Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Department Of Physics
M.Sc. Final
2006
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C E RT I F I C AT E
_____________________
Prof Dr V.E. Arkhincheev
(Supervisor)
___________________
Sir Rashid Tanveer
(Internal Examiner)
___________________
Dr Ferooz Ahmed
(External Examiner)
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
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DEDICATION
me every day and my father who was not with us, and also
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
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2.3.2 Dirt and disorder 19
2.4 What the Quantum Hall effect requires: 20
2.5 Disappearance of Quantum Hall Effect: 20
2.6 Why is the Hall Conductance Quantized? 21
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ABSTRACT
The quantization of the Hall conductance has the important property of being
incredibly precise. Actual measurements of the Hall conductance have been found to
be integer or fractional multiples of e²/h to nearly one part in a billion. This
phenomenon, referred to as "exact quantization", has been shown to be a subtle
manifestation of the principle of gauge invariance.”
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CHAPTER 1
However, the precise quantization of the Hall conductance in units of was not
recognized until February of 1980. Five years later, in 1985, Klaus von Klitzing was
awarded Nobel Prize in Physics for the discovery of quantum Hall effect.
This was not the end of the story. In 1982 D.C.Tsui, H.L.Störmer, and
A.C.Gossard discovered the existance of Hall steps with rational fractional quantum
numbers, which is called fractional quantum Hall effect. R.B.Laughlin's wave
functions established a very good, though not yet perfect understanding of this
phenomenon. Today, the study of quasiparticles of fractional charge and fractional
statistics are still active areas of research
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1.1.1 Explanation about Hall Effect:
The Hall effect comes about due to the nature of the
current flow in the conductor. Current consists of many
small charge-carrying "particles" (typically electrons)
which experience a force (called the Lorentz Force) due to
the magnetic field. Some of these charge elements end up
forced to the sides of the conductors, where they create a
pool of net charge. This is only notable in larger conductors where the separation
between the two sides is large enough.
One very important feature of the Hall Effect is that it differentiates between
positive charges moving in one direction and negative charges moving in the
opposite. The Hall Effect offered the first real proof that electric currents in metals are
carried by moving electrons, not by protons. Interestingly enough, the Hall effect also
showed that in some substances (especially semiconductors), it is more appropriate to
think of the current as positive "holes" moving rather than negative electrons.
By measuring the Hall voltage across the element, one can determine the
strength of the magnetic field applied. This can be expressed as
where VH is the voltage across the width of the plate, I is the current across the plate
length, B is the magnetic flux density, d is the depth of the plate, e is the electron
charge, and n is the bulk density of the carrier electrons.
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So-called "Hall Effect sensors" are readily available from a number of
different manufacturers, and may be used in various sensors such as fluid flow
sensors, power sensors, and pressure sensors.
In the presence of large magnetic field strength and low temperature, one can
observe the quantum Hall effect, which is the quantization of the Hall resistance.
In ferromagnetic materials (and paramagnetic materials in a magnetic field), the Hall
resistivity includes an additional contribution, known as the Anomalous Hall Effect
(or the Extraordinary Hall effect), which depends directly on the magnetization of
the material, and is often much larger than the ordinary Hall effect. (Note that this
effect is not due to the contribution of the magnetization to the total magnetic field.)
Although a well-recognized phenomenon, there is still debate about its origins in the
various materials. The anomalous Hall effect can be either an extrinsic (disorder-
related) effect due to spin-dependent scattering of the charge carriers, or an intrinsic
effect which can be described in terms of the Berry phase effect in the crystal
momentum space (k-space).
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both sheet density and mobility, one can determine the Hall mobility from the
equation
µ = |VH|/RSIB = 1/(qnSRS). (2)
If the conducting layer thickness d is known, one can determine the bulk
resistivity (ρ = RSd) and the bulk density (n = nS/d).
