Physics 404 Passive Circuits Elements

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Lab 1 Passive Circuit Elements

This lab involves using passive circuit elements; resistors, capacitors, and inductors; to help understand the concepts of filtering and impedance. Detailed explanations are given in the lectures and textbook, but are summarized here to help you get started in this lab. The final section concerns diodes, our first example of a non-linear circuit element.

Part A. Impedance of Passive Circuit Elements

Following engineering conventions we use the symbol j = 1 instead of the i usually used in physics. This allows use of the symbol i to represent current. Impedance, Z, is the generalized word for resistance, measured in ohms, but allowed to be complex to include the contribution of a reactive (imaginary) component. Z relates current to voltage for a particular circuit element. Impedance obeys Ohms Law and has the form

V = ZI

Z = R + jX

where R is the resistance and X is the reactance. The reason impedance can be complex is to account for the phase difference between the current and the voltage. The current voltage relationships for a resistor, capacitor, and inductor are shown below.
IV R el onshi ati p R esi stor C apaci tor Inductor Im pedance at F requency

v = Ri dv i =C dt di v=L dt

ZR = R 1 ZC = j C Z L = j L

Resistors are purely resistive since the voltage is in phase with the current. Capacitors and Inductors are purely reactive. For a capacitor the current leads the voltage by 90 and therefore has a negative reactance. An inductor has a positive reactance and therefore the voltage leads the current by 90. Notice that the impedance of a capacitor and an inductor is frequency dependent.

Transfer Function
The transfer function of a system relates the output voltage to the input voltage.

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By analogy with the classic voltage divider, we can write the response formula (transfer function) for this system:
v out = Zc v in ZR + Z c
T ( j ) = v out v in 1 1 jC = = 1 1 + jRC R+ jC

When =0, the magnitude of the response is 1. As , the magnitude of the response is 0. When =1/RC, the phase shift is 45 and the magnitude of the response is 1/2 or 3dB, according to the definition of decibel we met last time.

Pole / Zero Analysis

We have seen that a transfer function gives us certain information about how a system will respond at a given frequency. One method of determining a system response from a transfer function is to use pole / zero analysis. The first step is to write the transfer function as a bipolynomal in , a simple fraction with a polynomial form for both numerator and denominator. The expression above is a simple example of this. A pole is a value of j which makes the denominator zero, and a zero is a value of j which makes the numerator zero. Since any polynomial can be expanded into linear factors, one for each of its roots, the poles and zeros can be considered to contribute separately to the system response. Generally, a pole can be considered to provide gain and a zero to suppress gain. How much a pole or a zero affects the gain at a frequency depends on the distance the pole or zero is away from the frequency. As in the example above, the phase shift of the system is determined by the argument of the (complex) transfer function, which passes through 45 at each pole or zero. A pole (frequency which makes the denominator zero) causes the magnitude of the transfer function to decrease at 6dB/octave or 20dB/decade. A zero (frequency which makes the numerator zero) causes the magnitude of the transfer function to increase at 6dB/octave or 20dB/decade.

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Measuring the Transfer Function

Construct the following RC filter. Its transfer function is
T( j ) = 1 1 + j 0.00015

1) Connect vin to CH1 and vout to CH2 of the oscilloscope. 2) Set vin = 1V @ 100Hz from the Wavetek generator. 3) Measure the amplitude of vout (CH2). 4) Measure the phase shift of vout using the method below. (Use AC coupling to remove DC offsets). Make sure that CH1 and CH2 have the same center position otherwise the zero crossing wont be correct. It is also important to note the sign of T. If vout is to the right of vin , the phase shift is negative because vout lags vin.)

= T 360 0 f

5) 6)

7)

Repeat, measuring the magnitude of vout and the phase shift for the following frequencies: 500Hz, 1kHz, 5kHz, 10kHz, 50kHz, 100kHz, 500kHz, 1MHz. Plot the magnitude (in dB) vs. frequency (you may use log-log paper). Plot the phase vs. frequency (use semi-log paper). What kind of a frequency response does this filter have (Low Pass, High Pass)? Where is the 3dB frequency or the pole of the filter? Describe how the frequency response relates to the circuit. Repeat the above procedure for the following circuit

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Design and Computer simulation of a Bandpass Filter

In this section the frequency response of a circuit will be simulated using Electronics Workbench (EWB). You will be designing a bandpass filter with a zero at 0Hz, and two poles, one at 1kHz and the other at 100kHz. This gives a response shown below.

