Current Issue

J. Instrum. Soc.
India 36(2) 75-81
75
PC BASED TEMPERATURE RECORDING AND MONITORING SYSTEM

D. Das2 and H. Das1
1 2
Department of physics, North Gauhati College, Guwahati 781031 Department of physics, North Gauhati College, Guwahati 781031 ABSTRACT
A very simple arrangement based of transducer and PC for temperature recording and monitoring has been designed, fabricated and tested. A software programme for the PC has been written for recording and monitoring the temperature. This technique can be easily applied in continuous recording and monitoring of temperature.
1. INTRODUCTION
To overcome the drawbacks associated with analog temperature sensors in monitoring and recording, an attempt is made in this work to interface a very simple digital temperature sensing and recording setup. The designed and fabricated setup is also accurate .010C and can record at a rate of 46 samples sec-1.
2. WORKING PRINCIPLE
The basic principle of this type of temperature measurement detector is that the resistance of materials changes with temperature. The simplified differential amplifier using a transducer bridge used in our system arrangement is shown in figure 1. The transducer (pt100) whose resistance changes as a function of some physical energy is connected in one arm of the bridge with a small circle around it and is denoted by (RT +R) where RT is the resistance of the transducer and R the change in resistance RT.
3. SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
The basic parts of this instrument is shown in fig 1. The parts are the detector unit and data acquisition system unit. The detector unit consists of a transducer bridge and an instrumentation amplifier and the data acquisition system unit consists of a data acquisition card and a PC.
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Fig. 1 : Complete system arrangement
The voltage generated at transducer bridge was fed through an instrumentation amplifier to produce the requisite signal carried through channel for input to the data acquisition system (DAS). The DAS converts and records analog signals in digital form. The DAS consists of an A/D converter stage having ADC 0809 which converts the output of the detector to digital form and the PC unit continuously goes on storing this data in the hard disk.
4. HARDWARE DESCRIPTION Detector unit

The temperature detection and measurement unit is shown schematically in fig. 2. It comprises of an instrumentation amplifier. Instrumentation amplifier is made up of three opamps; namely IC741 (A1, A2, A3). The first two op-amps A1 and A2 provide a high input impedance because the signals go directly into the non-inverting inputs of the op-amp and the op-amp A3 represent the usual differential amplifier. The signal source of the Instrumentation amplifier is the output of the transducer.
Fig. 2 : Detector unit
PC Based Temperature Recording and Monitoring System
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Calibration arrangement
Fig. 3 : Calibration arrangement
Calibration arrangement for temperature measurement unit is shown in figure 3. Firstly, the sensor was connected with the digital multimeter through shielded wire. Now the sensor is placed in melting ice and the resistance of the sensor is recorded in terms of voltage and then the sensor is placed in the furnace A. Thermometer T is kept inside the furnace to measure the temperature. When the furnance A is connected with the power supply, the temperature inside the furnace increases gradually. When the temperature of the furnace attains a particular temperature (say 30OC) and becomes steady, resistance of the sensor is recorded in terms of voltage. Again the temperature of the furnace is increased up to a value 60OC and the resistance of the sensor is recorded in terms of voltage. This process is repeated up to a temperature 180OC with an increment of 30OC. Finally a graph is plotted temperature vs. resistance (in terms of voltage) a straight line was obtain which obeys the equation y=mx+c. It is calibrated over a range of temperature from 0OCc to 180OCc for our instrument. The calibration curve is shown in fig 4. Y-scale(Y) = m* x -scale(X) +C where m = 0.00342, C = 0.01243
Fig. 4 : Calibration curve
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D. Das and H. Das
Data acquisition system

The data acquisition system consists of a data acquisition card and a PC. The circuit diagram of the data acquisition card is given in Fig 5 This card is based on ADC 0809 IC from National Semiconductor Corporation. The ADC 0809 data acquisition component is a monolithic CMOS device with an 8-bit analog to digital converter. 8 channel, multiplexer and microprocessor compatible control logic. This chip having a very high powerful performance and offers high speed, high accuracy, minimal temperature dependence, excellent long-term accuracy and repeatability and consumes minimal power. ADC 0809 IC itself has a complete data acquisition system. The converter requires two external circuits for its operation. (a) One requirement is for reference voltage. (b). Another one is the clock (a) To produce a reference voltage necessary requirements are IC741, Zener diode D1, potentiometer, capacitor and some resistors. Here IC741 is in voltage follower mode i.e., voltage gain is unity. This IC741 is working as a buffer. The input of the op-amp itself needs a basic voltage source, which will contain some form of reference voltage usually used Zener diode D1. The reference voltage is adjusted to 5.12 volts by means of the potentiometer so that each step is equal to 5.12 volts/256 = 20 milivolts. (b) To produce external clock the necessary requirements are IC555, some resistors and some capacitors. The 555 timers can be used as an oscillator to provide a clock waveform. Two external resistors and single timing capacitors accurately control the frequency of oscillation. The value of resistors and capacitors are adjusted in such a way that it can produce a clock of nearly about 50 kHz
Construction and Installation
Fig. 5 : Complete data acquisition card
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The complete data acquisition card is shown in Fig. 5.36-pin female right-angled centronics connector is used for easy interface with PC using normal printer cable.
4. SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION
The analog to digital conversion unit of data acquisition system is interfaced to a PC via the centronics port. A software based on successive approximation technique is used for controlling different activity of the card. The software utilize the control registers of the centronics port for reading the digital signals from the ADC and the output write register for controlling the activity of the ADC 0809. The flow chart for the data acquisition system is shown in fig 6 and fig 7.
Start
Display menu on the monitor screen. Enter a data file name (FNM) for the particular experiment which will be stored in the hard disc of the PC. Enter the duration (DUR) for which reading is to be taken in seconds. Enter the gains GA1 of the amplifier in the temperature detector.
Pass the address of channel 1 which is connected to the temperature detector to the function (CAL_ VOLT) which will acquire the data (VOL1) from the analog to digital converter unit
Go to and return from CAL-VOLT
Write the value of VOL 1 divided by GA 1 in the file FNM. This ensures that the values written in FNM are the actual voltage values developed before amplification
Display the values of VOL1 both graphically and numerically on the PC monitoring screen
End
Yes
Is duration DUR over?
No
Fig. 6 : Flow diagram of PC software
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D. Das and H. Das

CAL_VOLT function
Send address latch enable (ALE) signal and start conversion (SC) pulse via centronics port to the 0809
Check if the end of conversion (EOC) signal from the ADC0809 is high
Is EOC High? Yes Read the data from the ADC0809 via the centronics port
Return to the main calling program
Fig. 7 : A C coded program can be used for making the complete use of the card
The program contains two modules. One is the normal main function of the C language and another one is the user-defined function titled Cal_ Volt. This Cal_Volt function contains the source code for controlling and communicating with the card. The function can be called with a valid channel address (between 0 and 7), and the function will return an integer value equivalent to the digital signal read from the card. The function initially writes the address code at first three bit of the write register of centronics port and sends the address latch enable (ALE) to the IC 0809 through the fourth bit of the write register. ALE signal indicates the availability of the address. The function then uses the fifth bit of the write register to send the start conversion (SC) signal to the IC. When the conversion process is completed the IC sends the EOC signal to the processor. The end of conversion is monitored by constantly reading EOC pin of the IC through the fourth bit of the first control register. Once the EOC signal is received, the complete 8 bit digital data is read through different bits of both the control registers. The function then calculates and returns the integer equivalent values of the read digital data. The function Cal_Volt is a complete independent function and can be interfaced with any other C program.
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5. RESULT AND CONCLUSION
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
To verify the efficiency of the temperature sensor the setup was utilized to monitor the change in temperature within a closed chamber of volume 150.796 litre as water vapour entered into it through a nozzle at a constant flow rate for 180 secs. Liner curve fitting algorithm is applied on the data acquired by experiment, shown in figure 8, and the fitted line is shown in figure 9. Here the general relation is: Y scale (Y) = m * (X) + C Where scale ( ) is the current axis scale function. The equation for our experimental data is found to be : y = 114745 + 16.89 Where y represents temperature and x represents the density of water vapour inside the chamber. Hence a relationship can be drawn for the density of water vapour in that chamber and the temperature of the chamber as x = (y-16.89)/114745 and thereby establishing one use of the temperature sensor, over and above proving its efficiency.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors wishes to thank Prof A.Choudhury, Dr G.A. Ahmed, Tezpur University and Prof. G.K.D. Mazumder, U.S.I.C Gauhati University for giving the co-operation during the work.
REFERENCES
1. Ramakant A Gayakwad, Opamp & Linear integrated circuit, 3rd edition. (1997) 2. P. Goyal, Data acquisition card for PC, Electronics for you, October, (1996), 87-89. 3. D.V. Hall, Microprocessors and Interfacing; programming and Hardware, Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi (1991).
82Instrum. Soc. India 36(2) 82-90 J.
POWER SUPPLY SYSTEMS FOR IN - SODIUM TESTING FACILITY

M. Shanmugasundaram1, P. Lakshmi3, J. Vincent1, P. Rajasundaram1, T. Chandran1, K.K. Rajan1, M. Rajan1 and B. Purniah2
1
Sodium Technology Group, Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research, Kalpakkam- 603 102 2 Metallurgy and materials, Chemical and Reprocessing Group, Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research, Kalpakkam - 603 102 3 Department of Electrical Engineering, Anna University, Chennai - 25 ABSTRACT
In sodium testing facility (INSOT) for testing the creep and fatigue behaviour of Fast Breeder Reactors (FBR) at elevated temperatures is developed. Used Class I, Class II, Class III and Class IV power supply systems analysed. An advanced PLC based monitoring and communicating Class - I power supply system (Lead Acid Battery Bank) for in-sodium testing facility has been developed in IGGAR. INSOT has one set of 300AH, 24V battery bank having 12 cells in series and the battery charger which has the rating of 24V - 100A. A unique feature of this system is the availability of this backup for the control panel operations as well as minimal lighting in case of failure of class III and IV power supplies. This paper describes the advance PLC based communication & monitoring class-I lead acid battery system, Class II, class III and class IV which has been implemented.
1. INTRODUCTION
AISI 316LN stainless steel (SS) and Titanium modified AISI 316 SS (D9) are the favoured structural materials in sodium cooled fast breeder nuclear reactors, the reactor components are often subjected to repeated thermal stresses as a result of temperature gradients, which occur on heating and cooling during start-ups, shutdowns and thermal transients during steady state operation. Therefore the problem of high temperature low cycle fatigue failure is of great importance in the design. Further, the presence of sustained loads at high temperature necessitate the study of creep and creep-fatigue interaction behaviour [1]. In order to study the creep, fatigue and creep - fatigue materials under sodium facility for the material testing in sodium (INSOT) is being set up as a part of Metallurgy and Materials, Chemical and Reprocessing Groups to extend the R&D facilities at present available in Mechanical Metallurgy division at Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research (IGCAR), Kalpakkam. The laboratory building houses two in - sodium testing loops, one each for creep and Fatigue studies. The loops have a height of 13.5 metres extending over 3 floors of the building. While the
Power Supply Systems for In - Sodium Testing Facility
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conventional class IV (Grid supply) and class III (Diesel Generator supply) supplies are available for normal operation, in the event of power failure, a class I power supply and Class II (Uninterrupted Power Supply) are needed for proper shutdown of the operation of the test facility and lighting are shown in Fig 1 and 2. The importance of charging and discharging procedures have also been investigated by several authors [2-5]. Improvements to cycle-life and specific energy involve substantial technical development in the way the battery is assembled, but is also dependent on the way the battery is charged [2]. It is understood that then performance and life of batteries depends strongly on the recharging process. [3] Each cell has to be protected both from overcharging and from cell reversal. Also, a lower limit for the individual cell voltages is important [4] When a lead plate, on the surface of which lead oxide existed, was in contact with sulfuric acid, lead sulfate crystals formed, and gradually grew with time. Insitu observation was possible with regard to the formation and the growth of lead sulfate crystals at the potential corresponding to the discharge reaction [5].
2. CLASS I POWER SUPPLY COMMISSIONING EXPERIENCE