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To obtain the two characteristic resistances, one applies a dc current I into
contact 1 and out of contact 2 and measures the voltage V43 from contact 4 to contact
3 as shown in Fig. 2. Next, one applies the current I into contact 2 and out of contact
3 while measuring the voltage V14 from contact 1 to contact 4. RA and RB are
calculated by means of the following expressions:
RA = V43/I12 and RB = V14/I23. (5)
The objective of the Hall measurement in the van der Pauw technique is to
determine the sheet carrier density ns by measuring the Hall voltage VH. The Hall
voltage measurement consists of a series of voltage measurements with a constant
current I and a constant magnetic field B applied perpendicular to the plane of the
sample. Conveniently, the same sample, shown again in Fig. 3, can also be used for
the Hall measurement. To measure the Hall voltage VH, a current I is forced through
the opposing pair of contacts 1 and 3 and the Hall voltage VH (= V24) is measured
across the remaining pair of contacts 2 and 4. Once the Hall voltage VH is acquired,
the sheet carrier density ns can be calculated via ns = IB/q|VH| from the known values
of I, B, and q.
There are practical aspects which must be considered when carrying out Hall
and resistivity measurements. Primary concerns are ohmic contact quality and size,
sample uniformity and accurate thickness determination, thermomagnetic effects due
to non uniform temperature, and photoconductive and photovoltaic effects which can
be minimized by measuring in a dark environment. Also, the sample lateral
dimensions must be large compared to the size of the contacts and the sample
thickness. Finally, one must accurately measure sample temperature, magnetic field
intensity, electrical current, and voltage
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1.3 Resistivity and Hall Measurements
The following procedures for carrying out Hall measurements provide a
guideline for the beginning user who wants to learn operational procedures, as well as
a reference for experienced operators who wish to invent and engineer improvements
in the equipment and methodology.
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We define the following parameters (see Fig. 2):
ρ = sample resistivity (inΩ·cm)
d = conducting layer thickness (in cm)
I12 = positive dc current I injected into contact 1 and taken out of contact 2. Likewise
for I23, I34, I41, I21, I14, I43, I32 (in amperes, A)
V12 = dc voltage measured between contacts 1 and 2 (V1 - V2) without applied
magnetic field (B = 0). Likewise for V23, V34, V41, V21, V14, V43, V32 (in volts, V)
The difficulty in obtaining accurate results is not merely the small magnitude of the
Hall voltage since good quality digital voltmeters on the market today are quite
adequate. The more severe problem comes from the large offset voltage caused by
non symmetric contact placement, sample shape, and sometimes non uniform
temperature.
The most common way to control this problem is to acquire two sets of Hall
measurements, one for positive and one for negative magnetic field direction. The
relevant definitions are as follows (Fig. 3):
I13 = dc current injected into lead 1 and taken out of lead 3. Likewise for I31,
I42, I24.
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V24P = Hall voltage measured between leads 2 and 4 with magnetic field positive for
I13. Likewise for V42P, V13P, and V31P.
Similar definitions for V24N, V42N, V13N, V31N apply when the magnetic field B is
reversed.
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The bulk carrier density (in units of cm-3) can be determined as follows if the
conducting layer thickness d of the sample is known:
n = ns/d
p = ps/d (13)
2 -1 -1
The Hall mobility µ = 1/qnsRS (in units of cm V s ) is calculated from the
sheet carrier density ns (or ps) and the sheet resistance RS. See Eq. (2).
The procedure for this sample is now complete.
Sample identification, such as ingot number, wafer number, sample geometry, sample
temperature, thickness, data, and operator
Values of sample current I and magnetic field B
Calculated value of sheet resistance RS, and resistivity ρ if thickness d is known
Calculated value of sheet carrier density ns or ps, and the bulk-carrier density n or p if
d is known
Calculated value of Hall mobility µ
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HALL EFFECT CURRENT SENSOR WITH INTERNAL INTEGRATED CIRCUIT AMPLIFIER. 8MM OPENING. ZERO
CURRENT OUTPUT VOLTAGE IS MIDWAY BETWEEN THE SUPPLY VOLTAGES THAT MAINTAIN A 4 TO 8 VOLT
DIFFERENTIAL. NON-ZERO CURRENT RESPONSE IS PROPORTIONAL TO THE VOLTAGE SUPPLIED AND IS
b) Analog multiplication
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The output is proportional to both the applied magnetic field and the applied
sensor voltage. If the magnetic field is applied by a solenoid, the sensor output is
proportional to product of the current through the solenoid and the sensor voltage. As
most applications requiring computation are now performed by small (even tiny)
digital computers, the remaining useful application is in power sensing, which
combines current sensing with voltage sensing in a single Hall effect device.
c) Power sensing
By sensing the current provided to a load and using the device's applied
voltage as a sensor voltage it is possible to determine the power flowing through a
device. This power is (for direct current devices) the product of the current and the
voltage. With appropriate refinement the devices may be applied to alternating current
applications where they are capable of reading the true power produced or consumed
by a device.