Use the following circuit in your design. Select R1, R2, C1, and C2 to get the desired response. After you have designed your circuit, you should simulate it using EWB.

Here are a few directions if you are not familiar with Electronics Workbench. and drag the AC voltage source onto the page. Click on the source box Right click on the AC source and select Component Properties. Set the voltage to 1V and click OK. Drag the ground onto the page. Click on the basic box page. and drag two resistors and two capacitors onto the

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The resistance and capacitance values may be modified in the same way as the voltage was modified, by right clicking on the component you wish to modify and selecting Component Properties. Components may be rotated by right clicking on them and selecting Rotate. Components may be moved by clicking on them and dragging them into position. Connect the components. This is done by placing the mouse over one of the terminals (a will appear on that terminal), click and drag the mouse over the ending terminal (another will appear on that terminal), and release the mouse button. Connecting more than one wire requires a node. A node () is located in the basic box. Click on Circuit, Schematic Options, then check Show Nodes. Then click OK.

We are now ready to measure the response of the circuit to different frequencies. Click Analysis, AC Frequency. Use Start Frequency = 100Hz, Stop Frequency = 10 MHz. Add the output node (in the circuit above it is 4 but it may be different in your circuit depending on the order in which you wired the components) into the nodes for analysis box by highlighting the node number and clicking Add. Click Simulate.

You should now see two plots like the ones shown above, the output voltage vs. frequency and the phase vs. frequency. Right click on the voltage axis. Select Decibels for the Scale and click OK. Add gridlines by clicking . Add gridlines to the phase plot by left clicking on the plot and then clicking . SAVE YOUR WORK before printing the graphs by clicking on

Lab Report for Part A

Measuring Transfer Function A table showing the magnitude and phase of the transfer function for the specified frequencies for both filters. A plot of the magnitude (in dB) and phase of the transfer function vs. frequency. Use log scales for the frequency for both filters. What kind of frequency response does each filter have (Low Pass, High Pass)? What is the 3dB frequency (pole) of each filter? Computer Simulation of RC Network Printout of magnitude (in dB) and phase of the transfer function vs. frequency. Derivation of R1, R2, C1, and C2 values. Make sure you describe how all the circuits work and how the response relates to theory.
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Part B. LC Resonant Circuits

In this part of the lab you will measure the characteristics of an LC resonator circuit.

Impedance
Construct the following circuit on your breadboard to measure the impedance of a parallel LC combination. The circuit is a voltage divider with the LC pair as its lower leg.

1) 2) 3) 4)

5)

Connect vin to CH1 and vout to CH2 of the oscilloscope. Adjust the frequency of vin until you see a maximum in vout. This will also be the frequency when vin is in phase with vout. (Make sure to use AC coupling and check that the ground levels for CH1 and CH2 are the same.) Measure the frequency using the DMM. What is this frequency (where the maximum occurs) called? Verify why there is no phase shift at this frequency. Measure the actual values of the capacitor and inductor using the capacitance and inductance meters. Does the resonant frequency calculated from these values match the frequency you measured? Calculate the impedance (Z) at the resonant frequency of the LC resonator using the voltage divider relationship.
Z= v out R v in v out

6)

7)

Measure the impedance of the LC resonator for frequencies in the range 00. Make sure you take data at enough points around 0. Remember that vout will be a complex number, due to the phase shift relative to vin, when you calculate the impedance. Plot the magnitude of the impedance and the phase of the impedance vs. frequency.
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Quality Factor
The quality factor (Q) describes the sharpness of the resonance. Circuits with a high Q will resonate over a smaller frequency range and circuits with a low Q will resonate over a larger frequency range. In the previous section we assumed ideal components. Ideally an inductor will have zero impedance at DC frequencies; however, a real inductor will have a resistance due to the wires it is made from. Therefore, we can model the real inductor as an ideal inductor L and a resistance r in series.