In experience of the commissioning of battery banks and charger are, cell number three of the battery bank was declared as a pilot (representative) cell. All characteristic curves and proceedings are based on the observations from the pilot cell only. 1. 2. 3. 4. Before the first cycle of charging, the specific gravity, cell voltage and temperature of the electrolyte were found to be 1.13, 2V & 33OC respectively The battery charger was switched on and the charging current was fixed manually for 30A. Readings were taken every one-hour and it was found that the cell voltage, temperature and specific gravity of the electrolyte are increasing step by step. During charging there was a DC over voltage annunciation observed from the battery charger when the cell voltage exceeded 2.6 V. This has been ignored because every fresh battery has to be charged up to the specific gravity of 1.22. The charging was stopped after attaining all the required parameters. The first cycle of discharging was planned after 24 hours from stopping the first cycle charging. It was decided to carryout the discharging operation through a resistive load. As discharging of the batteries started at the rate of 30 A/hour through the resistive load the load current started decreasing at a fast rate and the discharging operation was stopped. At the time of discharging through rheostats it was found that enormous amount of heat is generated from the loading rheostats. Two pedestal fans in addition to the exhaust fans removed this heat. It was observed during the second cycle of charging that the specific gravity of the batteries is high. Adding distilled water into the batteries has reduced this. Second cycle charging and discharging readings were taken, similar to first cycle.
5. 6.
7.
8. 9.
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M. Shanmugasundaram, P. Lakshmi, J. Vincent, P. Rajasundaram, T. Chandran, K.K. Rajan, M. Rajan and B. Purniah
Fig. 1 : Power Distribution Schematic for INSOT Facility
Fig.2 : Class III and Class IV power supply schematic for INSOT Facility
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2. CLASS I POWER SUPPLY

INSOT has one set of 300 AH, 24 volts battery bank having 12 cells in series. A separate exhaust fan has been provided to remove the acid fumes in and around the battery bank maintenance room. This battery management system will lead to an increased lifetime and safe operation of the battery [6]. Thirty locations of the loop have to be monitored always by a data concentrator or scanner, emergency lighting and mimic indicator lamps are backup by class-1 power supply system.
2.1 BATTERY CHARGERS AND MODE OPERATIONS

The float-cum-boost charger is intended to operate on a single phase, AC supply of 230 V, 50 Hz. The charger is intended to charge lead-acids cells having capacity of 300 AH. The charger has to operate in five different modes, like Auto float/boost mode, Manual float mode, Manual boost mode, Manual Extended charge mode and Manual low voltage charge mode. In Auto float / boost mode, the battery and load will see the same voltage and the battery will be trickle charged, then the charger is able to deliver 100 A current. Thus, the load voltage is maintained at float voltage level, but the battery sees the full boost voltage. When the battery voltage picks up to 28 Volts, the charger shall come back to float mode automatically. The load and battery will see the float voltage simultaneously In Manual float mode, the charger will simultaneously charge the battery at constant voltage and feeding the load at float voltage. The total charger output current capacity should be maximum 100 A (maximum) in this mode (generally load current will be limited to 45 - 55A only). In manual boost mode, the charger will go to boost mode (constant current charge) and charge the battery at boost voltage with constant charging current of 45A. The charger will supply the load current of 55A at float voltage i.e., diode dropper shall be automatically between that charger output and the load. In Manual extended charge mode charger will charge the battery at extended charge voltage level, but the load voltage will be at float voltage level. That is the diode dropper shall be introduced between charger output and load automatically to drop voltage in diode dropper and hence only float voltage is available at the load terminal. In Manual low voltage charge mode, the charger charge the battery at 21 V D.C. (This mode will be used for initial charging of new battery). Since charging voltage is less than float voltage, diode dropper shall not be inserted in this mode. Arrangement by means of diode dropper and control will be made such that in whatever mode the charger operates, load voltage shall never exceed the float voltage i.e. 26 volts. The charger is in operation six indications are made available locally to indicate, mode Input over voltage / under voltage, Charger failure, Low discharge and High Discharge.
3.0 REQUIREMENT OF CLASS II POWER SUPPLY

In INSOT on failure of class IV grid power supply DG will be operated automatically to get class III power. The interval between power failure and DG coming into operation will be of the order of 10 seconds. During this period it is desired to provide UPS power supply to all Field access Units, Programmable logic controllers, Single loop controllers. Scanners and instrumentation system on the following basis.
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1) All field access units, programmable logic controllers, single loop controllers and control panel loads are desired to work without interruption. 2) Control room lighting, high bay lighting, selected locations in the loop structure and near dump valve. By having a UPS conventional tube light fittings provided in the desired locations can serve the above purpose. 3) Scanner for monitoring critical temperature and leak are planned to work without interruption. 4) The supervisory control and data acquisition software system, monitor, printers are planned to work without interruption. 5) The wire type leak detection system will be on class-II power through FAUs. So the leak detection system will not be disturbed during power failure and hence the availability is ensured always. 6) An uninterrupted power supply to the entire instrumentation and control system will help in knowing the plant status at emergency conditions and this will ensure safe operation of the system. Class-II power supply is mainly for loads like instrumentation system loads.
3.1 FEATURES OF THE UPS SYSTEM

In order to avoid power line disturbances like over voltage, under voltage, black out, outage, voltage spikes, surges, unstable frequency, harmonics, Electro Magnetic Interference (EMI) and Radio Frequency Interference (RFI), UPS is a reliable source of power supply. The UPS shall operate on INSOT class -IV power supply to provide power conditioning and power back up. The system shall consist of a rectifier/charger, inverter, sealed maintenance free batteries mounted on separate battery stand, static switches and a distribution panel.
3.2 UPS SYSTEM DESCRIPTION

The UPS shall mainly consists of the following components.
3.2.1 Rectifier/charger
Three phase 415 volts, 50 Hz class - IV power will be given at the input side of UPS rectifier through the input transformer. The transformer incoming AC power supply will be converted to DC by 3 phase bridge rectifier. The DC power at around 360 volts will be supplied to the inverter. In the event of AC power failure, the inverter shall be supplied power, without interruption by the battery. During normal operation battery will be charged by the rectifier.
3.2.2 Inverter
The inverter shall convert the DC power at its input to regulated AC power by Digital Signal Processing technique (DSP). Insulated Grid Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) based inverter will be used in the UPS. This ensures conpactness and high efficiency. The regulated output of the inverter shall supply power to the class II distribution board bus through static switches and MCCB.
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3.2.3 Batteries
The battery shall be sealed maintenance free, high rate discharge lead acid cells. For the required backup of 30 minutes 42 Ah capacity battery is selected. There will be 32 batteries of 12 volts arranged in a rack of size 1900 (L) x 350(W) x800(H) mm. Their expected life shall be 200 complete full load discharge cycles when operated and maintained within specifications
3.2.4 Static bypass

This will provide an automatic alternate power path to the parallel redundant UPS in case of over load or internal failure. Return to normal mode from bypass mode shall be automatic except when the over load exceeds the specified limits or an internal failure has occurred.
3.2.5 Manual bypass

This bypass shall be controlled by a switch and shall lock into bypass mode during UPS maintenance.
3.3 MODE OF OPERATIONS

The UPS shall operate as an on line, fully automatic system in the following modes
3.3.1 Normal
The rectifier/ charger shall derive power as needed from the AC mains and shall supply filtered and regulated DC power to the on line inverter and simultaneously shall charge the battery. The inverter shall convert the DC power at its input to highly regulated and filtered AC power to loads.
3.3.2 Emergency
Upon failure of the AC mains, the inverter shall continue to supply power to the loads. The inverter shall receive its power without interruption from batteries.
3.3.3 Recharge
After restoration of the AC mains the rectifier /charger again shall supply filtered and regulated DC power to the inverter and simultaneously recharge the battery. This shall be an automatic function and shall occur without interruption power to the loads.
3.3.4 Bypass
The automatic by pass shall transfer the loads to the other UPS in the case of an over load or UPS internal failures. Return from bypass mode to normal mode shall be automatic except in the case that the over load exceeds the specified limit or an internal failure occurs.
3.4 BACK UP ENERGY ESTIMATION

The estimated energy is specified in terms of watt hours, the energy required to support a UPS system for a back up time of 30 minutes is estimated as follows.
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UPS capacity = 10 kVA Power Factor = 0.8 Power output =8 kW Back up time = 30 min. Efficiency = 0.9 Energy Back up EB = UPS power output (W) x K watt hours Efficiency Factor "K" based on the battery discharge characteristics provided by the reputed battery manufactures. For a battery back up time of 30 minutes Factor K is 1.08. So energy back up is estimated as 9600 watt hours. Ampere hour capacity of the battery bank = Energy Back up DC bus voltage Assume DC bus voltage On higher side a 42 Ah battery is selected. = 372 volts Ah capacity of the battery bank is estimated as 25.8 Ah
3.4 LOCATION AND DISTRIBUTION

A seperate room of the size (3.5 x 8 m) is available in INSOT building for the UPS system, battery banks and distribution panel. The dimensions of the 10 kVA UPS system are 880 (L) x 500(W) x1030(H)mm. There is a battery bank for UPS system to be located in the battery bank room. These batteries are arranged in separate battery racks of size 1900 (L) x350(W)x800(H)mm.
4.0 ADVANCED PLC BASED MONITORING AND COMMUNICATING

In critical temperature and leak points are identified, this is monitored by an special Field Access Unit (FAU) this class I power supply backup system. This critical points also monitored through special FAU simultaneously communication established by PLC. Status and condition of the electrochemical battery bank also monitored by PLC periodically is explained in Fig 1. If any abnormalities identified initiated alarm and lit the indication in the annunciation window for alerting the operator. Class IV and Class III power supply systems has been implemented in addition to the Class I Class II power supply systems inductive and resistive loads are monitored and status communicated to PLC and PC.
CONCLUSION
Class I and Class II supply systems are installed successfully for INSOT facility. All the temporary and permanent modifications were carried out to complete the commissioning of CLASS I power supply system. Now the system is in trickle / float charge mode, and ready
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for feeding power to the emergency backup loads. Class IV and Class III power supply systems has been implemented in addition to the Class I power supply as per the test set up requirement.
REFERENCES
1. S.L. Mannan, MP, IGCAR, Creep and Fatigue behaviour of austenitic stainless steels in relation to microstructure. Proceedings of the workshop on Creep, Fatigue and Creep Fatigue interaction during Feb. 18-20, 1987. 2. P.T. Moseley, A.Cooper., Progress towards an advanced lead-acid battery for use in electric Vehicles J. Power Sources, 78, (1999), 244 - 250. 3. Klaus-Dieter Merz., Field experience and improvements with thin tubular-plate lead/acid technology. J. Power Sources, 73, (1998), 146 - 151. 4. Michel Saakes, Edwin Kluiters, Dick Schmal, Salem Maoured, Peter T.J.H. ten Have., Development and testing of a bipolar lead - acid battery for hybrid electric vehicles. J. Power Sources, 78, (1999), 199-203. 5. Yoshiaki Yamaguchi, Masashi Shiota, Yasuhide Nakayama, Nobumitsu Hirai, Shigeta Hara, In situ analysis of electrochemical reactions at a lead surface in sulfuric acid solution. J. Power Sources, 85, (2000), 22 - 28. 6. A. Jossen; V. Spath; H. Doring; J. Garche., Reliable battery operation - a challenge for battery management system J. Power Sources, 84, (1999), 283 - 286.
J. Instrum. Soc. India 36(2) 91-100
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ADVANCED NEURAL & FUZZY TEMPERATURE AND FLOW CONTROL SYSTEMS FOR IN-SODIUM TEST FACILITY
M. Shanmugasundaram2, P. Lakshmi3, C. Sundari2, J. Vincent2 and B. Purnaiah1
1
Metallaurgy and Materials Group, Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research Kalpakkam - 603 102 2 Engineering Development Group, Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research Kalpakkam - 603 102 3 Department of Electrical Engineering, Anna University, Chennai - 600 025. ABSTRACT
In-sodium testing facility (INSOT) for evaluating of creep and fatigue behaviour of fast breeder reactor structural materials under flowing sodium at elevated temperature is developed. Existing architecture for instrumentation and control of creep and fatigue loops of INSOT facility contains programmable logic controllers (PLCs), Field access units (FAUs) and personal computers based software of INSOT facility. Temperature controlling various methods are studied and improved. This paper examines the advancement features of the system architecture. The advancement covers the replacement of microcontroller (8749) chip, which resulted in an increase in speed and reduction in the programming time. The new microcontroller (89C51) architecture enable us electrically erase several times thus reducing the cost. The assembler and disassembler software are easily available. The internal memory 4K flash PRAM. The number of ports are more, so interrupts can be externally added. Upgrade possibility of neutral networks and fuzzy control in the insot was analysed, results obtained.
1. INTRODUCTION
In-sodium testing facility (INSOT) consists of creep and fatigue loops. Liquid sodium Inventory, operational and control philosophy of each loop is different. In both the loops temperature, flow, pressure parameters are being controlled, leak, level parameters are being monitored in different parts of the loop by different types of sensors. The loop is divided into functional sections like main section, coldtrap, oxygen meter, carbon meter, foil chamber and test sections1. This paper describes the advancement of Instrumentation control of system architecture and operational features of smart control system consists of programmable logic controllers (PLCs), Field Access Units (FAUs) and personal computer based software (SCADA) of INSOT facility.
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M. Shanmugasundaram, P. Lakshmi, C. Sundari, J. Vincent and B. Purnaiah
2. CONFIGURATION OF PLC SYSTEM