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the intake valve openings and the duration of each sequence (controlled by a
computer) determines the amount of fuel delivered.
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CHAPTER 2
For the last ten years there has been reason to suspect that, in two-dimensional
systems, what is called Hall conductivity does not vary evenly, but changes "step-
wise" when the applied magnetic field is changed. The steps should appear at
conductivity values representing an integral number multiplied by a natural constant
of fundamental physical importance. The conductivity is then said to be quantized
It was not expected, however, that the quantization rule would apply with a high
accuracy. It therefore came as a great surprise when in the spring of 1980 von
Klitzing showed experimentally that the Hall conductivity exhibits step-like plateaux
which follow this rule with exceptionally high accuracy, deviating from an integral
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number by less than 0.000 000 1.Von Klitzing has through his experiment shown that
the quantized Hall effect has fundamental implications for physics. His discovery has
opened up a new research field of great importance and relevance. Because of the
extremely high precision in the quantized Hall effect, it may be used as a standard of
electrical resistance. Secondly, it affords a new possibility of measuring the earlier-
mentioned constant, which is of great importance in, for example, the fields of atomic
and particle physics. These two possibilities in measurement technique are of the
greatest importance, and have been studied in many laboratories all over the world
during the five years since von Klitzing's experiment. Of equally great interest is that
we are dealing here with a new phenomenon in quantum physics, and one whose
characteristics are still only partially understood.
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collisions is suppressed and the electrons are again forced into ordered movement.
Under these extreme conditions the classical theory does not apply: the movement
becomes quantized, which means that the energy can only assume certain definite
values, termed Landau levels after the Russian physicist L. Landau (Nobel
prizewinner in 1962) who developed the theory of the effect as early as 1930.
During the years 1975 to 1981 many Japanese researchers published experimental
papers dealing with Hall conductivity. They obtained results corresponding to Ando's
at special points, but they made no attempt to determine the accuracy. Nor was their
method especially suitable for achieving great accuracy. A considerably better method
was developed in 1978 by Th. Englert and K. von Klitzing. Their experimental curve
exhibits well defined plateaux, but the authors did not comment upon these results.
The quantized Hall Effect could in fact have been discovered then, the crucial
experiment was carried out by Klaus von Klitzing in the spring of 1980 at the
Hochfelt-Magnet-Labor in Grenoble, and published as a joint paper with G. Dorda
and M. Pepper. Dorda and Pepper had developed methods of producing the samples
used in the experiment. These samples had extremely high electron mobility, which
was a prerequisite for the discovery. The experiment clearly demonstrated the
existence of plateaux with values that are quantized with extraordinarily great
precision. One also calculated a value for the constant e2 /h which corresponds well
with the value accepted earlier. This is the work that represents the discovery of the
quantized Hall Effect. Following the original discovery, a large number of studies
have been carried out that have elucidated different aspects of the quantized Hall
Effect. The national metrological (measurement) laboratories in Germany, the USA,
Canada, Australia, France, Japan and other countries have carried out very detailed
investigations of the precision of the quantization, in order to be able to use the effect
as a standard.
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Explanation of the Quantum Hall Effect
The zeros and plateau in the two components of the resistivity tensor are
intimately connected and both can be understood in terms of the Landau levels (LLs)
formed in a magnetic field.
In the absence of magnetic field the density of states in 2D is constant as a
function of energy, but in field the available states clump into Landau levels separated
by the cyclotron energy, with regions of energy between the LLs where there are no
allowed states. As the magnetic field is swept the LLs move relative to the Fermi
energy.
