The eukaryotic cell has well-defined structures that serve discrete functional roles.

An organisms ability to perform essential functions such as metabolism, reproduction, and maintaining homeostasis depends on the proper functioning of structures at the cellular level. Although these structures are present in all animal cells, their number or activity level may vary depending on the cell type. For example, cells in the pancreas that produce the hormone insulin have extensive rough endoplasmic reticula, while muscle cells contain numerous mitochondria.

Only bacteria and archaea have prokaryotic cells, which lack a nucleus and other membrane-enclosed organelles. Prokaryotic cells are smaller and, at the level of the individual cell, are generally less versatile than eukaryotic cells, which compartmentalize many of their metabolic pathways into organelles. Nevertheless, prokaryotes are indispensable in every known ecosystem, and certain species are capable of surviving in some of the harshest and most nutrient-limiting environments on Earth.

The eukaryotic cytoskeleton is appropriately named because, at the cellular level, these fibers and their associated motor proteins perform similar roles as an animals musculoskeletal system. Microfilaments are responsible for cell locomotion and the cells structural characteristics. Microtubules serve as intracellular highways for transporting vesicles and organelles; they are also required for cellular locomotion via flagella and cilia. Intermediate filaments are rope-like structures that anchor organelles and intercellular junctions called desmosomes. They are specialized for bearing tension. Plant cells and animal cells have more in common than they have differences. Nevertheless, plant cells unique structures play important roles. Photosynthesis occurs in plant cells chloroplasts. The plant cells central vacuole takes up most of the space within the cell and serves a variety of functions, including storage and hydrolysis of organic compounds. Plant cell walls, which are composed primarily of cellulose, protect the cells from damage and maintain their shape. Cellulose is the most abundant organic compound on the planet. The chloroplast and the chemical reactions associated with it are extremely important for all living things. The photosynthetic reactions are responsible for converting solar energy into chemical energy that is used not only by the cells in which photosynthesis occurs but also by other organisms. For example, all of the foods you eat can be traced back to a plant or other photosynthetic organism. Furthermore, the chloroplast and its reactions have had a profound influence on the constitution of Earths atmosphere due to the fact that oxygen is a byproduct of photosynthesis. Gap junctions allow for the passage of material between cells, thus facilitating communication between these cells. he primary role of desmosomes (anchoring junctions) is to bind cells together.

The plasma membrane is selectively permeable-- it lets some substances through and not others. The hydrophobic interior of the bilayer is one reason membranes are selectively permeable. Hydrophobic molecules-- those that are soluble in lipids-- can easily pass through the membrane. In addition, small molecules like O2 can sneak between the phospholipids of the membrane. On the other hand, some hydrophilic molecules (like water and glucose) can pass only slowly, and ions (such as sodium ions and hydrogen ions) cannot pass directly through the phospholipids of the plasma membrane. They must pass through specific membrane transport proteins. A transport protein in the plasma membrane forms a channel through which water molecules or a specific solute can pass. Ions, such as hydrogen ions, and hydrophilic molecules, such as water and glucose, cannot rapidly pass directly through the phospholipids of a plasma membrane. To move rapidly through the membrane, they must pass through membrane transport proteins. Micell: A structural structure created when hydrophilic heads face water molecules while the hydrophobic tails are forced together away from water molecules. The following molecules can cross the lipid bilayer of a membrane directly, without a transport protein or other mechanism? The following molecules cannot cross the lipid bilayer of a membrane directly, without a transport protein or other mechanism? Small nonpolar molecules such as oxygen can diffuse across cell membranes. Molecules that are not charged and are not a sugar, can pass as well. Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane. Hypertonic is higher concentration of solute{sugar/salt/etc} than that of water. Hypotonic is a higher concentration of water then of solute{sugar/salt/etc}. Isotonic is when the water molecules and solute molecules are both equal on the side of the membrane compared to outside/otherside. It is incorrect to say the solution to the left is hypertonic. You need to add relative to that of the right or relative to the solution to the right. Hypertonic happens when solution outside the cell is higher than that of inside the cell. The water form the cell moves out of the cell. Example A. Remember asking Mrs. Doss and Mrs. Long about why drinking sea water was deadly? Simple the salt solute draws the water out of your body blood cells. Which forces them to explode and all process of health ends. It causes the cell to shrink. Hypotonic happens when solution outside the cell is less than that of inside the cell. The water form the cell moves in to the cell. Causing the cell to swell and explode. Plants cells due to their cellwalls do not swell and explode. They actually enjoy a littly Hypotonic. Example A. When your mom's body had all that water coming in and staying in. It caused her body to swell up and feel funky. She looked like a plump balloon. Isotonic have no bad side effects. {Well unless you ask Dr.H she said equality kills the cell.. Ask her if Isotonic counts.} Water moves equally. It has no point or ambition of destruction or purifying.. ahh..

