1 Grammar-the study of principles that governs the formation and interpretation of words, phrases and sentences.

Morphology- how words are formed out of smaller units(morphemes)(formation) Syntax- ways in which words are combined together to form phrases and sentences(formation and interpretation)

Knowledge- tacit( subconsciousness, milczca-native speakers); explicit ( conscious) Competence- knowledge of the hearer- speaker language ( tacit knowledge-subconscious) Performance- the actual performance of language in concrete situation -> errorsmispronunciation and misproductions Grammar- study of grammar competence -> cognitive view of grammar, ( language as a cognitive system internalized in human brain/mind: I-language by Chomsky) Criterion of adequacy for grammar-> Descriptive adequacy- grammar of a given language is descriptively adequate if it correctly describes whether any given string of words in a language is grammatical or is not, and also describes what relevant interpretation the relevant string has. Theory of grammar- set of hypotheses about the nature of possible and impossible grammars of human languages( natural languages). Criteria-: Universality- is the sense that a theory of grammar should provide us with the tools needed to describe the grammar of any natural language adequately-> goal-> to create a theory of Universal Grammar (UG)! The criterion of explanatory adequacy explain why grammars have the properties they do Inflections- do not have s endings Restrictive- we want our theory to provide us with technical devices which are constrained in their expressive power that they can be only used to describe natural languages, not any other communication systems. Minimally complex- grammar should be that Learnability- it must provide grammars which are learnable by young children in relatively short period of time. Theory of the acquisition of grammar- how children acquire grammar of their native languages( By Chomsky of course) -By the age of12 months- first words,mama, dadda -Around 18 months of age- elementary two- words structures(do not make productive inflections) -By the age of 30 months- have acquired a wide range of different grammatical constructions; first signs of acquisition of grammar( productive use of inflections- plural forms,participles doing,); two and three words utterances- want Teddy, Dolly go bed.

- 30 months- rapid expansion in their grammatical development; acquire most inflections, produce adultlike sentences- Where is Mummy? What is daddy doing? Universal Grammars( by Chomsky) principles: Structure dependence principle- All grammatical operation are structure-dependent( grammatical operation apply to certain types of grammatical structures( gdzie verb,a gdzie noun, rules operate on categories not on numbers of words)-> John received a price. Did John receive a price? Parameter a dimension of grammatical variation between different languages or different varieties of the same language( the null subject parameter, head and wh-parameter) English is a non-null subject language! Overt(open)- otwarty, oczywisty Covert- nie jawny, null-subject a subject that has grammatical/semantic properties but no overt phonetic form. It denotes the null PRO subject-> in imperative clauses( Shut the door!); control structures (The prisoners tried to PRO escape from jail) A null subject language- that allows finite interrogative or declarative clauses to have a null pro subject. The null subject parameter- a dimension of grammatical variation between languages according to whether finite (declarative and interrogative) verbs allow null pro subject or not. Word order variations: Wh-parameter- the parameter which determines whether eh-expression can be fronted( moved to the front) or not. English a head-first language- head word- the key word in a phrase that determines the properties of the overall phrase);head parameter- the parameter which determines the relative positioning of heads with respect to their complement), can be only head-first or last<- binary set of possibilities Principle-and parameter theory of language PPT- theory that maintain that universal properties on natural language grammars reflects the operation of a set of universal grammatical principles, and the grammatical differences between languages can be characterized in terms of restricted set of parameters. By Chomsky naturlich 2 Categories A grammatical category- a class of expressions which share a common set of grammatical properties Morphosyntactic evidence for assigning words to different categories: Morphological: Inflectional properties-relate to different forms of the same word( cat, cats) Derivational properties- relate to the process by which a word can be used to form different kind of word by the addition of another morpheme( suffix,) Syntactic evidence for assigning words to categories essentially relates to the fact that different categories of words have different distributions( occupy a different range of position within phrases, sentences) Lexical categories- which have descriptive content)- verbs, adjectives, nouns, adverbs, prepositions. Functional categories- whose members lack descriptive content and serve to mark grammatical properties such as number, person, tense)- participles, auxiliaries, determiners, pronouns, complementizers. Adjectives- modify nouns( a real criticism) they are said to be attributive in function.