When the Fermi energy lies in a gap between LLs electrons can not move to
new states and so there is no scattering. Thus the transport is dissipationless and the
resistance falls to zero.
The classical Hall resistance was just given by B/Ne. However, the number of
current carrying states in each LL is eB/h, so when there are i LLs at energies below
the Fermi energy completely filled with ieB/h electrons, the Hall resistance is h/ie2. At
integer filling factor this is exactly the same as the classical case.
The difference in the QHE is that the Hall resistance can not change from the
quantized value for the whole time the Fermi energy is in a gap, i.e between the fields
(a) and (b) in the diagram, and so a plateau results. Only when case (c) is reached,
with the Fermi energy in the Landau level, can the Hall voltage change and a finite
value of resistance appear.
This picture has assumed a fixed Fermi energy, i.e fixed carrier density, and a
changing magnetic field. The QHE can also be observed by fixing the magnetic field
and varying the carrier density, for instance by sweeping a surface gate.
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they are localised states. A few states (just one at T=0) in the middle of each LL will
be extented across the sample and carry the current. At higher temperatures the
electrons have more energy so more states become delocalized and the width of
extended states increases.
The gap in the density of states that gives rise to QHE plateaux is the gap
between extended states. Thus at lower temperatures and in dirtier samples the
plateaus are wider. In the highest mobility semiconductor hetero junctions the
plateaux are much narrower.
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between the lattice and continuum models. A comparison of our numerical results
with recent experimental measurements will be made.
The Integer Quantum Hall effect, first observed by K. von Klitzing, is used to
determine the fine structure constant with precision that is comparable to the
precision one gets from atomic physics. It is also used as a practical and fundamental
way to define the Ohm.
It is instructive to look at the experimental data. The graph that looks like a
staircase function has remarkably flat plateaus. The ordinates of the plateaus
correspond to integer multiple of the quantum unit of conductance, and can be
measured very precisely.
An intriguing aspect of this phenomenon is that a precision measurement of
fundamental constants is carried on a system that is only poorly characterized: Little
is actually known about the microscopic details of the system, which is artificially
fabricated, and whose precise composition and shape are not known with a precision
that is anywhere comparable with the precision that comes out of the
experiment.There are two related but somewhat distinct theoretical frameworks that
attempt to answer this question. The problem we pose has to do with their mutual
relation, and the extent to which they give a satisfactory answer.
One framework identifies the Hall conductance with a topological invariant:
The first Chern number of a certain bundle associated with the ground state of the
quantum Hamiltonian. This framework applies to a rather general class of quantum
Schrodinger Hamiltonians, including multiparticle ones. It has two principal
drawbacks. The first is that it requires an interesting topological structure: It applies
in cases where there is a Brillouin zone, and in cases where configuration space is
multiply connected. The multiple connectivity can be motivated, to some extent, by
the experimental setup if one includes the leads that connect to the two dimensional
electron gas in the system. This makes the Hall conductance a property of the system
and not just of the two dimensional electron gas. The second drawback is that the
Chern number is identified with a certain average of the Hall conductance. In some
cases this average comes for free, but in general it does not.
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A second theoretical framework identifies the Hall conductance with a
Fredholm index of a certain operator. This framework is known to apply to non
interacting electrons in two dimensions where the Fredholm operator is constructed
from the one particle Schrodinger Hamiltonian of the system. This framework applies
to a particularly popular model of the Integer quantum Hall effect: non interacting
electrons in two dimensions and with random potential. Some models, like non
interacting electrons in homogenous magnetic field in two dimensions, and its
generalization to a periodic potential can be analyzed either framework, and the
results agree. In these cases the Hall conductance can be interpreted either as a Chern
number or as an Index. the two frameworks are complementary: Chern allows for
electron interaction while Fredholm does not, Chern assumes an interesting topology
while Fredholm does not and requires that configuration space be two dimensional;
Chern comes with an averaging while Fredholm does not. The Chern framework
would be a satisfactory theory if one could take the thermodynamic limit and remove
the averaging. Progress in this direction has been made by Thouless and Niu who
described (implicit) conditions under which this is the case. The Fredholm framework
would be a satisfactory theory of the integer quantum Hall effect if one could remove
the restriction of non interacting electrons.