Each sodium loop consists of eight sections, every two sections assigned to a PLC without sacrificing functional independence and to prevent entire loop shutdown7. PLC supports one serial port which is Half duplex RS 485 multidrop bus (FIELD NET) for connecting FAUs, another is serial port, full Duplex RS 422 network (HOSTNET) which connects multiple PLCs to a single PC. MODBUS protocol is employed for data exchange between (i) FAUs and PLC, (ii) PLCs and PC shown in Fig 1.
Fig.1 : Overall Block Diagram of DACS of INSOT facility
Advanced Neural & Fuzzy Temperature and Flow Control Systems for In-sodium Test Facility
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3. PLC FOR TEMPERATURE CONTROL Heat Exchangers / Economisers

The heat exchangers/economisers are of shell and tube type design are shown in Fig 2 & 3. The temperature of sodium in the test section is raised from 350OC to 630OC on tube side and lowered from 650 to 370OC on shell side. This sodium enters into shell side of the heat exchanger after passing through degassing chamber for release of gas bubbles if any and then enters into air cooler for further cooling from 370 to 350Oc. The liquid sodium after cooling gets re-circulated into the system through EM pumps.
Fig.2 : Heat Exchanger
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Fig.3 : Economiser
Fig.4 : Details of PLC based Temperature Control
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The pipeline temperature is monitored and compared with set point by PLC shown in Fig 4. In each group of heaters, temperature is measured by thermocouples2. Instead of average temperature comparison additional care as taken each temperature deviated from minimum and maximum values from the set point of the respective group. Based on PLC output heater group turns ON or OFF the heaters in group. PLCs are used to control the surface temperature and tank heater temperature control in INSOT. The heaters are SS sheathed, MgO insulated ceramic heaters, and the heating element is made of Ni 80% Cr 20% nicrome alloy. It is operated at 230V and 250 Watts per meter in capacities 0.5KW or 1KW for surface heaters and 5.5KW in case of immersion heaters3. The special feature of the PLC based heater control is on line validation of thermocouple signals by FAU. The signal acquired from each thermocouple channel is compared with the fuzzy rule base and if the difference is more than 15% then that respective control signal select and feed for control. In addition to the above, open and short situations of cable/sensor are also detected by the FAU. Real time control of non-linear systems is often a quite complex and computationally intensive task. It is for this reason that Neural Networks (NN) and Fuzzy systems (FS) are gaining widespread acceptance in the field of learning and intelligent control. Fuzzy logic provides and inference morphology that enables approximate human reasoning capabilities to be applied to knowledge based systems. Now a days two major type or fuzzy approach generally in use Mandani and takagi sugeno fuzzy. In mamdani fuzzy rules, both the premises and consequents are fuzzy prepositions. Singleton fuzzy system is most widely used because of its simplicity and lower computational requirements. Non singleton fuzzy system becomes necessary to account for uncertainty in the data. The four principle components needed for designing a fuzzy logic controller are a rule base, a fuzzy interference system, an input fuzzification interference and an output defuzzification interference. Takagi sugeno neuro-fuzzy systems make use of a mixture of back propagation to learn the membership functions and least mean square estimation to determine the coefficients of the linear combinations in the rule's conclutions. In the first part the input patterns are propagated, and the optimal conclusion parameters are estimated by an iterative least mean square procedure, while the membership functions are assumed to be fixed for the current cycle through the training set. In the second part the patterns are propagated again, and in this epoch back propagation is used to modify the membership functions, while the conclusion parameters remain fixed. Mamdani neuro fussy system uses a supervised learning technique (backpropagation learning) to learn the membership functions.
Neural Network approach in Heater Vessel

In INSOT, the rated capacity of heaters for test section is 38.5 kW each contains seven heater elements. Heaters in oxygen meter, carbon meter and foil chamber section have the capacity of 11 kW each contains two heater elements is shown in Fig 6. The temperature of the sodium in a tank is described by the equation 6. The temperature of the sodium in a tank is described by the equation C{dy(t)/dt} = {[YO-y(t)]/R}+h(t)..(1) y(t) - Temperature of sodium in the tank (OC) h(t) - heat flowing into the tank through the base heater (watts)
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Fig.6 : Immersion Heater
YO - surrounding temperature (OC) R - thermal resistance between tank and surroundings. C - Tank thermal capacity (Joules/OC) Assuming R & C are constant, we get discreate-time state equation as X(K+1) = Fx(k) + gh(k) . (2) Where F=e-T ; g = {[/] [l-e-T]} By including saturating nonlinearity so that the sodium temperature may not exceed some limitation. Then the nonlinear plant model becomes Y(k+1) = { Fy (k) + [[g/[1+exp [0.5 y(k) -40]]] y(k)] + [(1 - F)YO]} (3) Where = 1.00151 x 10-4 = 8.67973 x 10-3 YO = 35OC T = 10 sec U = ON/OFF pulse to SSR, limited between 0 and 24 volts.
Fuzzy Control approach in Heater vessel

For defining inputs and outputs for fuzzy logic controller Input variable : Temperature sense Output variable : PID with Fuzzy Controller For x = Thermal outlet sodium temperature (Linguistic variable Temp Sense), the universe discourse is
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X= [0OC, 600OC] For y = SSR output in heater control panel (Linguistic variable pulse Sense), the universe discourse is Y= [0, 100] For z = PID with Fuzzy Controller (Linguistic variable control Sense), the universe discourse is Z= [0, 100] The range of fuzzy variables as related to crisp inputs are determined. Guide lines are followed for declaring fuzzy variable symmetrically describe the fuzzified values and overlap adjacent sets. Fuzzy variables for temperature. Crisp Input Range 0 - 100 80 - 180 160 - 360 320 - 440 400 - 600 Crisp Input Range 0 - 20 15-40 35-60 55-80 70-100 Fuzzy variable Extra Small (XS) Small (S) Medium (M) Large (L) Extra Large (XL) Fussy Variable Very little Little Time Optimum Time Large Time Extra large
For determine the fuzzy variable set for the SSR ON time (Fuzzification of output)
Creating rule base for specifying what action has to take place under what condition. The fuzzy rules had constructed that describe the operation of fuzzy logic. Control Temperature Feed back Temperature XL L M S XS XS S M L XL
Op La ExLa ExLa ExVeL
Lit Op La La ExLa
VeL Op Op La La
VeL Lit Op Op La
VVeL VeL Lit Lit Op
Where ExveL - Extra very large ExLa - Extra Large La - Large Op - Optimum
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Lit Little Time Vel Very Little VVel Very Very Little If Temperature is extra small (XS) and feed back temperature is extra small (XS) then SSR must kept ON for Extra very large time. If Temperature is extra small (XS) and feed back temperature is small (S) then SSR must kept ON for Extra Large time. If Temperature is small (S) and feed back temperature is extra small (XS) then SSR must kept ON for Extra Large time. If Temperature is Medium (M) and feed back temperature is extra small (XS) then SSR must kept ON for Large time. If Temperature is Large (L) and feed back temperature is extra small (XS) then SSR must kept ON for Large time. If Temperature is Large (L) and feed back temperature is extra small (XS) then SSR must kept ON for Large time. Next stage fuzzy membership in several input variables and each will cause several fuzzy output cell to fire or to be activated. This brings the process of defuzzification at output to single crisp value. The crisp value according to this method is Z = {
q-1 k=1
[zk*agg*(zk)] [agg*(zk)]}(4) k=1
q-1
4. PLC FOR FLOW CONTROL

Two auto transformer controlled, electro-magnetic Annular Linear Induction (ALIP) pumps of capacity of 5 m3/hr of sodium at 5 bar each would be used in series in creep loop and one pump of similar characteristics in fatigue loop. Both pumps is creep loop can develop a maximum pressure of 10 kg/cm2, but the operation will be limited to about 6 kg/cm2. The net positive suction head required for EM pump is 0.5 kg/cm2(g). Em pumps characteristics curves are shown in Figs 5a & b.
Fig. 5a : Electromagnetic Pump
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Fig. 5b : EM Pump characteristics curve
In each section of sodium loop, liquid sodium inlet flow is monitored by respective inlet flow meter output digitized at FAU and compared at PLC. Respective action (Increase/ Decrease based on Measured Value) will be activated by PLC to section inlet motorized valve (for OPEN/CLOSE based on set point comparision) to regularise the flow. Earlier we can able to see the valve fully closed or open only, due to new advancement this valve opening/ closing percentage also monitor able at control panel and control valve opening by percentage wise. Each loop consists of eight motorized valves and eight inlet flowmeters which control the flow. Manual override is also available after de-energising the motors of the respective inlet motorized valves shown in mimic diagram of creep loop Fig. 7.
Fig. 7 : Mimic Diagram of Creep Loop
5. CONCLUSION
The creep and fatigue liquid sodium loops are operated and experience gained at various operations such as, cold purging, hot purging, sodium transfer, iso thermal run and hot run. At each stage, conventional hardware performance is studied, advancement and results are
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obtained. Based on the new experience the advancement are going to be implemented in the near feature. Based on the experience of fatigue loop operation it is planned for conducting tests.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors are grateful to Shri K.K. Rajan, Head, ROS, Shri M. Rajan, Head, STD, Shri G.Vaidyanathan, Associate Director, EDG, Dr. Baldev Raj, Director, IGCAR for the constant encouragement during the course of commissioning, operational of the work
REFERENCES
1. Advanced Control System of In Sodium Test Facility by Shanmugam. P, Venkatesan. A, Tanmay Vasal, Shanmuga Sundaram. M and Uma Seshadri, Proceedings of conference on National seminor on Automation in Process Engineering and Manufacture (SA-PREM-97), Kalpakkam, 26th - 28th Nov 1997, PP. 105 -113. 2. PLC and PC based heater control of INSOT Facility by Venkatesan.A, Rajasundaram.P, Shanmugam Sundaram.M and Shanmugam.P, Proceedings of conference on Recent Trends in Generation & Utilisation in Electrical Engineering (SORT-GENUINE 99), Kalpakkam, 6th - 8th Jan 1999 PP. 414-418. 3. Practical Significance of PLC Based Surface Heater Temperature Control in Sodium Test Facility at IGCAR Shanmuga Sundaram.M, Rajasundaram.P, Venkatesan.A, T. Chandran and Purnial. B, Proceedings of conference on Application of Chemical Engineering for Utilisation of Natural Resources (CHEMINAR -2001), Bhubaneshwar, 16th - 18th Feb - 2001, P.P. 215 219. 4. Implementation of level Measures for Tanks in In-Sodium Test Facility by K.Swaminathan, G.Elumalai, M.Shanmugasundaram, N.Chandrasekar, C.Sundari Madasamy and S.Venugopal accepted for National Symposium on Instrumentation (NSI -26), 31st OCT - 2nd Nov 2001, Dehradun. 5. Commissioning of Sodium Ionisation Detection System for In-Sodium Test Facility by K.Swaminathan, G. Elumalai, M. Shanmugasundaran, P.C. Gopi and S. Venugopal accpeted for National Symposium on Instrumentation (NSI -26), 31st OCT-2nd Nov 2001, Dehradun. 6. Role of PLC based Fire Alarm System in In-Sodium Test Facility by M. Shanmugasundaram, S.Murugesan, P. Rajasundaram, N.Chandrasekar, T.Chandran and B.Purnaiah accepted for National Symposium on Instrumentation (NSI -26), 31 OCT-2nd Nov 2001, Dehradun. 7. PLC based Intelligent Control and Monitoring Systems Test Facility by M. Shanmuga sundaram, P.Lakshmi, S.Venugopal and B. Purniah accepted for National Symposium on Instrumentation (NSI -27), 27th Nov-29th Nov 2002, Coimbatore. 8. PLC based Liquid Sodium Level and Sodium Leak Monitoring Systems for In-Sodium Test Facility by M.Shanmugasundaram, P.Lakshmi, S.Venugopal and B. Puranial accepted for National symposium on Instrumentation (NSI - 27), 27th Nov - 29th Nov 2002, Coimbatore.
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MOUSE SIGNAL INTERPRETER USING MICROCONTROLLER 89C2051