Adverbs- other expressions! Really nice/slowly/down/squirm( adjectives,adverb,preposition,verb)they are said to be predicative in function because they do not modify immediately following noun!!! Grammatical categories ( only 5!!!) Noun- N Adjective- A Preposition- P( with, down, up, on, off..) Verb-V Adverb-ADV They are called content words( contentives-so they have a descriptive content( if a word has a antonym so it is a content word!) Function words( funtors)-words which only carry information about the grammatical function of a particular type of expression within the sentence ( information about grammatical propertiesgender,person, case number) participles, auxiliaries, determiners, pronouns, complementizers. D-Determiners( Quantifying-all,some; referential-the,this,that,my, the car, my bike), articles, personal pronouns(him, her, he, she) Case form of a pronoun-the different case forms of a pronoun are the different forms which the pronoun has in different sentence positions. Nominative form- I,we, you,it,he, she;Objective(accusative) form- him, her,me, us, you, it, them, genitive->his, her, their, your,my,its,our. I/INFL- Infinitive to (the only complement it allows is one containing a verb)/ Auxiliary- they take verb expression as their complement and have the semantic function of marking grammatical properties associated with the relevant verb such as tense,aspect,voice,mood ,modality. Term used to describe items such as can,could,will, would,shall,should,may,might. They differ from typical lexical verbs for example because they undergo inversion! Complementizer- C/COMP; Cp-( that, if , for) 3 Structure Projection- a constituent that is an expansion of a head word Merger- an operation by which two words are combined together to form a larger category( help you-verb phrase, verb is a head, you its complement) I z barem- an incomplete auxiliary expression Constituent-a structural unit, a component of a phrase or sentence(straight touch-straight(adverb), touch (noun) Constituent structure-(phrase structure or syntactic ) the set of constituent which the expression contains. ( usually represented in tree diagram or labeled bracketing) Categorial constituent structure-it tells us how the sentence is structured out of constituents and what category each constituent belong to. ( to drzewko gdzie wszystko jest rozrysowane- ono provide us only with grammatical information!) Grammatical properties przez te head complent I specifire features Head features-describe their intrinsic (wewntrzny, podstawowy) grammatical properties Complement-features- which describe the kind of complement they take Specifier-feature- describe the kind of specifier/ subject they can have Mass nouns, noncount nouns- furniture, advice- cannot be counted

Structural representation of a sentence PF representation-Phonetic form- how a sentence is pronounced LF representation-logical form- describe linguistic aspects of its meaning; grammatical features can be interpretable( by virtue of having semantic content), uninterpretable( no semantic conent) so the LF-representations may contain only(semantically) interpretable features. Derivation converge(at LF) if it gives rise to an LF-representation containing one or more(sematically) interpretable features, derivation crash at LF when the corresponding sentence is ill formed. Grammatical features can be checked in the course of derivation, the uninterpretable features are erased once checked???? Theory of feature checking (Chomsky) case and verb inflection-uninterruptable! She has gone ( sprawdzamy only grammatical features!,not phonetic and semantic) Head features- She(3rd pers.sing.nominative,feminie), has (present tense), gone( n-participle) Has(its specifier features required 3rd pers sing, nominative subject) and its complement features required a complement headed by a verb in n-participle form. Since she and gone do not have any specifier and complement we can assume that in the relevant uses their head and complement features specify that they can be used without any specifier or complement. Gender,person, number, tense-iinterpretable, case uninterpretable!!! Potem je sprawdzamy (specifier features of a head must be checked against the head-features of its specifier, and complement features of a head must be checked against head features of its complement, I jak si co powtarza when there is a match, we to erase it.( because specifier and complement features are uninterpretable)

The principle of full interpretation by Chomsky-says that LF-representations should only contain semantically interpretable features. Anaphor-an expression (like himself) which cannot have independent reference, but which must take its reference from an antecedent( expression which it refers to) within the same phrase or sentence. John cut himself shaving. C-command condition on binding(constituent command)- is a condition to the effect that a bound constituent must be c-commanded by an appropriate antecedent; c-command it is a structural relation between 2 constituents.