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CHAPTER 3
THE INTEGER QUANTUM HALL EFFECT
Overview of IQHE:
In the following we give some simple theoretical models which reflect the
properties of a two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG) in a strong magnetic field.
Starting from the Drude model, we show how Landau quantization occurs in the
simplest quantum mechanical model, and give a rather simplified model (the high
field model) that incorporates a disorder potential and shows the occurrence of
localized and extended states. The sequence of different plateaus seen in the Hall
resistivity in a field sweep experiment can be described theoretically as a sequence of
phase transitions between different Quantum Hall States. This result in scaling laws
for the transport coefficients in the proximity of the transition points that can be
verified experimentally, an open question is how the quantum Hall effect will vanish
at small magnetic fields in the limit of zero temperature. We will present one
possibility, the levitation of extended states. We will mention the gauge argument put
forward by R. Laughlin, that explains the exact quantization of the Hall conductivity
by gauge invariance. Last we will mention the open conductor approach to the
quantum Hall effect by M. Büttiker, that describes electronic transport in terms of
reception and transmission of charge carriers.
Here m is the electron mass, v the velocity vector, B and E are the magnetic and
electric field vectors, respectively. Choosing B along the z-direction (B = (0; 0;B)),
setting ≡ 0 (steady state condition) and using the equation for the
current density, we get the following expression for the conductivity tensor with the
mobility _
_
The Drude model gives a magnetic field independent diagonal resistivity ρxx and a
Hall (transverse) resistivity ρ xy which is linear in B.
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Figure 3.1 Resistivity and conductivity in Drude Model
vD = -E/B is called the drift velocity. The coordinates have been separated into a
slowly varying part (X(t); Y (t)), and a rapidly varying part (ε(t); η(t)), where the slow
motion is a constant drift with velocity vD along y, and the rapid motion is a
cyclotron motion around the center coordinates with the frequency we.
The electron performs a cycloid motion, drifting perpendicular both to the magnetic
and electric field, along an equipotential line.
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3.2 Quantum mechanical treatment
The origins of the quantum Hall effect can only be found by a quantum mechanical
calculation. For this, a starting point is the Hamiltonian for an electron in a
homogenous magnetic field
Choosing the direction of B along the z-axis, one can use the Landau gauge for the
vector potential: A = (0;Bx;0). This gauge is appropriate for systems with
translational symmetry along y. Another possible gauge is the symmetric gauge A = ½
B× r, which is a good choice for systems with axial symmetry Assuming further that
V (r) = V (x; y)+Vz (z), the Schrodinger equation will separate into a part depending
on z, and the remaining, now effectively two dimensional part depending on x and y.
Note that Vz(z) can be zero (as assumed by Landau for the 3D case), or can be given
by a confinement potential imposed e. g. by a semiconductor heterostructure,
therefore creating a "real" 2D system. In any of the two cases the results for the
remaining 2D problem in the (x,y)-plane are the same.
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direction, and localized (harmonic oscillator states) around X in x-direction. Note
however that the shape of the wave functions depend strongly on the gauge used for
A. The energy eigen values are called Landau levels
As the energy of an electron is independent of its x-position, the eigen values are
infinitely degenerate, and the density of states (DOS)
_
and takes the limit L afterwards. This method, also called the Landau
counting of states, gives a DOS consisting of equidistant δ-peaks separated by
The actual wave function is delocalized across the sample along y, and localized in an
3.2.2 Disorder
In real semiconductor samples some kind of disorder potential, caused for example by
lattice defects or ionized donors is always present. The exact calculation of the effect
of a random potential onto the energy spectrum of the problem is not possible in a
straightforward way, on one hand because it is by far not clear what shape the
disorder potential should have (one can think of the whole range from an unscreened
1/r Coulomb potential to a completely screened δ-potential), and on the other hand
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the mathematical effort even for the simplest situation of a random arrangement of δ-
potentials is considerable. It is clear however, that the degeneracy of the Landau
levels will be lifted by an additional potential, and the delta-peaks in the density of
states transform into structures with a finite width. A prominent approach to calculate
the shape of the disorder-broadened Landau levels is the self consistent Born
approximation (SCBA), where only single scattering events are taken into account.