Pravin. A. Kadam, B.J. Raut, P.A. Kadam and S.R. Sawant
Department of Electronics, Shivaji University, Kolhapur - 416004 ABSTRACT
The mouse, a pointing device, is generally connected to the standard serial (COM1, COM2, etc.) port of PC. It is used to move the cursor around a CRT screen to make drawings or execute commands by selecting commands from menu. During the mouse manufacture process the last and important stage is mouse testing. For this purpose a low cost embedded system has been designed around ATMEL 89c2051 micro controller and tested. This system can be used to test all the functions of standard serial 3-button mouse. The system is found to be very useful in testing serial mouse.
1. INTRODUCTION
When a computer is used for the purpose of mouse testing, it needs to be turned off before connecting or disconnecting a mouse to it. Each time the computer needs to be rebooted to test the mouse using software programs. The PC will then be turned off before disconnecting the mouse. This process need be repeated for each mouse to be tested. This sequence is time consuming as every time the PC needs to be rebooted before executing mouse test software. An embedded system dedicated for the objective can come to the rescue here. Such an embedded system can be designed using Atmels AT89C2051 microcontroller and IC MAX232. The AT89C2051 is an economical and cost-effective member of Atmels growing family of microcontrollers. It contains 2K bytes of flash program memory and on-chip full duplex serial port. Thus it is a good selection for the development of small embedded-systems, as the one proposed in this work.
2. THEORETICAL PC mouse information

Typical PC mouse controller system has following major components: Sensors Mouse Controller Communication Link Data Interface Driver Software Opto-mechanical Sensors are generally used as movement detectors, which sense the mouse movement. The push-to-on switches are used to sense the mouse button states. Mouse
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controller reads the state of sensors and takes an account of present mouse status. Mouse controller sends a packet of data to the computer fur changes in information from its last status. The mouse driver inside the computer receives data packets sent by the mouse, decodes the information and acts accordingly. A typical mouse driver keeps the information of present state of mouse (position and button states) and passes on this information to the operating system. The mouse driver calls mouse cursor movement routines when mouse is moved and sends messages to the software when buttons are pressed.
Serial Mouse hardware

A serial mouse connects to an existing RS-232 serial port at the PC using a standard DB-9F (9-pin female) or DB-25F (25-pin female) connector. The pin-out of these connectors is given in table 1.
Table 1 : Pin assignment for a serial port mouse
DB-9F 9 PIN Shell 3 2 7 8 6 5 4
DB-25 25 PIN 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 20
WIRE NAME Protective Ground Receive data Transmit data RTS CTS DSR Signal Ground DTR
COMMENTS
Serial data from host to mouse Serial data from mouse to host (for power only) Request To Send Clear To Send Data Set Ready Data Terminal Ready
Serial port of the computer uses bipolar signaling which favour long cabling with minimum noise. A positive voltage between +3Vdc to + 15Vdc represents a logic 0 (space) condition. A negative voltage between 3Vdc and 15Vdc represent logic 1 (mark) condition. These voltages are shown in figure 1.
Fig. 1 : RS-232 frame format
Mouse Signal Interpreter using Microcontroller 89C2051
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Hardware implementation
A PC serial mouse uses typically DTR and RTS lines for generating +5V power for internal microcontroller circuitry. Typical opto-mechanical mouse needs some power for driving LEDs used in the opto-coupler movement detectors. Diodes connected in the circuit take current from DTR and RTS lines and then feed this current through resistors to all of the (infrared) LEDs used in the movement detectors. All the four LEDs are connected in series with approximately 5V drop across these LEDs (typical to LEDs used in mouse). This arrangement provides adequate power for low power mouse microcontroller. The serial data transmitting circuit consists of simple discrete transistor circuit, which consume very little power. The negative supply for mouse transmitter is taken from TD pin. Standard serial mouse take about 10 mA current and operates at voltage range of 6-15V. The data is sent using standard asynchronous RS-232C serial format. For proper operation both the RTS and DTR lines must be held positive. The lines DTRDSR and RTS-CTS must not be shorted. The RTS toggle function is implemented by setting the RTS line negative and positive again. The negative pulse width should be at least 100 ms. After a cold boot, the RTS line is usually set to a negative level. In this case, setting the RTS line to a positive level is also considered an RTS toggle.
Serial data parameters

1200bps, 1 start bit, 8 data bits, 1 stop-bit
Data packet format

Mouse data packet consists of 3-bytes. It is send to the computer every time mouse state changes (mouse moves or keys are pressed/released). D7 1. 2. 3. X X X D6 1 0 0 D5 LB X5 Y5 D4 RB X4 Y4 D3 Y7 X3 Y3 D2 Y6 X2 Y2 D1 X7 Xl Y1 D0 X6 X0 Y0
The bits marked with x are 0 if the mouse uses 7 data bits and 2 stop bits format. It is also possible to use 8 data bits and 1 stop bit format for receiving. In this case x gets value 1. The byte with D6=1 is sent first followed by the others. The bit D6 in the first byte is used for synchronizing the software to mouse packets if it goes out of sync. LB is the state of the left button (1 = pressed down), RB is the state of the right button (1 = pressed down). The bits X7-X0 indicate movement in X direction since last packet (signed byte). Y7-Y0 indicates movement in Y direction. Fig. 2 gives the graphical description of how data packet is formatted.
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Fig. 2: Graphical description of data packet
3. EXPERIMENTAL
The system block diagram is shown in fig. 3. Serial mouse operates using the standard RS-232C signals. It needs to be interfaced to the microcontroller through the RS-232C line driver/receiver IC MAX232. Mouse electronics normally uses +/5V, which is drawn from the IC MAX232, used in the system.
Fig. 3: Block Diagram of Mouse test system
Fig. 4 shows system circuit diagram. In this system the microcontroller AT89C2051 is used as an interpreter of mouse signals. The ease of availability and low unit cost of the microcontroller makes it a perfect choice for the system. It has a full duplex UART serial channel that supports different modes of communication. The Mode l of serial communication i.e. standard UART mode is used for receiving data packets from serial mouse. Received data is formatted as a start bit (which is always low), eight data bits (LSB first), and a stop bit (always high). The microcontroller can be programmed to receive/transmit data at any baud rate desired.
105
Fig. 4 : Mouse Test System
106
Standard serial mouse transmits data at the baud rate of 1200 bps, thus the microcontroller is programmed to receive data packets at the same baud rate. This baud rate is one of the standard baud rates supported by IBM PCs COM port. The microcontroller clock is driven by the crystal of frequency 11.0592 MHz, as this frequency supports accurate baud rate calculation. The mouse transmits unique data packets regarding its present state. The software loaded on to the microcontroller uses this information to indicate the present mouse status. The display unit shown in fig. 5 consists of LED panel. It indicates the present status of mouse position and mouse buttons and thus provides the indication of any fault if present in the mouse.
Fig. 5 : Display Unit
The proposed system is powered by a TTL compatible +5V @ 500mA regulated power supply. IC MAX232 is used to convert microcontrollers TTL compatible serial data levels into the RS232 standard data levels for mouse and back to TTL again. This IC also provides bipolar voltages required for supplying power to mouse circuitry.
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The MCS5I family assembly language (ALP) is used to develop the software for the system. The software listing is given in listing 1. Evaluation version of Pinnacles IDE software with 2KB limit is good enough for the small embedded-system design such as the one presented in this work. ALP is best suitable for small systems development where code size is limited. The major advantages of ALP are better memory/speed efficiency and better control over the program flow. Pinnacles IDE provide a complete development environment with built-in assembler and simulator facilities. The program code will then be downloaded into the microcontrollers flash memory with the device programmer. The microcontroller chip will then added to the system to make it functional.
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The system is implemented and tested successfully. All of the serial mouse functions were successfully tested and displayed on LED display panel. The mouse readings taken by the microcontroller are observed on the LCD display used for testing purpose only. These observations are shown in table 2.
Table 2 : Data packets transmitted by the serial mouse
Switch Right Switch Middle Switch Left Switch Wheel L-R Wheel R-L WHEEL B-T WHEEL T-B
Pressed D0H 80H 80H C0H 80H 80H AOH E0H 80H 80H C3H BEH 80H C0H 81H 80H CCH 80H BEH C0H 80H 81H
Released C0H 80H 80H C0H 80H 80H 80H C0H 80H 80H C3H BEH 80H C0H 82H C0H CCH 80H BEH C0H 80H 82H
Note: The observations in table 2 are taken with the help of 16*2 LCD display panel connected to the microcontroller system. A simple embedded system can easily be designed to support Q/C tasks in different industries. The proposed test system for mouse is found to be effective solution for the problem. The system is portable as it can fit at matchbox size, excluding the power supply or in case of battery operated system. Three AAA size battery cells can be used to supply power to the system. The cost of the system is the added advantage. In case of large productions the system will cost below Rs. 100/-. One of the limitations of this system is that it can not display the displacement in X and Y direction, as simple LED panel is used. But this can be easily replaced with 16*2 LCD display panel to indicate mouse displacement in either direction, with little increment to the costs. The system can also be extended to accommodate other mouse types such as PS2 mouse, scroll mouse, optical mouse, etc. The proposed system is designed and operated successfully
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Listing 1 : Software for serial mouse test
109
110
POSITIVE
111
POSITIVE
112
to test single mouse at a time. But the system can be extended with the help of multiplexer and little addition to the software, for multiple mice testing for industrial application.
5. CONCLUSION
This is an inexpensive, portable and novel design for mouse testing with flexibility of compatibility with other mouse technologies. Looking at these factors the above mentioned system will be preferred over the conventional PC based test system.
REFERENCES
1. K.J. Ayala, The 8051 Microcontroller, Penram Int. P.P.353, 1996. 2. Adam Chapweske, PS/2 Mouse/Keyboard Protocol, Copyright 1999. 3. Tomi Engdahl, PC mouse information, 1995-1998. 4. Pinnacle 52 Professional Development System, www.vaultbbs.com. 2001. 5. Atmel Corporation, www.atmel.com. 6. Maxim Integrated Products, www.maxim-ic.com. 7. STMicroelectronics Group of Companies, www.st.com. 8. Programming the Microsoft Mouse, http://www.geocities.com/Silicon Valley/2151/mouse.html
113
DC REACTIVE MAGNETRON SPUTTER DEPOSITION OF COPPER NITRIDE FILMS

