors with a greater energy storage density than is currently available.

Fig 12: ultra capacitor having graphene as conductive plate
6.7 Graphene bio-devices:-
Graphene's modiIiable chemistry, large surIace area, atomic thickness and molecularly-
gatable structure make antibody-Iunctionalized graphene sheets excellent candidates Ior
mammalian and microbial detection and diagnosis devices.

6.8 Single molecule gas detection:-
Graphene makes an excellent sensor due to its 2D structure. The Iact that its entire volume is
exposed to its surrounding makes it very eIIicient to detect adsorbed molecules. Molecule
detection is indirect: as a gas molecule adsorbs to the surIace oI graphene, the location oI
absorption experiences a local change in electrical resistance. While this eIIect occurs in other
materials, grapheme is superior due to its high electrical conductivity (even when Iew carriers
are present) and low noise which makes this change in resistance detectable.

7. LIMITATIONS

Despite so many IruitIul promises in the Iield oI electronics, the graphene based ICs,
microprocessor, etc. are unlikely to appear Ior the next10-15 years. For more practical
applications one would like to utilize the strong gate dependence oI graphene Ior either sensing
or transistor applications. One oI the major problem lies in the production oI high quality
graphene having suIIicient reproducibility. Also despite being almost similar to silicon, even a-
bit better in terms oI most oI the characteristics graphene lacks the ability work as a switch.
Without this, a chip will draw electricity continuously, unable to turn oII. UnIortunately,
graphene has no band gap and correspondingly resistivity changes are small. ThereIore, a
graphene transistor by its very nature is plagued by a low on/oII ratio.However one way around
this limitation, is to carve graphene into narrow ribbons. By shrinking the ribbon the momentum
oI charge carriers in the transverse direction becomes quantized which results in the opening oI a
band gap. This band gap is proportional to the width oI the ribbon. This eIIect is pronounced in
carbon nanotubes where a nanotube has a band gap proportional to its diameter. The opening oI a
band gap in graphene ribbons has recently been observed in wide ribbon devices lithographically
patterned Irom large graphene Ilakes and in narrow chemically synthesized graphene ribbons.

8. FUTURE ASPECTS
Discovered only Iour years ago,grapheme already appears in prototype transistors,memories
and other devices. The most likely applications Ior grapheme will be in analogue systems, such
as radar, satellite communications and imaging devices.
The Iree-state existence oI graphene has paved in ways Ior a large variety oI applications
in the Iield oI electronics, material sciences, photonics and many other Iields. One engineering
direction deserves special mention: graphene-based electronics. It has been emphasized that the
charge carriers in graphene move at high speed and lose relatively little energy to scattering, or
colliding, with atoms in its crystal lattice. That property should make it possible to build so-
called ballistic transistors, ultrahigh-Irequency devices that would respond much more quickly
than existing transistors do. Even more tantalizing is the possibility that graphene could help the
microelectronics industry prolong the liIe oI Moore`s law. Gordon Moore, a pioneer oI the
electronics industry, pointed out some 40 years ago that the number oI transistors that can be
squeezed onto a given area doubles roughly every18 months. The inevitable end oI that
continuing miniaturization has been prematurely announced many times. The remarkable
stability and electrical conductivity oI graphene even at nanometer scales could enable the
manuIacture oI individual transistors substantially less than10 nanometers across and perhaps
even as small as a single benzene ring. In the long run, one can envision entire integrated circuits
carved out oI a single graphene sheet. AIter just 6 years oI the Iirst reported existence oI
graphene, a remarkable progress has been made. But still a lot more work is to be done to put the
above theories into practical being.

9. CONCLUSION

Finally we conclude that This new material has leapt to the IoreIront oI material science
and has numerous possible applications. It also allows Ior the observation oI electrons in an
almost zero resistance environment. Graphene may not yet be commercially viable but in the
coming years is almost certainly going to be applied in many diIIerent Iields. This paper is a
brieI review oI graphene and some oI its properties and applications. Just one atom thick and less
than IiIty atoms (a Iew nanometres) wide, the tiny transistors made Irom graphene pave the way
Ior a new breed oI computer chips smaller and Iaster than those based on silicon.
And iI we use the graphene in the electronics and its diIIerent area then it is very helpIul
Ior reduce the size oI electronics equipment and its weight also. Main advantage it is Iorm oI
carbon then it is cheaper than the other metals.

10. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Geim, A. K. and Novoselov, K. S. (2007). "The rise oI graphene". Nature
Materials6
Electronics Ior you February 2011

ikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphene Graphene-the perIect
atomic lattice. The Nobel Prize In Physics 2010, Jannik Meyer, Science
vol. 324,15 May 2009
Flat Carbon-Faster Than Silicon Ior Electronics.SCIENTIFIC
AMERICAN,April-2008.
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Seminar report Graphene electronics

Dept. OI Electronics and communication Engg. 1 College oI engineering Thalassery

2.1 Carbon vs. Silicon:

Seminar report Graphene electronics

Seminar report Graphene electronics

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