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THE MORALS OF SUICIDE

VOLUME
11.

BY THE SAME AUTHOR

THE MORALS OF SUICIDE

VOL.
I.

Crown

Szw, 6s.

LONGMANS, GREEN, AND

LONDON,

CO.

NEW

YORK,

AND BOMBAY

THE MORALS OF SUICIDE

CONTAINING

Part

I.

REVIEWS AND FURTHER STATISTICS

II.

Part

AN ESSAY ON PERSONALITY

BY

REV.

GURNHILL,

B.A.

SCHOLAR AND MORAL SCIE^B PRIZEMAN OF EMMANUEL COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE

AUTHOR OF "a COMPANION TO THE PSALTER," "MONOGRAPH ON THE

GAINSBOROUGH PARISH REGISTERS," ETC.

" Dark
For
is

is

the world to thee

thyself art the reason

why.

He

not

all

but thou, that hast power to

Tlie

feel, I

am

I ?

"

Higher Pantheism (Tennyson).

VOLUME

II.

LONGMANS, GREEN, AND

39

CO-

PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON NEW YORK AND BOMBAY

1902
All rights reserved

PREFACE TO VOL.
Whatever
else I

II.

may have
first

to complain

of,

cannot complain that the

volume of
failed

my book
attract

on The Morals of Suicide has

attention.

to

Not only

in

England and Scotland

in the

has

it

been extensively reviewed, but also

in

United States,

India and Australia.

Apart

altogether from the very diverse character of these

reviews,

of

which

shall

speak later

on,
is

this

proves that the importance of the subject

recognized.
say,

fully

So
I

far so good.

And
I

hardly need

that had

not been deeply and even painfully

its

impressed with

importance,

should

never

have essayed to write on a subject so naturally

uninviting.

Perhaps there

is

none which brings

the

us into closer touch with the weaknesses, wants, the

sin,

the misery, and,

may

add, the

misfortunes of mankind than

considering and investigating

this.
it

We

seem

in

to lay our finger

vi

PREFACE.
social body.

Upon the pulse of the great

it,
if,

We
;

feel

so to speak, throbbing beneath our touch

like the physician of bodily ailments,

and

we have

any powers of

diagnosis,

we ought

to be able to

gain some insight into the patient's condition, and

some knowledge
suffering.

of the disease from which he

is

is

Truly there

scarcely a

malady of
its

body, mind, or soul which does not contribute

quotum

to the death-roll of suicide.

And

if

my

book has been the means of directing the attention of thoughtful philanthropic

men and
fresh

social
I

reformers to a subject so grave and important,

ought to be thankful, however

little

light
it.

my own
And
I

labours

may have thrown around

;

am

thankful

for I

cannot but believe that

will

others, far wiser

and more able than myself,

be prompted

to

come to the
to

rescue,

and consider

what can be done

causes and social

mitigate or remove those

evils

of which suicide

is

at once

the index and the outcome.

Reviewers on the staff of journals, which rank

amongst the highest

science,
ful

in

the land,

in

literature,

and philosophy, have given me a thoughtI

and dispassionate hearing.

do not doubt for

in

moment they

are gentlemen

fit

every sense


PREFACE.
for the lofty position they
fill,

vii

and the arduous and

critics,

responsible duties which, as

they have to

perform.
to

And

desire before going a step further

all,

tender them, one and

my

sincere

and

respectful thanks.

Whatever the nature of

their criticisms
all

and
agree
are

it

would be absurd to expect they should

I

do not doubt that those

criticisms
I

the

expression of genuine conviction.

are
all in

suppose

we

quest of truth, and honest criticism, even

is

though

severe,

not a thing to be deprecated,

it

because, like the winnowing blast,

separates the

corn from the chaff.

And,

truly, the critiques

which have appeared

have not only been numerous, but well-nigh as

varied as
praise

numerous.
is

Almost every degree of

to be found

and censure

amongst them.

Indeed, they would afford ample material for a

study of mental idiosyncrasy, did

care to put
it

them

to such a purpose

and

confess

has both
the

amused and astonished me

work should have

to find

how

same

called forth views

and opinions
critics I

so widely divergent.

By some
lie

of

my

am
side

accused of opening the door to too

issues,

many

which seemed to

outside the legitimate

viii

PREFACE.

scope of inquiry.
viewer charges

And

the Church Quarterly re-

me

with bringing myself and

my
I

readers into deep waters.

There

is

some

truth,

perhaps, in both these accusations.

In reply,

would merely say at

this point, that the subject is

so many-sided, and so intimately

various aspects of
it is

bound up with

human

life

and experience, that

extremely

difficult to

say what side issues are

not more or less pertinent to the thorough investigation of

bility
it.

For example, the sense of Responsi-

has a very close bearing on suicide.

But

Responsibility involves the consideration of Personality, without

which

it

cannot be said to

exist.

Here, then, at once,

into deep water.

we

are necessarily brought

it
is,

The
I

worst of

that in the

present volume
critics

cannot promise

my
shall

readers or

a return to the calmer waters and shallower

depths of ascertained truth.

a voyage of discovery.

We
I

still

be on

But

ask them not to for-

sake me, but keeping open " the weather eye " of
a healthy and impartial criticism, assist in making

some addition to our stock of human knowledge

and happiness.
I

have ventured,

know,

to

handle great subjects and

difficult ones,

and

in so

doing

have exposed myself to the criticism of

PREFACE.
men who
are

ix

probably

more conversant with

them, and better able to deal with them than myself.

humbly apologize
in

for

my

presumption, and

whether

some points

am

right or

beg them at

least to believe that I

my critics, I am actuated

by one motive
humanity.

only, to

promote the welfare of

The Essay on
Argument
or implied

Personality

may

be called the

for a Personal Prius as

in,

deduced from,

Christian Theology and Metaphysic.