K. Venkata Subba Reddy, P. Sreedhara Reddy and S. Uthanna
Department of Physics, Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati - 517502, India. ABSTRACT
Thin Films of Cu3N were deposited on glass substrates by sputtering of pure copper target under different nitrogen partial pressures in the range 1x10-4 - 5x10-3 mbar employing dc magnetron sputtering technique. The variation of cathode potential with the nitrogen partial pressure was explained in terms of nitridation of copper target and secondary electron emission. The deposition rate of the films was correlated with the nitrogen partial pressure. The influence of nitrogen partial pressure on the electrical and optical properties of Cu3N films was systematically studied. The Cu3N films with electrical resistivity of 2.2x101 cm and optical band gap of 1.85 eV were obtained at an optimized nitrogen partial pressure of 1x10-3 mbar.
1. INTRODUCTION
In recent years much attention has been focused on copper nitride (Cu3N) films due to its potential applications such as optical storage devices [1,2] and microscopic metal links [3,4] with maskless laser - or electron beam writing. A density over Mb/cm2 in a1 m x 1 m dot array has been realized using electron beam irradiation [5] and the write rate can reach 3.3 Mb/s [2]. The first synthesis of polycrystalline Cu3N powder was prepared by Juza and Hahn in 1939 [6], and Terada et. al. [3] in the growth of thin films by rf magnetron sputtering in 1989. Thereafter much experimental data has been established on this material in thin film form by employing various deposition techniques such as rf sputtering [1,3,7], rf plasma chemical reactor [8], pulsed laser deposition [9] and dc sputtering [4]. Among the physical deposition techniques, dc magnetron sputtering is one of the best techniques. It offers good control over the film composition on large area substrates and high deposition rates. High deposition rates minimize the target oxidation or nitridation effects during reactive sputtering. The physical properties of the dc magnetron sputtered films mainly depend on the sputtering pressure, sputtering power, nitrogen partial pressure, substrate temperature and substrate bias voltage apart from the target to substrate distance. In this investigation an attempt was made in the preparation of Cu3N films by dc magnetron sputtering and studied the influence of nitrogen partial pressure on the electrical and optical properties.
114
2. EXPERIMENT
DC magnetron sputtering system developed in the laboratory was used for preparation of Cu3N films. It consists of a stainless steel vacuum chamber pumped to a base pressure of 5x10-6 mbar using rotary and diffusion pump combination. The pressure in the sputter chamber was measured using Pirani and Penning gauges. On the top of the sputter chamber a circular planer magnetron cathode assembly was mounted so that the sputtering can be done in the sputter down configuration. A pure copper disc of 100 mm diameter and 2mm thick was used as the sputter target. High purity nitrogen and argon were used as the reactive and sputter gases respectively. The flow rates of both the gases through the needle valves were individually controlled using Tylan mass flow controllers. Nitrogen gas was introduced to the sputter chamber through mass flow controllers and the required partial pressure was set in the range 8x10-5 - 5x10-3 mbar. Then the argon gas was introduced to maintain the sputter pressure of 4x10-2 mbar in order to study the current - voltage characteristics of sputter target of copper. Thin films of Cu3N were deposited on glass substrates maintained at a temperature of 423 K by sputtering of copper target under various nitrogen partial pressures in the range 1x10-4 - 5x10-3 mbar. The deposited Cu3N films were characterized by measuring the film thickness, electrical resistivity and optical absorption. The thickness of the deposited films was measured from the optical interference method. The electrical resistivity of the films was determined using standard van der Pauw method. The optical transmittance was recorded in the wavelength range 300 2500 nm employing Hitachi UV Vis NIR double beam spectrophotometer.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In order to study the sputtering process in the deposition of Cu 3N films from copper target under various nitrogen partial pressures, the current - voltage characteristics of copper target was systematically studied. Dependence of Copper cathode potential on the nitrogen partial pressure for different cathode currents are shown in fig.1. At a constant cathode current
Fig. 1. Dependence of cathode potential on the nitrogen partial pressure
DC Reactive Magnetron Sputter Deposition of Copper Nitride Films
115
the cathode potential initially shows a gradual decrease with the increase of nitrogen partial pressure. After reaching a critical nitrogen partial pressure it start increasing with the increase of nitrogen partial pressure. The initial decrease of cathode potential was due to the enhancement of the secondary electron emission from the nitrided target and further increased due to the low electrical conductivity of the fully nitrided target surface. At a constant cathode current of 150 mA the cathode potential decreased from 360 V to 346 V due to the target nitridation starts and nitride layer starts building upon the target surface. Since the nitride and oxide has higher secondary electron emission coefficient than the pure metal of copper, the total number of electrons as well as the ionization increased hence drop in the cathode potential. When the nitrogen partial pressure increased beyond 1x10-3 mbar the thickness of the nitride layer on the surface of the target increased resulting in the decrease of the electrical conductivity of the sputter target. Hence there is necessity of higher cathode potential for breaking this nitride barrier.
Fig. 2. Dependence of deposition rate of Cu3N films on the nitrogen partial pressure
Fig.2. shows the dependence of deposition rate of the Cu3N films formed at substrate temperature of 423 K and various nitrogen partial pressures. The deposition rate of the films remains almost constant of about 20 nm/min upto nitrogen partial pressure of 4x10 -4 mbar afterwards gradually decreased to 12 nm/min when nitrogen partial pressure reached to 5x10-3 mbar. Such a decrease of deposition rate with the nitrogen partial pressure was also noticed in rf magnetron sputtered films [10]. It is known that abrupt decrease in the deposition rate occurs at the critical nitrogen partial pressure when nitriding the transition metals such as titanium and molybdenum [11]. It can be seen that nitrogen partial pressure at which the cathode potential starts decreasing was compared to the one at which the deposition rate drops. Fig.3. shows the dependence of electrical resistivity of Cu3N films formed at different nitrogen partial pressures. The electrical resistivity of the films formed at low nitrogen partial pressure of 1x10-4 mbar was 1.6x10-3 cm. When the nitrogen partial pressure increased to
116
Fig. 3. Variation of electrical resistivity () of Cu3N films with the nitrogen partial pressure
1x10-3 mbar the electrical resistivity increased to 2.2x101cm and at higher nitrogen partial pressure of 5x10-3 mbar the electrical resistivity reached to 4.5x10 1cm. The electrical resistivity values achieved are comparable to the reported values of the rf sputtered films [12]. The low electrical resistivity at low nitrogen partial pressures may be due to presence of mixed phase Cu3N along with copper. A sharp increase in the electrical resistivity at nitrogen partial pressure of 1x10-3 mbar indicated that it is an optimum nitrogen partial pressure to generate single phase films of Cu3N.
Fig. 4. Optical transmittance spectra of Cu3N films
DC Reactive Magnetron Sputter Deposition of Copper Nitride Films
117
Fig.4. shows the optical transmittance spectra of Cu3N films formed at different nitrogen partial pressures. The optical transmittance of the films increased with the increase of nitrogen partial pressure. The low transmittance in the case of films formed at low nitrogen partial pressures was due to the presence of Cu3N along with copper. At nitrogen partial pressures > 8x10-4 mbar the films were of single phase Cu3N hence of high optical transmittance. The optical absorption edge of the films shifted towards lower wavelength side with the increase of nitrogen partial pressure. The optical band gap evaluated from the optical transmittance data at the absorption edge increased from 1.50 eV to 1.89 eV with the increase of nitrogen partial pressure from 2x10-4 mbar to 5x10-3 mbar. The optical band gap of the films formed at nitrogen partial pressure of 1x10-3 mbar was 1.85 eV, which is in good agreement with the rf reactive magnetron sputtered films [13]
4. CONCLUSION
DC reactive magnetron sputtering technique was employed for deposition of Cu3N films on glass substrates held at a temperature of 423 K under various nitrogen partial pressures in the range 1x10-4 - 5x10-3 mbar. The dependence of cathode potential on the nitrogen partial pressure was explained interms of nitridation of copper target and secondary electron emission. Deposition rate of the films was in correlation with the nitrogen partial pressure. The effect of nitrogen partial pressure on the electrical and optical properties of Cu 3N films was systematically studied. The films formed at an optimized nitrogen partial pressure of 1x10-3 mbar exhibited electrical resistivity of 2.2x101 cm and optical band gap of 1.85 eV.
REFERENCES
1. T. Maruyama and T.Morishita, Appl. Phys. Lett., 69, 890-891 (1996) 2. M. Asano, K.Umeda and A. Takasi, Jpn. J. Appl. Phys., 29,1985-1989 (1990) 3. S. Tareda, H.Tanaka and K. Kubota, J. Cryst. Growth, 94, 567-572 (1989) 4. L. Maya, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. A 11, 604-607(1993) 5. T. Nosaka, M.Yoshitake, A.Okamoto, S. Ogawa and Y. Nakayama, Appl. Surf. Sci., 169, 358-361 (2001) 6. R. Juza and H. Hahn, Z. Anorg. Allg. Chem, 241, 172-175 (1939) 7. G. H. Yue, J. Z. Liu, M. Li, X. M. Yuan, P. X. Yan and J. L. Liu, Phys. Stat. Sol. (a), 202, 1987-1993 (2005) 8. T. L. Soukup, M. Sicha, F. Fendrych, L. Jastrabik, Z. Hubicka, D. Chvostova, H. Sichova, V. Vasvoda, A. Tarasenko, V. Studnicka, J. Wagner and M. Norak, Surf. Coat. Technol., 116- 119, 321 - 326 (1999) 9. G. Sato, J. A. Diaz and W.de la Cruz, Mater. Lett., 57, 4130-4133 (2003) 10. T. Nosaka, M.Yoshitake, A. Okamoto, S. Ogawa and Y. Nakayama, Thin Solid Films, 348, 8 - 13 (1999) 11. A. Abe and T. Yamashina, Thin Solid Films, 30, 19-23 (1975) 12. D. Y. Wang, N. Nakamine and Y. Hayashi, J. Vac. Sci. Technol., A 16, 2084 - 2092 (1998) 13. Y. Du, A.L. Ji, L.B. Ma, Y.Q. Wang and Z.X. Cao, J. Cryst. Growth, 280, 490 - 494 (2005)
118 J. Instrum. Soc. India 36(2) 118-124
IMPLEMENTATION OF FINITE IMPULSE RESPONSE (FIR) FILTERS USING FIELD PROGRAMMABLE GATE ARRAYS (FPGA)
K.E.S. Murthy*, K.R. Rao* and M.V. Laxmaiah***
*Department of ECE, G. Pulla Reddy Engineering College, Kurnool **Department of Physics, Sri Krishnadevaraya University, Anantapur ***Department of Physics, SKU PG Centre, Kurnool ABSTRACT
This paper describes the advantages of implementing Digital Signal Processing (DSP) systems using Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs). As an important application, Finite Impulse Response (FIR) filters are implemented using Hardware Description Language (HDL). The FIR filters are targeted with Xilinx and Altera FPGAs. The advantages of FPGAs are exploited in the present work. The direct and transposed forms of FIR filters are implemented, and the developed HDL codes are used to study the effect of pipelining and the critical path. Results obtained using the timing analyzer are discussed. Also covered in this paper is the comparison of different techniques in implementing FIR filters.
1. INTRODUCTION
Finite impulse response (FIR) filters are important building blocks for various digital signal processing (DSP) applications. Due to the ever-increasing demand for video signal processing and transmission, high-speed and high-order programmable FIR filters are required. This is possible by implementing these filters using field programmable gate arrays (FPGAs). The FIR filters can be realized broadly by two methods: Direct and Transposed forms. The transposed structure is also called as the broadcast structure. The structures to realize these forms are shown in Figure 1. The time-domain relation between the input x (n) and the output y (n) in the case of a general FIR filter is given by the convolution formula:
M1
y(n)=
Ckx(n
k0
k)
Where M is the filter length and M-1 is the order and Ck are the filter coefficients. The above equation can be used to implement FIR filters. Following are certain choices that exist to implement the above equation:
Implementation of Finite Impulse Response (FIR) Filters using Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGA) 119
(a)
(b) Fig. 1(a) : Direct Form realization of FIR filters (b). Transposed Form realization of FIR filters
Using Microprocessors Using DSP Processors Using Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASIC) and Using FPGAs
Comparison of these techniques result in choosing an optimized technique.
2. COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT IMPLEMENTATION TECHNIQUES OF FIR FILTERS

The time taken for one sample of the output in implementing the first order low-pass filter using 8085 microprocessor is 2 milli seconds [1]. This restricts the input sampling rate 500 samples per second. This restricts the filter's frequency response to only 250 Hz. By using 80486 processor, which uses a clock of frequency thirty times greater than that of 8085, the frequency range can be extended to 7.5 kHz. On the other hand when a programmable DSP processor is used to implement FIR filters, then the performance got limited to a theoretical maximum data rate based on the speed and the number of multipliers / accumulators in the device. For example, a four-tap FIR filter requires four multipliers; if the order of the filter / number of taps is increased, then, the number of multipliers required increases, and there by increasing the number of clock cycles. As a result, the data rate reduces. This problem can be overcome by different methods. One
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K.E.S. Murthy, K.R. Rao and M.V. Laxmaiah
way is to employ more DSP processors to implement the design and the other methods include using application specific integrated circuits (ASICs) and using FPGAs. The design cycle of ASICs involves a systematic, complex process and hence it is more time consuming, but required data rate can be achieved. In this direction, various workers [2-9] have achieved data rates ranging from 30 kHz to 250 MHz using digital filter ICs, designed for different applications. Implementation of digital filters using FPGA technology, however, retains not only the benefits of ASICs, but also has the following decided advantages: Upgrading of the design is possible without replacing the FPGA, but by just reprogramming