The SCBA gives an elliptic function as shape for the broadened Landau levels,
models including multiple scattering events give a Gaussian shape
Taking the limit B , one can neglect ζ and η in the argument of V , as their
expectation values are of the order of The Hamiltonian then separates, and
the first part is equivalent to the Landau level energies
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As the commutator of [X; Y ] is proportional to 1=B, X and Y can be treated as
classical variables for , and the problem can be calculated classically,
resulting in the following equations of motion
_
This implies that dV/dt vanishes, so the potential energy of the electron is
Figure 3.3: Disorder potential with closed orbits (localized states) and open orbits (extended states)
constant.
We can say that, in the limit of high B, the electron is delocalized on an area of
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system will be
Figure 3.4: Schematic density of states for the disordered Landau model.
The grey regions represent localized states.
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Figure 3.5: electron trajectories for the plateau region
Electron trajectories for the plateau regime are shown in figure 3.5. There is no net
current flowing in the bulk of the sample, and transport takes place only in the edge
states of the sample. As there are no extended states in the vicinity of EF , the
longitudinal conductivity σxx vanishes. The Hall conductivity is determined by the
number n of occupied Landau levels below EF , and can be shown to be equal to n
e2./ħ In the transition regime, when EF lies in a region of extended states, electron
transport in the bulk of the sample is possible, and therefore dissipative currents will
flow in the sample giving a nonzero longitudinal conductivity and a Hall conductivity
that lies between two quantized values. Typical electron trajectories for the transition
region are shown in figure 3.6. An interesting question is, how the crossover between
these two regimes will look like. According to the high field model (chapter 3.2.2),
electron trajectories in the plateau region are closed, with the diameter of the closed
loops increasing as the Fermi energy approaches an area of extended states. For a real
world (finite size) sample, the system should enter the transition regime as soon as the
average diameter of the electron trajectories exceeds the sample size L. Note that for
finite temperatures, L has to be plateaus replaced by an effective sample size
Figure 3.6: electron trajectories for the transition region between two
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,which corresponds to the phase coherence length of the charge carriers. This length,
which is usually given by LФ or Lin, depends on temperature with a powerlaw
2 ) Theoretically the transition between two quantum Hall states is
being described Ф as a continuous quantum phase transition, order parameter being
the localization length ξ which corresponds to the mean diameter of a closed electron
trajectory. At the transition point, when different localized trajectories come close to
each other, electrons are able to tunnel between different localized states close to a
saddle point. In this picture, the transition between the two regimes is a quantum-
percolation transition. The order parameter ξ has been predicted to diverge with a
power law at the critical energy of the transition: The most prominent
model for the calculation of the critical exponent _ is the Chalker-Coddington model,
which calculates the percolation exponent for a regular lattice of saddle points. The
result for an analytic solution is ν = 7/3, a value which has been verified numerically
by lattice models for different disorder potentials. The critical conductivity σxx(Ec)
was found to be e2/2h. In a typical quantum Hall experiment one therefore sees a
series of phase transitions between different plateau states, with a values of σxx = 0 in
the two neighboring plateau regions, reaching a value of σxx = 1/2 at the transition
field Bc. Bc corresponds to the critical energy Ec = ħωe. As an electronic state has to
be considered extended as soon as its localization length is larger than the effective
sample size (ξ> Lin), the width of the area of extended states around the critical
energy Ec will shrink with decreasing temperature. As Lin increases with a powerlaw
for decreasing temperature, the area of extended states should shrink to zero width for
T 0. The transition region between two Quantum Hall States should therefore
become more and more narrow for decreasing temperature. As it was shown by
Pruisken the transport coefficients in the transition region should be determined by a
regular function that only depends on a singe scaling variable:
This makes it possible to observe the product of the localization length exponent ν
and the exponent of the inelastic scattering length p for example in the half width
- 39 -
_
Theoretical calculations predict a value of μ = 0:43.
Figure 3.7: Sharpening of the transition between two quantum Hall plateaus for decreasing
temperature.
The critical field Bc usually corresponds to a magnetic field value where the .Fermi
energy EF coincides with the center of a Landau level. However, there exists an
exception to this rule.