1) 2)

Measure r by measuring the resistance of the inductor using the DMM. Remove the inductor from the circuit first! Calculate the Q expected for your component values. L The Q factor, defined as Q = 0 , should be given by the expression Q = 0 r

3) 4)

The frequency where the amplitude is 1/2 of the maximum is called the half power point. Readjust the frequency to the resonant frequency and note the amplitude of vout. Remember to replace your inductor. Lower the frequency until the amplitude is 1/2 of the maximum and measure the frequency with the DMM.
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5) 6)

Raise the frequency until the amplitude is again 1/2 of the maximum and measure the frequency again. Calculated from these two frequencies and calculate Q. Does your measured value of Q agree with the prediction?

Lab Report for Part B

Impedance Include your measurement of the frequency that resulted in a maximum amplitude output and state what this frequency is called. Show your measurement and explanation why there is no phase shift at this frequency and why the output should be a maximum at this frequency. Include measurements of the capacitor and inductor values and calculate the theoretical resonant frequency. Does this frequency match the frequency measured? Include a plot showing the magnitude of the impedance and the phase of the impedance vs. frequency. Q Factor Include your measurement of r and calculate Q= 0L/r. Show calculations used to determine the half power points. Include your measurements of the frequencies of the half power points. Calculate Q=0/ using the half power points and compare with the previous calculation.

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Part C.

Multiple-pole Filters

2-Pole Filter
1) Derive the transfer function for the following circuit.

2) 3) 4)

Choose L and C for a pole frequency around 50kHz. Measure the transfer function of the filter. What is the high frequency roll of rate above the pole frequency (dB/decade)? Why is there a gain at the pole frequency? Now include a resistor in your circuit and derive the transfer function for the new system. Rewrite your equation in the following form.

T ( ) =

0 2 + j

02 0
Q

5)

What is Q equal to in terms of R, L, C, and 0? Choose R to give you Q=1/2 and again measure the transfer function as a function of frequency. How does the addition of the resistor affect the frequency response? (Think about the location of the poles.)

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3-Pole Filter
1) Derive the transfer function for the following system and show that it has 3 poles. To show this, it is sufficient to reduce your expression for the transfer function to the standard bipolynomial form and look at the highest power of j appearing in the denominator. An nth-order polynomial can be expressed as the product of n factors, one for each root. However, it is not necessary to solve the polymomial to determine the number of poles.

2) 3) 4)

Using the same values for R, L, and C that you used in the previous 2-pole filter, choose C1 so the roll off point is still around 50kHz while maintaining a flat response. (Set C1 about 0.1*C) Simulate the network in Electronics Workbench, and using the AC Frequency Analysis, measure the transfer function. Do a Pole/Zero Analysis. Make sure you click the Pole Analysis at the bottom of the window, and make sure the input and output nodes are correct. What is the high frequency roll-off rate (dB/decade)?

Lab Report for Part C

2-Pole Filter Include the derivations of the transfer function with and without the resistor. Include plots of the measured transfer functions with and without the resistor. What is the high frequency roll-off rate? Why is there a gain near the pole frequency? How does the resistor affect the frequency response? 3-Pole Filter Include the derivation of the transfer function. Include a printout of the transfer function. Include the location of the poles calculated by EWB. What is the high frequency roll-off rate?

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Part D. Passive Circuits using Diodes

Diodes are two terminal, non-linear passive devices. An ideal diode looks like a short circuit in one direction and an open circuit in the opposite direction. Schematically, the arrow represents the direction of current flow. The band symbol on a diode represents the cathode, a holdover from vacuum tube days. Physically the diode is a pn junction with the current flow predominantly from p to n type material.

Schematic drawings of diodes. In EWB, look under the diode icon for the 1N914 silicon diode. To view its listed properties, drag the diode icon onto the circuit window and double click it. Select Edit and observe the properties of the diode. It is not necessary to modify these properties at this point. Carry out the following exercises first using EWB whenever it is necessary, and then construct a working circuit with actual components (as in real world situation to do useful things). This will allow you to consider the limitations and advantages of EWB.