Reputed companies like Xilinx and Altera produces millions of FPGAs annually. This high volume of production results in decrease in the cost. As FPGAs are pre tested, the costly test procedures are not required as in case of ASICs. FPGAs are dynamically configured with the system. FPGAs are highly parameterizable.
However the bottleneck with the design using FPGAs is: when higher production volumes are required, then the FPGAs doesn't exhibit a high viability as for as performance to cost ratio is concerned, compared to that of ASICs. In this direction we have successfully implemented the FIR filters using FPGAs. Following is the description of the experimental technique.
3. EXPERIMENTAL
Following is the various steps involved in a typical design cycle using FPGAs; in order to implement FIR filters. i) Development of HDL code describing the circuit behavior ii) Using the synthesis tool to translate HDL text into lower level circuit built from FPGAs cell library. iii) Using place and route tool to identify proper FPGA resource and interconnecting all the stages and iv) Downloading the configuration binary bit stream file to FPGA. Before down loading, the functionality of the HDL code is tested by using simulator tool and the timing details is obtained by executing timing analyzer tool. The Xilinx and Altera companies produce a number of FPGAs with different architectures suitable for various applications. The important families of FPGAs suitable for DSP applications from Xilinx are: Vertex-II, Spartan-2, Spartan-3 etc., and from Altera: Stratix, Mercury, Cyclone, Flex-KE etc. When so many types FPGAs are available in the market, it is a trade-off in identifying a particular FPGA in order to achieve a better performance. Work is done in this direction to test the same HDL code with Xilinx and Altera FPGAs. From the reports of the timing analyzer, the maximum operating frequency is determined, and from the simulator, the functionality is verified. The HDL codes are written to implement
direct form and transposed form with various numbers of taps. With direct form the number of pipeline stages are implemented to reduce the critical time and to obtain higher operating speeds.

Figure 2 shows the direct form implementation of 8-tap FIR filter. The critical path for this structure is [10] TM + (N-1) TA Where N=8 (number of taps), TM is the multiplier time and TA is the adder time.
Fig. 2 : Direct Form implementation of 8-tap FIR filter
From this equation it is clear that by increasing the number of taps, the critical path increases and hence the data rate decreases. This fact is indicated in Table 1. Figure 3 shows
Table 1 : Results obtained by implementing the hardware shown in Fig. 2
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Figure 3 : Transposed Form implementation of 8-tap FIR filter
Table 2 : Results obtained by implementing the hardware shown in Figure 3.
the transposed form of implementing an 8-tap FIR filter. The critical path for this structure is: TM + TA. Hence data rate higher than that of direct form is obtained as shown in Table 2. Figure 4 shows the direct form implementation of linear phase FIR filter, which will
Figure 4 : 8-tap Linear Phase implementation of FIR filters
have symmetrical coefficients. Because of this symmetry the multipliers can be reduced to N/2. The critical path for this structure is TM + (N/2-1) TA Hence the reduction in the critical path is possible and as a result, higher data rates are obtained. By adding a register after the multiplier (Figure 5), the critical path can be further reduced. However one latency cycle is added. The adder chain can be further divided (Figure 6) into 2, 4 or 8 parts in order to get the critical time reduced by the same factor. If at any stage this time becomes equal to that of TM then further increase in data rate can't be obtained.
Fig. 5 : Linear Phase implementation with latches after multipliers
Fig. 6 : Linear phase implementation with further pipeline
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5. CONCLUSION
The maximum data rate registered by different FPGAs considered in the present work was measured and it is observed that the Mercury family of Altera exhibited higher data rate in all the cases. The maximum data rate registered with this FPGA is 400MHz (for 8 taps).
REFERENCES
1. K. Padmanabhan, S. Ananti, R. Vijaya Rajeswaran, A Practical approach to DSP, New Age Int. Publishers, 2001. 2. Monte F. Mar and Robert W. Brodersen - Digital filter design for compact on-chip oversampling A/D conversion, Procedings of IEEE 1993, Custom Integrated Circuits Conference, March 1993, pp.15.2.1 - 15.2.4. 3. William Lin, Edward Campbell, Paul Knutson, C. Daryl Richardson, David Smalley, Frank Vogler - A reconfigurable video ghost cancelling filter chip, Proceedings of IEEE 1993, Custom Integrated Circuits Conference, March 1993, pp.15.3.1-15-3.3. 4. Xiaodong wang and Richard R.Spencer - A low power 170 MHz discrete-time analog FIR filter, Proceedings of IEEE 1997, Custom Integrated Circuits Conference, 1997, pp.2.3.1-2.3.4. 5. W.Abboet - A digital chip with adaptive equalizer for PRML detection in hard-disk drivers, Proceedings of IEEE, Solid-State Circuits Conference, Feb. 1994, pp.284-285. 6. M.Hatamian and S.K.Rao, A 100MHz 40-tap programmable FIR filter chip, IEEE proceedings, Circuits and Systems, 1990, pp.3053-3056. 7. J.L.Thon, P.Sutardja, F.Lau and G.Coleman - A 240MHz 8-tap filter for disk-drive read channels, IEEE proceedings, Solid-State Circuits Conference, Feb 1995, pp.82-83. 8. Chris J. Nichol, Patrik Larsson, Kamran Azadet, and Jay H.O'Neil, A low-power 128 tap digital adaptive equalizer for broadbad modems, IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, Vol. 32, No. 11, Nov. 1997. 9. L.Thon, P.Sutardja, F.Lau and G.Coleman, A 240 MHz 8-tap FIR filter for disk-drive read channels, IEEE proceedings, Solid-State Circuits Conf. Feb. 1995, pp. 82-83. 10. Xilinx Application note XAPP219 - Transposed Form FIR filters, www.xilinx.com.
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DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF AN EMBEDDED SYSTEM FOR WEB CAMERA CONTROL

P. Thimmaiah*, K.R. Rao** and E.R. Gopal**
* Department of Electronics, Sri Krishnadevaraya University, Anantapur **Department of Physics, Sri Krishnadevaraya University, Anantapur Email: drkrr@rediffmail.com ABSTRACT
Microcontrollers are becoming an integral part of Engineering design process known as Embedded system, the design includes major portion of the Hardware and entire Software incorporated on a single chip. The present paper describes the design of an Embedded system for the control of web camera. Software is developed in Assembly language. The software in the form of Hex file is dumped on the microcontroller AT89C51 using the PC. This paper also describes the development of hardware for the above work and the results are discussed at the end.
1. INTRODUCTION
Embedded means hidden or buried. The embedded information is truly hidden inside the device/product that is in use. This is possible by programming security bit/code in a microcontroller program. In the commonly used appliances such as washing machine, the embedded software adjusts the water level basing on the load and adjusts the washing cycle basing on the dirtiness of the water. The use of simple microprocessors in embedded intelligence has gradually decreased and the use of micro controllers in such an environment has not only increased but also brought in a revolutionary change. This is indeed due to the integration of microprocessor and certain peripherals (including memory) on a single chip known "microcontroller". Thus it can be thought of as p++. The embedded information processing revolution is happening all around us. Electronics intelligence is hidden inside the products that we use in daily lives. As the cost of ICs that provides this intelligence has dropped over the years, the numbers of manufacturers using these devices and diverse applications have increased. Competitive pressures require manufacturers to expand their product functionality and provide differentiation while maintaining or reducing the cost. To address these requirements, manufacturers use IC based embedded control systems that provide an integrated solution for applications specific control (ASC) requirements. Embedded control systems enable
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manufacturers to differentiate their product, replace less efficient electromechanical control devices, add product functionality, and significantly reduce product costs. In addition, embedded control system facilitates the emergence of complete new classes of products. Embedded control system typically incorporates microcontroller for the principle activity, and some times or the sole component. Web cameras available on the market are to be placed in front of the object whose image is to be transmitted. They cannot be rotated continuously. On the other hand, there are cameras available, which can be moved continuously from one end to another end, e.g. cameras used in videoconferences. Such cameras are indeed costly. In this paper, we describe a mechanical jig which rotates the camera in X and Y directions. Thus it is possible to scan an entire room with the help of such an arrangement. Also described in this paper are the control of such a camera using a dedicated hardware and software, i.e. an embedded system. The hardware and software description to control the rotation of the camera is described in the following sections.
2. EXPERIMENTAL
ATMEL Microcontrollers play a useful role in the scenario of embedded information processing. Keeping this in viewpoint the present work is centered around ATMEL89C51 microcontroller. An inexpensive web camera, namely, IBM PC camera is used in the present work. It can be connected to the PC via USB port.
2.1. Hardware description

The web camera has to be just placed in one place after connecting it to the USB port of PC. If the picture situated in other places has to be captured the web camera has to be rotated manually. This is an ugly situation during the programs such as video conferencing. To avoid such a situation, in the present work, hardware is developed to rotate the web camera through 360 in both X and Y directions. These rotations are accomplished using two stepper motors. One of the stepper motor control the movement of the web camera in X-direction whereas the other will help the web camera to rotate in Y-direction. A detailed discussion on different types of stepper motors is given in our paper [1]. In the present work, two stepper motors removed from discarded 5 1/4 inch floppy drive mechanisms are used. Such stepper motors are also available commercially. The mechanical jig is shown in Figure 1. To obtain smooth movement of the web camera the plastic cover on the web camera's connector is removed neatly. This will help the movement of the camera without loosing the steps. As a matter of fact, the stepper motors can be controlled by the PC itself but the burden on PC becomes more besides capturing of the image. To release the PC from such a burden a dedicated embedded system is developed which controls the rotation of the web camera. The rotation is accomplished by a group of four switches, which are loosely coupled to the hardware. This will facilitate the user to control the rotation of the web camera from a distance.
Design and Development of an Embedded System for Web Camera Control
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Fig. 1 : Photograph of the mechanical jig arrangement
U1 AT 89C51 microcontroller U2, U3 ULN 2003 SM1, SM2 Stepper motors
Fig. 2 : Block diagram of the Embedded web camera control
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The block diagram of the present work is shown in Figure 2. It essentially consists of the Atmel's microcontroller 89C51(U1), two numbers of Darlington driver ICs- ULN2003 (U2 and U3), web camera mounted on two stepper motors (SM1 and SM2) and PC. The pin details and the description of AT89C51 are available on web [2]. As the output port of the microcontroller can't drive the stepper motors directly, Darlington arrays in the form of ICs (ULN 2003) are used, one each for stepper motor. Software to rotate the stepper motor using 8051 microcontroller was already developed in the laboratory by Thimmaiah et al. [3], Laxmaiah et al. [4] in both Assembly and C languages. The Hardware of the complete embedded web camera controller circuit developed in the present work and its photograph are shown in Figure 3. It consists of two Darlington arrays
Fig. 3(a) : Embedded control hardware circuit
Fig. 3(b) : Photograph of the hardware circuit used in the present work
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in the form of ICs (ULN 2003) connected between output port of the microcontroller and stepper motors (SM1 and SM2). Before the insertion of the micro controller in the embedded hardware, it has to be programmed. This programming is accomplished by using one of the programmers.
2.2. Software description