4. Empty categories Empty categories- (covert= null)- categories which have no overt phonetic form, and hence which are inaudible or silent. They play a central role in the theory of grammar. Other constituent we have discussed so far in a given structure are overt( jasne, otwarte, oczywiste) 1) We would like [ you to stay] both bracketed infinitive complements 2) We would like [to stay] 1 contain an overt( italicized) subject. 2 appears to be subjectless. However , we shall argue that apparently subjectless infinitive clauses contain an understood null subject( it has no overt phonetic form and so is silent). It has the same grammatical and referential properties as pronouns- PRO. English is not a null subject language. The fact that it allows infinitives to have null subjects does not make it such language because such languages allow finite clauses to have a null subject! Null subject PRO is controlled by ( and refers back to) the subject we , or equivalently, we is the controller or antecedent of PRO. Verbs (such as like) which allow infinitive complement with a PRO subject are said to function as CONTROL VERBS. Putting PRO is semantic in nature. In traditional grammar it is claimed that subjectless infinitive clauses have an understood or implicit subject- and positing a PRO subject is one way of capturing the relevant intuition. The implicit subject becomes explicit if the relevant clauses are paraphrased by a finite clause . Examples: I am sorry [to have kept you waiting] covert I am sorry [I have kept you waiting]. overt

Local antecedent an antecedent contained within the same [ bracketed] clause as the reflexive ( zwrotny). They want [John to help himself] They want [John to help themselves] ungrammatical because themselves does not have a local antecedent. John wants [PRO to prove himself] it is grammatically correct when we assume that the bracketed complement clause has a PRO subject, and that PRO is the antecedent of himself. There is no local antecedent but it is correct so we put PRO.Since PRO in turn is controlled by JOHN ( John is the antecedent of PRO), this means that himself is coreferential to ( refers to the same person as) John. Conclusion: We like you to stay- you is an overt subject , objective case, it can be substituted by an objective pronoun like him/ them. Chomsky and Lasnik suggest that PRO carries null case, and that case is checked by infinitive to. It implies that infinitival to carries a null-case specifier feature( indicating that that it requires a PRO subject with null case) which is checked against the null-case-head-feature of PRO. o The case of an objective subject is externally checked (from outside IP) by an immediately preceding transitive verb(be, become) or a transitive complementizer.Exceptional casemarking(ECM) Since it is exceptional for a subject to have case externally checked from outside containing IP, the relevant phenomenon is generally known as ECM. An infinitive complement with an objective subject is referred to as an ECM complement, and verb which selects an infinitive complement with an objective subject is referred to as an ECM verb( I believe him to be innocent) He could have seen he, or [she have seen him.]- she have is an infinitive form because there should be has to be finite) . He could contain a finite auxiliary. The string she have seen him is elliptical variant of she could have seen him, and that the I constituent could undergoes head ellipsis ( alias gapping)in the second clause. Ellipsis- a process by which constituent ( in this case could) is a given a null phonetic form, but retains its grammatical and semantic properties( so that e is a silent counterpart of could). A process by which an expression is omitted in order to avoid repetition. ( I will do it if you will( we can omit do it) Example:

Cliticization- a process by which one word attaches itself in a leechlike fashion to another Youve. When one word attaches to another word.

Percolation- an operation (also known as attraction) by which a feature which is attached to one category comes to be attached to another category higher in the structure. Attraction-movement of a set of features from one category position to another. DP hypothesis-the hypothesis that all nominals are D projections -> the president is a DP headed by the, politicians is a DP headed by a null determiner.( nominal-an expression headed by a noun)

Predicative nominal- noun containing expressions used as a complement of a linking verb (be, become, remain) -> John was my best friend. 5 Head movement HM operation that involve movement from one head position to another. I-to-C movementmovement of a verb out of a head I position of IP into the head C position of CP.(auciliary) If you will marry me

Will you marry me. Empty category- a category which is covert; E.C includes traces,, the null pronouns PRO .When auxiliaries move from I to C it leaves a trace!