Figure 3.8: Left: Magneto conductance for a quantum Hall system according to the floating up
scenario, in the limit of very high temperature (Drude) and zero temperature. Right: Extended states in
the floating up scenario. Dashed lines represent the conventional Landau levels.
Any time an extended state crosses the Fermi level, there will be a quantum Hall
transition visible in the transport data of a quantum Hall transition at low magnetic
fields were made in strongly disordered systems, that only show a single quantum
Hall phase, and where a clear transition from the low field insulating state to the
corresponding quantum Hall plateau at σxy = 1 exists. Transitions between higher
quantum Hall states have only been observed in the high field regime (ωt < 1) up to
now.
The transport coefficients for a system in the limit T 0, according to the floating up
scenario, are shown in figure 3.8.
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In one of the first theoretical papers dealing with the quantum Hall effect, R. Laughlin
proposed an explanation for the exact quantization of the Hall conductance that was
based on gauge considerations. An extension of his paper was published by B.
Halperlin later. Both authors consider a two-dimensional system in a continuous but
multiply connected geometry like a cylinder or ring geometry, e.g. as shown in
figure.9. The 2D electron gas is assumed to be subject to a magnetic field B
perpendicular to its surface, and it is assumed that there
Figure.3.9: Geometry considered by R. B. Laughlin in his gauge argument for the exact quantization of
the Hall conductance.
is an additional magnetic flux Φo that can be varied freely without changing the value
of B, passing through the hole of the system. The system then should be gauge
invariant under a flux change ΔФo by an integral multiple of the flux quantum h/e. An
adiabatic change of Φ0 by a single flux quantum should therefore leave the system
unchanged. Assuming a DOS as shown in the previous chapter, the effect of the flux
change ΔΦo onto the electronic wave functions will depend on the nature of the states
at the Fermi energy. Localized states will just acquire an additional phase factor, they
won't be affected otherwise Extended states however will suffer an electromotive
force, and will be pushed to the exterior of the sample. After Laughlin, gauge
invariance requires an integer number of electrons to be transferred across the sample
under a flux change ΔΦo = h/e, which in turn requires the Hall conductivity to be
- 42 -
quantized. It should be noted that some authors claim the gauge argument presented
to be incomplete. After Laughlin's gauge argument has been superceded of what is
nowadays called the topological approach to the quantum Hall effect. In this
theoretical approach the Hall conductivity is identified with the Chern number, which
is a topological invariant
The main point of Buttiker's theory is the relation of the conductance coefficients
gmn to the transmission probabilities of an electron incident at contact m with the
simplified a little bit in the case of the quantum Hall effect. In the case of the plateau
regime (EF located in a region of localized states) the only current carrying states are
the previously mentioned edge states. As these edge states are moreover sufficiently
isolated from all other current carrying states (e. g. on the opposite side of the
sample), they are perfectly transmitting (Tmn =1), as there are no states an electron
could scatter to. As a consequence of this absence of backscattering the longitudinal
conductance of the sample vanishes (gxx = 0), and the Hall conductance corresponds
to e2/h times the number of occupied edge states or channels (g xy = n.e2/h). An
illustration of the classically calculated electron orbits in the quantum Hall plateau
regime is shown in figure 3.10.
- 44 -
Conclusion of Thesis:
After the completion of this thesis I conclude the following facts that:
The quantum Hall effect is a quantum-mechanical version of the Hall effect,
observed in two-dimensional systems of electrons subjected to low temperatures and
strong magnetic fields, in which the Hall conductance σ takes on the quantized values
The integral quantum Hall effect can be explained solely by the filling of the Landau
levels. Each Landau level has a certain capacity to accept electrons, which depends
on the magnetic field B. By changing the magnetic field, we change the ability of
each Landau level to accommodate electrons. When there is a match between the
capacity of the Landau levels and the number of electrons in the sample, an integer
number of Landau levels are exactly filled, and the integral quantum Hall effect is
produced
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value RK-90 is used in resistance calibrations worldwide. The quantum Hall effect also
provides an extremely precise independent determination of the fine structure
constant, a quantity of fundamental importance in quantum electrodynamics.
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