The flowchart to control the rotation of the web camera using the designed hardware is shown in Figure 4. Program is developed using the Assembler ASM51. The program listing
Fig. 4 : Flowchart of the program
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is given in Table 1. The developed program is loaded on to the 89C51 using the programmer, whose description is given in below. TABLE 1
ORG 0000H JMP MainLine ORG 0100H MainLine: MOV R1,#88H MOV R2,#88H LOOP_1: MOV A,#0FFH MOV P3,A MOV A,P3 RRC A MOV R0,A JNC CLK_SM1 KEY_B: MOV A,R0 RRC A MOV R0,A JNC ACLK_SM1 KEY_C: MOV A,R0 RRC A MOV R0,A JNC CLK_SM2 KEY_D: MOV A,R0 RRC A MOV R0,A JNC ACLK_SM2 LOOP_2: AJMP LOOP_1 CLK_SM1: MOV A,R1 RR A MOV P1,A MOV R1,A ACALL DELAY JMP KEY_B ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ;
Load step sequence data in R1 for SM1 Load step sequence data in R2 for SM2 Configure PORT3 as input port
Rotate the contents of ACCUMULATOR Save the contents of ACCUMULATOR Check whether key A is pressed Rotate the contents of ACCUMULATOR Check whether key B is pressed Save ACCUMULATOR contents Rotate the contents of ACCUMULATOR Save contents of ACCUMULATOR Check whether key C is pressed
; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ;
Check whether key D is pressed Go to Check the pressing of a key Transfer SM1 step sequence to ACCUMULATOR Rotate the contents of ACCUMULATOR right Output the data to PORT 1 Save the sequence Call delay subroutine Loop back to check key B Transfer SM1 step sequence to ACCUMULATOR Rotate the ACCUMULATOR contents left Output data to PORT 1
ACLK_SM1: MOV A,R1 RL A MOV P1,A MOV R1,A ACALL DELAY JMP KEY_C CLK_SM2: MOV A,R2 RR A MOV P2,A MOV R2,A ACALL DELAY JMP KEY_D
Loop back to check key C Transfer SM2 step sequence to ACCUMULATOR Rotate ACCUMULATOR contents right Output data to PORT 2 Save the sequence Call delay subroutine Loop back to check key D
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3. TESTING
The circuit shown in Figure 3 is soldered on a general purpose PCB and the appropriate ICs are plugged in their respective sockets. The IC U1 is programmed by the data (Table 1) before its insertion in the IC socket. The embedded control board is powered up with a 5V power supply constructed in the laboratory (Figure 5).
Fig. 5 : 5V power supply to the system
The web camera is positioned conveniently and the driver software is run on the PC (web cam). By using the keys A, B, C, D the web cam is rotated at different angles, in different directions and the images are observed successfully. The photographs of embedded hardware, web camera, programmer and PC are shown in Figure 6.
Fig. 6 : Photograph of the embedded hardware, web camera connected to the mechanical jig and interface to the PC through USB port
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Micro controller controlled web camera is developed and tested successfully in the present work. This indeed forms a basis for an true embedded system. Smart switches in the present work control the rotation of the web camera. Further work is in progress to control the rotation of web camera using IR remote controller using advanced microcontrollers.
REFERENCES
1. P. Thimmaiah, K.R. Rao and E.R. Gopal, "Interfacing Bipolar stepper motor with micro controller trainers", J. Instrum. Soc. India. 34(3) 163-169, 2004. 2. www.atmel.com 3. P. Thimmaiah, K.R. Rao and E.R. Gopal, "An inexpensive stepper motor interface for microcontroller trainers", Lab Experiments, Vol-3, No-3, 185-191, Sep-2003. 4. M.V. Laxmaiah, P. Thimmaiah and K.R. Rao "Exploitation of LPT PORT(S) on IBM Compatible Personal Computers and Laptops", J. Instrum. Soc. India. 34(3) 208 - 220, 2004.
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A NEW METHOD FOR DEVELOPING OF ULTRATHIN SELF-SUPPORTING POLYMER FILMS

Naina Bhardwaj, N.P. Singh, Raj Mittal, S.C. Gupta and V.K. Mittal
Department of Physics, Punjabi University, Patiala - 147002, India
ABSTRACT
A simple method for developing self-supporting thin polymer film (of thickness less than 1 m) has been presented. The basic part of the system is a high-speed motor of 15000 & 20000 revolutions per minute (rpm). The measurement of the thickness is done by - energy loss method. These measurements show that self-supporting polymer film with thickness in the sub micron range can be prepared. Results are reported on a number of such films.
1. INTRODUCTION
Thin polymer films find wide applications in various fields. Thin films are used as detector windows, to seal vacuum chamber ports, which allows e. m. radiations particularly X-rays to pass the window without significant attenuation, to extract charged particle beam in air to perform external beam PIXE work etc. The thickness of these films are generally in the micron range and are readily available in the market. However in certain experiments e.g. measurement of stopping power of low energy ions in polymers etc., self supporting ultra thin films (thickness in the range of sub-micron region) are required which are not commercially available. Kivits et. al. [1] and De Rooij et. al. [2] reported a spin coating system for preparing submicron thick polymer films on thick substrate. In the present work, we report a spin coating method to fabricate self supporting ultra thin polymer films. Thickness of these films were measured using -energy loss method. In section 2, setup developed in the present work has been presented in detail. In section 3, method of preparation of ultra thin films has been discussed. In section 4, parameters affecting the quality of deposited film are discussed and the results of -energy loss are presented are presented in section 5.
2. EXPERIMENTAL SET UP
The front view of the spin coating system is shown in Fig 1. Main part of the system is a high-speed motor, which is commercially available JMG (Juicer Mixer Grinder) motor, 'Usha' make. It is a dual speed motor with certified speeds of 20000 & 15000 rpm under no load conditions. Obviously at such high speeds, there are some vibrations in the system. To suppress
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Fig. 1 : Front view of Spin Coating Setup
these vibrations special care was taken, while designing system. In the following various components of the system developed are presented. 1 A special table type platform was developed to fix this motor. The four legs of this table were made of rectangular mild steel rods with dimensions 11/4"x11/4"x6". The tabletop was a 9"x9" rectangular iron sheet with thickness of 3/32". The legs were fixed with the tabletop with 1/4" thick screws. A circular 4" diameter hole was drilled at the center of the platform. The JMG motor was fitted with the help of three 3/18" screws. With this arrangement, vibrations in the system, when the motor is running at maximum speed, were found to be negligible. On the rotating spindle of the JMG motor, which was pointing out through the 4" diameter hole, the target/slide holder was mounted. This holder was made up of aluminum and consisted of a hollow shaft which was threaded from inside. The rotating spindle of the motor was also threaded. The hollow shaft of the target holder was tightened on the rotating spindle of the motor. For further tightening, a tight fitting pin was also used in this assembly. On the top of the hollow shaft there was a circular disc with diameter 11/2" and thickness 1/4". A circular depression of 1" diameter was made on this disc. In this depression glass slide can be fitted and fixed with the help of three screws and clamps. After fitting a glass slide, the motor was rotated at 20000 rpm, clamps shifted their position and glass slide broke. So to avoid any accidental breaking of the glass slide at high speed,
2.
3.
A New Method for Developing of Ultra-Thin Self-Supporting Polymer Films
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a perspex housing having dimensions 6"x6"x6" with wall thickness of 3/8" was fixed on the table top. On the roof of the Perspex housing a small hole of diameter 13/32" was made. This hole was particularly designed for a micro dispenser [GLAXO QUALIPETTE (5-50 l)] such that the tip of this dispenser is about 3/32" above the rotating glass slide. 4. In order to tight the glass slide on the circular table, an aluminum annular ring was used. This ring was of diameter 25/32" and a hole of 1" diameter at the center. The ring was 1/2" high, having a wall thickness of 5/32". With the help, of this annular ring the glass slide can be fixed on the circular table.
3. FILM DEPOSITION
To develop self-supporting thin polymer film, following procedure was adopted. First the solution was prepared by dissolving known quantity of polymers into the proper organic solvent. For example to develop a thin film of polyvinyl chloride (PVC), 500 mg of PVC was put together in a glass beaker containing 25 cc of analytical reagent benzene at room temperature. After an hour, PVC completely was dissolved in benzene. Similarly polystyrene (PS) can also be dissolved in benzene. 1"x1" glass slides were cut from 'Blue Star' micro slides. These 1"x1" glass slides were thoroughly cleaned with detergent solution and rinsed with water. This was followed by cleaning with acetone. These slides were airdried. An extremely thin film of liquid detergent 'Teepol' was coated on one side of the glass slide manually and excess of detergent was removed with the help of lint free cloth. The glass slide was fixed on circular table with the help of annular ring. 20 l solution of PVC was taken into the micro dispenser. After putting the micro dispenser into the perspex house through the central hole in the perspex sheet and right above the glass slide, the solution was dispensed on a rotating (20,000 rpm) glass slide. By rapidly dispensing the liquid on rotating glass slide, a uniform distribution of solution over a constant area was achieved. The aluminum annular ring was removed and the glass slide was picked up. To float thin polymer film, clean water was taken in a tray. After marking the size of the film to be floated with the help of a sharp needle, the glass slide on which the polymer was spin coated was very slowly dipped from one end. Slowly the polymer film began to detach from the slide as the detergent film got dissolved in water, finally the films started floating on water. This floated film was very carefully picked up on an aluminum target holder. It was dried for sometime at room temperature in a decicator.
4. PARAMETERS AFFECTING FILM QUALITY

Adjustable parameters for obtaining best uniformity of the thin film are: 1. the speed of rotation, 2. the distance between the tip of dispenser and the glass slide and, 3. the speed of dispensing the liquid. It was observed that the best results could be obtained when the tip of the micro dispenser is about 2/32" to 4/32" above the glass slide at the time of dispensing the liquid. The speed of deposition should be fast (0.2 - 0.3 see). If we deposit the liquid slowly or the tip of the
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dispenser is far away from the glass slide (>7/32") the film deposited was not of uniform texture. Similar film texture was not uniform if the speed of rotation of the motor is less than 10000 rpm. As is well known that the parameters concerning the liquid are the viscosity and surface tension, which depend upon the polymer and the solvent and are fixed for a particular polymer and solvent.
5. MEASUREMENT OF THICKNESS
In the present work, -energy loss method was used to estimate the thickness of the thin films. Energy lost (dE) by 5.48 MeV alpha particle from 241Am source was measured. Thickness of the film can be worked by taking the standard value of dE/dx. These measurements were carried out in the Target Lab of Nuclear Science Centre, New Delhi with a silicon surface barrier (SSB) detector having an active area of 100 mm2 and energy resolution of 20 keV at 5.48 MeV. The electric signal generated in the SSB detector was processed using conventional electronic setup consisting of preamplifier, amplifier and a computer. The signal from a precision pulse generator was also fed to preamplifier to check any drift in the electronic circuitry. From this setup, alpha spectrum was recorded when there was no film between -source and SSB detector. We called it the blank spectrum. This spectrum would give us the position of unshifted -peak. Then a thin film was brought in between the SSB detector and -Source. Again the signal from the detector was processed as in case of blank spectrum. The typical spectra for blank (squares) and PVC film (circles) are shown in Fig 2.
Fig. 2 : a-particle spectra for blank (squares) and PVC film (circles). Shift in the peak position is 4.82 channels, which correspond to shift in energy of 53.91 keV. DE/dx at this energy is 121.6keV/micron. Therefore the thickness of PVC film is 43.91/121.6 = 0.36 micron.
A New Method for Developing of Ultra-Thin Self-Supporting Polymer Films
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After recording the spectra a gaussian fit was made for pulsar and alpha peaks in each spectrum, thus getting centroid of each peak and the corresponding error in the centroid. The error in each case was approximately 1/10th of a channel. Further it was found that practically there was no shift in the position of the peak due to pulsar implying that during the experiments, there was no drift in the electronic circuitry. Thus the difference in the centroids of blank alpha peak and the alpha peak when the thin polymer foil was in between alphasource and SSB detector gave the energy lost dE by 5.48 MeV alpha particle in traversing through the given film. Dividing this loss of energy dE by the electronic stopping power i.e. dE/dx which was calculated using SRIM 98 [3] simulation code at 5.48 MeV, we obtained the thickness of the thin films. Number of thin films of PVC and PS were prepared and the thickness of the films was found to be between 0.2 to 1.0 microns depending upon the quantity of polymer dissolved in the solvent. However depositing 50 l or more solution instead of 20 l does not change the thickness of the film appreciably. Excess of the solution gets deposited in the aluminum annular ring. Further the thickness of the films was found to be reproducible within 20%.
REFERENCES
1. H.P.M. Kivits, F.A.J. De Rooij and G. P. J. Wijnhoven. A fast method for PIXIE and XRF target preparation of aqueous samples. Nucl. Instr. and Methods. 164, 225-229 (1979). 2. F.A.J. De Rooij, H.P.M. Kivits, C. A M. Castelijns, G. P. J. Wijnhoven and J.J.M. De Goeij, Target preparation Techniques for PIXE and XRF, Nucl. Instr. and Methods. 181, 63-67 (1981). 3. J.F. Ziegler, SRIM-98.01, The Stopping Range off Ions in Matter, IM Research, 28-0 Yorktown Heights, N. Y. 10598, U.S.A, 1998.
138 J. Instrum. Soc. India 36(2) 138-144
A MICROCONTROLLER BASED ESTIMATION SYSTEM OF SULPHUR CONTENT IN SOIL FOR AGRICULTURE APPLICATION
A. K. Rai1, Sivadasan Kottayi2 and S.N. Murty3
Assistant Professor, Directorate of Instrumentation, 1. N. Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, JABAL PUR, M.P.-482 004 2 Assistant Professor, Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering, Vimal Jothi Engineering College, Chemberi, Kerala 3 Director Instrumentation, J. N. Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh - 482004
1
ABSTRACT
Deficiency of Sulphur in Soil reduces the growth of crops which in turn affects the yield. Hence estimation of sulphur in soil also to be done along with Nitrogen, Phosphorous and Potash for fertilizer recommendation. A user friendly Microcontroller based sulphur Estimation System is designed to estimate soluble sulphate in soil as plant available sulphur. Turbidity method is adopted for the estimation of sulphate. Photometry technique is used to measure the amount of turbidity by constructing a sample holder, where an LED (420 nm wave length) and a photo-detector are used as light source and signal detector respectively. The amount of transmitting light through the soil extract under test is measured by designing a suitable Signal Conditioning Circuit, whose output is then converted into digital domain by an ADC and fed into the Microcontroller (Intel 8031) for further process. The software of the system consists of data acquisition, calibration and displays the plant available sulphur in ppm. The developed system has numerous advantages compare to normal spectrophotometer such as (i) user-friendly measurement is possible, (ii) no optical lens and filters, (iii) no heating, (iv) low power consumption. Key words: Analytical Instrumentation, Agri-electronics/Instrumentation, Soil testing, Instrumentation.
1. INTRODUCTION
In a well-prepared and fertile agriculture field important plant nutrients (including water and air) are effectively available to plants. However a farmer like to know the amount of available nutrients of his agriculture field before he starts growing his crops as he can apply additionally needed nutrients for the full growth of his crops and better yield. Hence now-adays soil nutrient estimation is a well recognized and generally adopted practice among farmers. Due to this reason, method of soil analysis should be simple to adopt, rapid to get quick result
A Microcontroller Based Estimation System of Sulphur Content in Soil For Agriculture Application
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and accurate to depend on the paper explains a system of this kind which is designed around a microcontroller (8031) for measuring plant available sulphur (in the form of sulphate) from a soil sample. The system adopted Chesnin and Yen method [1].
Different Chemical methods for the estimation of plant available sulphur