What factors affect membrane permeability? -The saturation of hydrocarbon tails in membrane phospholipids -The amount of cholesterol in the membrane -Temperature

Phospholipids contain both a polar head and a nonpolar hydrocarbon tail, both of which are necessary for their ability to form membrane bilayers. Lipids are nonpolar molecules, whereas sugars are polar. Detergents form micelles around the grease, which are then washed away because the polar head groups facing outward on the micelle are water-soluble. The water-soluble portion of a phospholipid is the polar head, which generally consists of a glycerol molecule linked to a phosphate group. The hydrophilic, or water-loving, portion of a phospholipid is the polar head, whereas the hydrophobic portion is the nonpolar tail.

Some solutes pass readily through the lipid bilayer of a cell membrane, whereas others pass through much more slowly, or not at all.
Small nonpolar (hydrophobic) molecules, such as dissolved gases (O2, CO2, N2) and small lipids, can pass directly through the membrane. They do so by interacting directly with the

hydrophobic interior of the lipid bilayer. Very small polar molecules such as water and glycerol can pass directly through the membrane, but much more slowly than small nonpolar molecules. The mechanism that permits small polar molecules to cross the hydrophobic interior of the lipid bilayer is not completely understood, but it must involve the molecules squeezing between the hydrophobic tails of the lipids that make up the bilayer. Polar molecules such as glucose and sucrose have very limited permeability. Large molecules such as proteins cannot pass through the lipid bilayer. Ions and charged molecules of any size are essentially impermeable to the lipid bilayer because they are much more soluble in water than in the interior of the membrane. Carrier proteins and channels are both transport proteins involved in facilitated diffusion, the passive transport of solutes across a membrane down their concentration or electrochemical gradient. As integral membrane proteins, both carriers and channels protect polar or charged solutes from coming into contact with the hydrophobic interior of the lipid bilayer. Furthermore, all transport proteins are specific for the solutes they transport, owing to the specificity of the interactions between the solute and the transport protein. Channels are protein-lined pores across the membrane. A channel may be open at all times (non-gated), or may be gated such that the channel opens and closes under specific conditions. Channels transport inorganic ions or water. In contrast, carrier proteins do not have a pore. Binding of the transported solute to the carrier protein on one side of the membrane induces a conformational change in the protein that exposes the solute binding site to the opposite side of the membrane, where the solute is released. Carriers transport small polar solutes such as sugars and amino acids. In order for a protein to be an integral membrane protein it would have to be amphipathic, with at least one hydrophobic region. Ions diffuse across membranes through specific ion channels down their electrochemical gradients. The voltage across a membrane called membrane potential. The sodium-potassium pump maintains a state in which the concentration of sodium is low inside the cell relative to the outside and the concentration of potassium is high inside the cell relative to the outside; thus, three sodium ions are pumped out of the cell and two potassium ions are pumped into the cell against the electrochemical gradient. Endocytosis is where protiens/ions/minerals/etc are moving into the cell. Hint: endo means inward or in my case into. Exocytoses is when protiens/minerals/etc are exiting a cell.