Diode Characteristics
Choose a silicon (Si) diode (IN914 is a common one) and measure its forward and reverse resistance with the digital multimeter (DMM). The forward resistance depends upon the DMM range setting. Why? Because diodes are nonlinear devices, their behavior may seem confusing. However, a very simple rule of thumb is often useful. For DC operation, a Si diode conducts current when biased by more than about 0.65 Volts. Once it is forward-biased, its voltage stays at approximately 0.65-0.7 V. Check this out with the circuit shown below using your signal generator to supply a slowly varying voltage. The current-voltage characteristic will be plotted out in this way. You will need to configure the oscilloscope to accept an external input for its X-axis. Choose the value of R to be small, but large enough to see the current without distortion. Be careful not to exceed the current limit for the diode (about 200 mA). Now try the same thing with a Zener diode and note how the Zener holds a reasonably steady reverse voltage across itself as you vary the input (or the series resistor). This property of Zeners is used to make precision voltage reference circuits. Then repeat the test for a germanium (Ge) diode and for a GaP light-emitting diode (LED). You should notice a difference in the forward-bias thresholds.

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Setup for measuring the current-voltage characteristic of a diode. Add meters to your circuit to allow you to measure the voltages across the diode and resistor (i.e. the diode current). Instead of the signal generator, drive the circuit with a DC power supply. Plot a graph of the forward-bias voltage-current characteristic of the 1N914 diode using semi-log graph paper. Use the logarithmic axis for the current. You should get a roughly straight line because of the exponential relationship. Familiarize yourself with the oscilloscope curve tracer module. Display the I-V curves of four types of diodes: Ge, Si, Zener, and an LED. Note the difference in turn-on voltage for the Si and Ge diodes and the reverse breakdown voltage for the Zener

Rectifiers
One of the most important applications of diodes is to rectify AC signals. Because the diode conducts in only one direction, one polarity of an AC signal can be eliminated, resulting in net DC component. This process can be used to make power supplies, peak detectors, and amplitude modulators. Half-wave rectifier. First build the half-wave rectifier circuit shown below and observe the output for a sine wave input. Now modify the circuit by adding a capacitor across the output. Sketch the output waveform. How does the combination of parameters RC affect the waveform?

V In

Half-wave Rectifier.
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Full-wave rectifier. Build the circuit shown below using four diodes in a bridge arrangement. Because of the ground on the input of the oscilloscope you use to look at the output waveform, YOU CANNOT USE THE WAVETEK TO DRIVE THIS CIRCUIT. There are special (ungrounded) line transformers available for the input. Sketch the output voltage with and without a filter capacitor on the output. This type of circuit is used to convert the 110 VAC from the power line into a DC voltage. The task of further smoothing out the ripples and making the output DC voltage insensitive to load resistances is performed by a regulator, a subject taken up later in the course.

Vin

C RL

Full-wave rectifier circuit.

Diode Clamps and Shaping Circuits

Build the diode clamp circuit shown below. The idea is to clamp the output to a reference voltage set by the power supply. Examine its output as you vary the offset of your signal generator and record the result. How is this circuit different from the rectifier you made earlier? Try reversing the diode and/or the polarity of the power supply.

Replace the power supply in your diode clamp with a voltage divider to change the clamping point, as shown in the next diagram. Use +15V for the voltage supply indicated as VCC. How does this change the resulting waveform? To see the result properly, you may find it better to use a triangle waveform with a sufficiently large amplitude. Once again, vary the offset and try reversing the diode. What do you see with two diodes in parallel (with opposite polarity)?

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Diode clamp with voltage divider reference. Try adding a 10F blocking capacitor in parallel with one of the resistors of the voltage divider. Which polarity is correct for the capacitor? Can you explain the change that this causes?

Lab Report for Part D

Detailed sketches of the characteristics you measured for the different kinds of diode, showing and explaining the differences between them. Measured forward characteristics, plotted semi-logarithmically. Output of half-wave rectifier and discussion of the role of the capacitor. Output of full-wave rectifier, noting differences from half-wave. Explanation of the operation of the diode clamp circuit. Effect of the voltage divider on the performance of the clamp. Role of the blocking capacitor.

Revised 1/2005. Copyright 1999 The Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois. All rights reserved.