Trace is an empty category left behind as a result of movement in each position out of which a constituent moves. Trace theory-a theory which posits that the moved constituent s leave behind a trace in each position out of which it moves. Chain- a set of one or more constituents comprising an

expression and any traces associated with it. The foot of a movement is the rightmost constituent in the chain. Chomsky says that COMP in an interrogative clause is a strong head and strong head and strong heads has to be filled. INFL are weak so can be left unfilled .example They know him

Do they know him?<- do cannot be directly generated in COMP here because it requires a VP complement, and will only have a VP complement if it originates in INFL. Chomsky suggest that dummy do to be used as a last resort- only when needed in order to satisfy some grammatical requirements which would not otherwise be satisfied. This last resort condition follows from a more general economy principle a principle that requires that syntactic representations should contain as few constituents and syntactic derivations and involve as few grammatical operations as possible. Last resort principle- the principle that grammatical operations do not apply unless they have to as to the only way of satisfying some grammatical requirements. Adjacency conditions- a condition requiring that two expressions must be immediately adjacent in order to cliticize( for some operations to apply) want+ to= wanna-> I want to clean- I wanna clean BUT! I want you to clean= I wanna you to clean niemoliwe!!! V-movement- V to I movement-an operation by which a finite verb moves from V to INFL (early modern English) Didist thou not hear anybody?

He heard not that.

Both V-to-I and I-to-C movement are local operations, which means that the moved head being moved to the into the head position in the next-highest phrase within the structure!!!So we can suppose that their locality property is not accidental and rather reflects the operations of some principle of Universal Grammar. Relevant principle is the Head movement constraint (HMC) a constraint which amounts to the requirement that a moved head can only move into the head position in the next highest phrase immediately containing it. Furthermore in both casesc-command condition on binding is satisfied when movement is from lower to higher position and so results in a structure in which the moved head c-commands its trace??? Know you not the case?

Checking theory- in this theory words carry grammatical features which have to be checked in the course of derivation. 6 Operator movement OM-movement of an operator expression into spec-CP ( into the specifier position within CP) Operator-interrogative( or wh-operator) and negative expressions . What languages can you speak?

Who have they arrested?

Landing site- the landing site for a moved constituent is the positon it ends up in after it has been moved(the specifier position within CP is the landing-site for a moved operator expression) Principle of enlightened self-interest- says that constituent moves in order to satisfy the morphological requirements of the other constituent( auxiliaries undergo inversion in questions like can you help me? Because COMP contains a Q affix which needs a head to attach to) the theory specifies that constituent move in order to check features carried by other constituents , so the movement is motivated by altruism What was he doing? Greed theory- constituents move only in order to satisfy their own morphological requirements.

Who do you think will say what?

Zdanie jak what do you think who will say? Jest ze bo we wczesniejszym zdaniu who is closer to COMP that what and economy considersations favour shorter movements over longer ones! Principle of shortest movements- formation of movement chains with minimal (shortest possible)

links, the relevant principle is also referred to as the minimal link condition (minimality conditionlinks in the movement chains as short as possible) Pied-piping- a process by which a moved constituent (or set of features) along with it when it moves. For example if we compare to sentences like Who were you talking to? And To whom were you talking? We might say that in both cases the pronoun who(m) is moved to the front of the sentence , but that in the second sentence the preposition to is pied-piped along with whom. Which film did you see?? Chain uniformity principle-a principle of UG requiring that a movement chain should be uniform in respect of its phrase structure status.

Who were you talking to?

Stranded- or orphaned preposition is one which has been separated from its complement ( by movement of complement) Who were you talking to? To Is stranded because is separated from its complement who( which has been moved to the front of the sencence) Who helped him? Pytanie o podmiot!!!