The inorganic S fraction in soil may occur as sulfate and compounds of lower oxidation state such as sulfide, polysulfide, sulfite and elemental S[2]. The soluble sulfate fraction in soils is extractable with water & with salt solutions. Several methods are available for determination of the extracted sulfate. These include gravimetric, turbidimetric and nephelometric, titrimatric, colorimetric, X-ray fluorescence and atomic absorption spectrophotometer methods (3). Bettary and Halstead [4] have developed an automated procedure involving turbidimetric-nephelometric determination of sulfate present in 0.01M CaCl2 extracts of soils.
Description of the Developed System

The system consists of a power supply which gives +5V and -5V, a suitable Signal Conditioning Circuit giving 0 to 100 mV output for 0 to 40 ppm plant available Sulphur, Microcontroller board containing 8031, ADC (7109), Display Unit and other peripheral ICs.
Adopted principle for the measurement and Signal conditioning

The principle of Photometry is used for the measurement. In Photometry, the power of the light beam absorbed by the sample is determined. As shown in fig. 1, the main components of a Photometer are Light source and its detector. Usually a filter is used to pass only the desired wavelength of the radiation to the sample, whose absorbance is to be found out. The detector detects the unabsorbed energy comes through the sample. Usually such measurement adopt double beam as the second beam is the reference and transmittance is measured as the ratio of P and P0 [4]; where, P is the power of the unabsorbed energy comes through the sample and P0 is the power of the reference light beam.
Fig. 1 : The Principle of Photometry
The developed system measures the unabsorbed energy passes through the sample of soil extract and on this basis the estimation of plant available sulphur is done. The system is not using double beam; instead a single beam is used, but measurement is done in differential mode using an Operational Amplifier as shown in fig.2.
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Fig. 2 : Signal Conditioning Circuit
Fig. 3 : The Schematic of the Sample Holder
A low cost Light Emitting Diode, working in 450 to 490 nm is used as light source, which draws very little current and not generate heat compare to incandescent lamp generally used in Spectrophotometers. Phototransistor (KP 53 PTI ) is used as detector. Both LED and Phototransistor are mounted face to face in a sample holder, made out of a nylon block and the sample (soil extract) is kept in a test tube (make: Bush & Lomb) as shown in fig. 3. Zero adjustment of the system is done by keeping zero concentrated solution in the sample holder
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and adjust Zero-Adjusting knob of the System. Maximum reading of the system (40 ppm) is adjusted by adjusting the gain of the Signal Conditioning Circuit such that the circuit gives 100mV.
Interfacing of the Signal Conditioning Circuit with Micro-controller

Intel has introduced a family of Micro-controllers called the MCS-51. This family comprises of 8031, 8051, 8052, 8752 micro-controllers. 8031 is used for the development of this system. 8031 is an 8 bit single chip micro-controller [5] has got a powerful CPU, 64K Program Memory address space, 128 bytes of on chip RAM, four 8 bit bi-directional parallel ports, one full duplex serial port, two 16 bit timer/counters and 5 interrupts. The developed system has 16 x 8 bit RAM (6264) [6]. The firmwire of the system lies in EPROM 27128 [7]. The signal from the phototransistor (KP 53 PTI) is amplified using an instrumentation amplifier (IN A 101) [8], which is specially designed for low-level signal amplification and general-purpose data acquisition. The reference voltage of the ADC is adjusted to 2.5 V. The output of the instrumentation amplifier is fed to ADC. The 8 bits data of ADC output is then fed to 8031 and after processing; the plant available sulphur is displayed in terms of ppm on an LED display through 8279 (Programmable Key board/Display Interface) [9]. The functional block diagram of the developed system is shown in fig. 4
Fig. 4: Functional Block diagram ofthe developed system
Procedure for the Estimation of Sulphur

Prepare standard solution of sulphur using A.R Grade K2SO4 and calibrate the System. Make Soil extract of the soil sample, whose sulphur content is to be measured. Transfer a portion of the extract in a test tube and do measurement using the calibrated system using Chesnin & Yen method.
142
Preparation of Standard Solution:

Dissolve 0.5434 gram of A.R. Grade K2SO4 in distilled water and dilute it to one liter. This solution contains 100ppm sulphur. Transfer 0ml, 12.5ml, 25ml, 37.5ml, 50ml, 62.5ml, 75.0ml, 87.5ml and 100ml of 100ppm sulphur solution to 250ml volumetric flasks. Add 25 ml salt buffer solution to each. Makeup the volumes with distilled water and mix thoroughly. The solution prepared from the above mentioned aliquot portions would provide 0 ppm, 5 ppm, l0 ppm, 15 ppm, 20 ppm, 25 ppm, 30 ppm, 35 ppm and 40 ppm sulphur solution respectively.
Calibration Procedure
i) ii) Take 10 ml of 0 ppm, 5ppm, 10ppm, 15ppm, 20ppm, 25ppm, 30ppm, 35ppm and 40ppm solution in different flasks. Add 1 ml 6N HCI, 1 ml gumacacia into the solution.
iii) Mix the solution and add 0.5 gm BaCl2 Crystals. Allow the flasks to stand still for one minute and then swirl the contents gently until barium chloride crystals are dissolved. iv) Pour a portion of the above mentioned 0 ppm solution in a test tube and insert into the sample holder. Adjust zero reading knob of the system such that the output of the Signal Conditioning Circuit becomes zero. v) Take 10 ml of the 40 ppm solution and repeat steps (ii) and (iii). Then, pour a portion of the solution in a test tube and insert into the sample holder. Adjust the Gain knob of the system such that the output of the Signal Conditioning Circuit gives 100mV.
vi) Repeat steps (iv) and (v) till one gets consistent read-out of zero reading for 0ppm and 100 for 40 ppm vii) Note done the output of Signal Conditioning Circuit for other concentrations (5 ppm, 10 ppm, 15ppm, 20 ppm, 25ppm, 30 ppm and 35 ppm) by following the procedure as explained above. viii) Calibration curve is drawn by plotting Signal Condition Circuit outputs in X-axis and concentration values (ppm) in Y-axis ix) The binary output of ADC output has been noted for 0 to 100 mV. Look-up table of ADC output against Concentration values were made and stored in EPROM.
Software of the System

The software of the system is developed in the Assembly language of 8031 When the system is switched ON, it displays Nut-Et. After feeding the name of the Nutrient (S in this Case), press RUN key. Then, the system reads ADC output. As the calibrated data is stored in EPROM, in a Look-up table form, depending upon the ADC value, the program reads corresponding calibrated data from the EPROM and displays as the measurement result in ppm. The flow chart of the system is given in fig. 5
143
Fig. 5: The flow chart of the Software of the system
Preparation of Soil extract and estimation of Sulphur

Take 5 gram of soil in 250 ml volumetric flask. Add 25 ml of Morgans extractant and 0.5 gram of activated charcoal. Then shake for 30 minutes. Filter the content through whatman No 40 filter paper. Take 10 ml extract in 100 ml conical flask, and then add 1 ml each of 6N HCl and Gumacacia. Add 0.5-gram BaCl2 crystals. Shake gently till BaCl2 Crystals dissolve. Take the reading within 5 minutes using the Calibrated system. Since higher order 8-bit data of ADC has been used. The Maximum reading of the system (40 ppm) is adjusted by adjusting the gain of the signal conditioning circuit such that the it gives 100m V which is full scale reading. So 100 m V = 40 ppm = 256 bytes, hence the accuracy of measurement is explained as : 1 byte = 100/256 m V = 40/256 ppm. Therefore accuracy of measurement is 0.16 ppm (40/256 ppm) of the reading. The resolution provided to the system is 0.16 ppm. The system has been field tried at Soil Testing Laboratories of Madhya Pradesh, India, and its performance has been well commented.
144
Conclusion
The developed system as explained above is a user-friendly system, as no special training is required to use it. Normal Spectrophotometers has optical lenses and filter which makes the system clumsy and difficult to use. As incandescent lamps are used as light sources, it generates lot of heat and consumes more power. All these problems are solved in this system. Moreover, the system is portable and field usable. The developed system can be extended for the measurement of other Soil Nutrients such as Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potash.
Acknowledgement
The authors acknowledge the efforts made by Mr. H.C. Jha and Mr. S.S. Patel, both are Technical Assistant, for wiring the circuit and helping in troubleshooting. The authors are also thankful to Dept. of Electronics, Govt. of India for funding the project; and Vice Chancellor, JNKVV for all encouragements & moral support.
Reference:
1. Chesnin L. and C.H. Turbidimetric determination of available sulfates. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc. 15: 149-151. 2. Freney J.R. Some observation on the nature of organic sulpher compound in soils. Aust. J. Agric. Res. 12:424:432. (1961). 3. Bettary, J.R. and C.H. Halstead. An automated procedure for the nephelometric determination of sulfate in soil extracts. Can. J. Soil Sci. 52: 127-129 (1972). 4. Beaton, J.D. G.R. Bums and J. Platou. Determination of sulphur in soils and plants material. Tech. Bull. 14, The Sulphur Inst., Washington, DC (1968). 5. Kenneth J. Ayala, The 8051 Microcontroller, Penram International, New York (2001). 6. A.P. Mathur, Introduction to Microprocessor, TMH Publishing Company Ltd., New Delhi 139-145 (2002). 7. Yu-cheng Liu and G.A. Gibson, 'Microcomputer Systems: the 8086/8088 Family', PHI, New Delhi 444-448 (2001). 8. BURR-Brown data book (1999). 9. Microprocessor and Peripherals Handbook, Intel Corporation, USA (1983).
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