Yes no questions!- is it raining??? They contain an abstract question operator of some kind which is directly generated in spec-CP ( which is positioned in spec-CP by merger rather than movement). OP-a symbol used to denote an empty question operator found in yes no questions. Like, do you enjoy syntax?

7 Subject Subject originate in the specifier position within VP, and are subsequently raised to spec-IP for checking purposes by a movement operation known as subject raising. There is someone knocking at the door.

Someone is knocking at the door. Subject-to-subject raisng(subject raising). VP-internal subject hypothesis- the hypothesis that subject originate internally within VP.

We want to help you. PRO!!!

They are both helping her. We can all work harder. You will each receive a present.

All hell will break loose.

Propositions( semantic counterpart of simple clauses) comprise a predicate( expression denoting an activity or event) and a set of arguments( expression denoting a participant in the relevant activity or event). E.g. One of the prisoners died, A member of the audience yawned, <- here we have one each of the verbs has a single argument ( one of the prisoners I a member of the audience) so it is said to function as ONE PLACE PREDICATE.

The police arrested the suspect.- two place predicate John got Mary a present- three-place predicate We may say that arguments of a verb are its subject and complement. Since the complements of verbs are positioned inside V-bar whereas their subject are positioned outside V-bar( they originate in spec-VP and typically raise to spec-IP) complement are said to be internal arguments and subjects external arguments. The police( is the subject hence the external argument of arrested) arrested the suspect( the complement and hence the internalargument of the predicate arrested). Saemantic roles(thematic roles,theta role)- the semantic role played by an argument in relation to its predicate Theme/Patient- entity undergoing the effect of some action John fell over Agent/Causer- Instigator of some action John killed Mary Experiencer- entity experiencing sth John felt happy Recipient/PossessorJohn got Mary a present Goal-entity towards which something moves John went home Theta-criterion/ -criterion- A principle of UG which specifies that each argument bears one and only one theta-role, and each theta-role is assigned to one and only one argument. Verbs directly theta-mark their complements, but indirectly theta-mark their subject!!! He throw the ball. He will throw the ball.

Predication principle- says that a predicate requires a subject 8 A movement The men do all seem to understand the situation.<- subject to subject raising ; seem-czasownik typu raising!!!

Control verbs( try) She will try to help her. [ She will try to PRO help her]

Raising verbs ( tend, came, have, fail, appear) allow a dummy subject like there, whereas control ( decide) verbs do not! Gdy da si z niemylcym to bdzie rasing! MY goldfish tried, my computer failed etc.With entities of irrational thought ( goldfish ) Passivization-a movement operation whereby the complement of a verb becomes its subject( the jewels were stolen, they stole the jewels; the students were arrested, they arrested the students) The students were arrested. The students originates as the complement of arrested!!! Then undergo passivization!( a movement from being complement of the passiveparticiple arrested to becoming its subject)

There were several students arrested

He is thought to admire her.

Uniform theta assignment hypothesis (UTAH)- this hypothesis maintains that each theta role assigned by a particular type of predicate is canonically associated with a specific syntactic position. Absorption- a passive participle Is said to absorb the theta-role which a verb would otherwise assign to its subject( thereby dethematizing the subject) and to absorb the objective case which a transitive verb would otherwise assign to its object.

Steal- 2 theme subjects-kto co moe steal and co moe byc stolen. The jewels were stolen.

He was seen.

9 VP-shells Shell- this term is used in connection with the idea that verb phrases comprise two different projections, an outer vp shell headed by a light verb( an affixal verb(often with causative sense like that of make) to which a noun, adjective or verb adjoins), and an inner VP core headed by a lexical verb. Some arguments originate within the outer vp shell, whereas other arguments within the inner VP> We rolled the ball down the hill.

What decided you to take syntax

There came a cry of anguish from inside the house.

A cry of anguish came from the inside the house.

I would like to visit my relatives

10 Agrrement projections The crew handed back the passengers their passports