And

it

will

be seen from the footnotes to how

large an extent I have endeavoured to strengthen

my

position

by extracts from Professor Ward's

in

Naturalism and Agnosticism,

the same subject
is

which practically

treated

from a

somewhat

different standpoint, but in

which the same con-

clusion

is

arrived

at.
it

And

now, perhaps,

will

be asked.

What

is

the

end and object to be gained by

this dissertation

on Personality

.''

The importance

of

the subject was

brought

home

to

me by

Schopenhauer's dictum of "the

unassailable right " of a

man

to destroy himself if
licet

he chooses.
certainly, if

Cui non

libet

vivere

mori.

And

there be no personality other and

PREFACE.
I

higher than his own,

do not see how

this right

can be denied him.

to try

My

original object, then,

was

and deepen the sense of responsibility which

life,

attaches to
its

by a more
origin,

careful investigation of

most probable

and the obligations and

conditions which that origin implies.

This, as
it

seemed

to me, could not

be done

without an effort to show the connection which

must ever

exist

between Metaphysic and Religion

on the one

hand,

and between Religion For Metaphysic

is

and
the

Morality on the other.

attempt to discover a theory of the Universe acceptable to reason and philosophy.

is

And

Religion

the

same theory translated

in

into popular language,

and clothed

the form and raiment of worship.

intelligence,

It is truth as

an object of reason and

when
ment.
in
its

it

becomes the subject of

faith

and

senti-

And

Morality

is

the product of Religion

practical effect

on character and conduct.

basis
is, it,

What
the

the metaphysical

such will

be

Religion which expresses

and what the

is

Religion, such the Morality.

But truth

one,

though many-sided.
the
true Morality

And

the true Religion and

justify

must also be able to

themselves when subjected to the metaphysical

test.

PREFACE.

xi

My

aim has not been to prove the truth of

it

the Christian Religion, but to show that

rests

upon, and

is

the

expression
intelligible

of,

Metaphysic

which presents an
of the
facts

and reasonable view

and phenomena of the Universe,

spiritual,

whether material or
moral.
I

whether mental or

have endeavoured to show, however

is

imperfectly, that there

a Christian Metaphysic

as well as a Christian Religion,

exists between the

and that there

two a harmony and consistency

which strengthens both, and affords a strong presumption that both

are
true.

Lastly,
is

have

sought to prove that Personality

principle

the essential

which underlies them both, which renders

intelligible,

them both

and without which neither

could exist.

From
bility.

Personality springs the sense of responsiIf

Metaphysic expresses

itself in religion,

and

religion begets its corresponding morality in

;

character and conduct

sonality as propounded

so,

if

the theory of Per-

by the Christian system of

true,

Metaphysic and Religion be

then

my own
by
its

personality at once becomes conditioned

relation to other personalities,

and

chiefly to that
it

Supreme Personality from

Whom

springs.

xii

PREFACE.
not an isolated personal unit, coming
I I

am

know

not whence, going

know

not whither, without

purpose, without end, the product of blind fortuity.

I

am

not free to do what

I like

with myself.

am

not an irresponsible agent, and Schopenhauer's

contention of man's "unassailable right" to destroy
himself, if he be so minded,

becomes

in the highest

degree immoral and untenable.

CONTENTS OF
PART
I.

VOL.

II.

CHAPTER
Spectator

I.

REVIEW OF PRESS NOTICES AND CRITIQUES.

Independent (N. York) Church Review Western Morning News Literary World Daily Chronicle James's Gazette New York Times Review of the WeekSaturday ReviewLiverpool Daily PostBritish Press Indian Medical Journal Lancet Medical Church Quarterly Review Critic (N. York) Globe DemocratAmerican Ecclesiastical Review Church
Advocate London Quarterly Review

Christian

PAGE

St.

Quarterly Review

CHAPTER
FURTHER
I.

IL

STATISTICS OF SUICIDE.

In England and Wales. In the United States 37

II.

PART
SECTION

II.

P ERSONALITV.
I.

Personality Definition The a priori and a posterion views In the Hegelian System The in Aristotle's Metaphysic

CONTENTS.
higher Pantheism

The

Formula

The

PAGE

Logic of

Hegel contrasted with Christian Metaphysic

attempt to reconcile the two

Hegel's
6i

SECTION
PERSONALITY CONSIDERED ON

II.

"A

POSTERIORI" GROUNDS.

The a

view Mr. lUingworth on Personality Inferences from this view of the subject, and Summary.
posteriori
.

8i

SECTION

III.

PERSONALITY IN THE CHRISTIAN SYSTEM OF METAPHYSIC AND RELIGION.

Three propositions
I.

The

Prius of all things

is

a Self-conscious personal

Unity.
II.

Self-manifesting
((t)

by
(rf)

(a) Generation,

(li)

Creation,

Immanence,

Incarnation.

HI.

Self-reconciling.

First Proposition.

The Prius a Self-conscious Personal Unity.

Second Proposition. The Christian Prius Self-manifesting by (a) Generation, (b) Creation What is Life ? Mr.
Spencer's definition
tion of the Prius

The birth of the

()

Soul

Manifesta
it.

Manifestation
Not The

by

Immanence

Homo

speculum Dei

of the Prius through (d) Incarnation considered improbable in non-Christian systems

Christian Incarnation

The argument

for

Third Proposition. The Christian Prius a Self-reconciling Unity Dualism Differences and their reconciliation The mystery of sin Hegel's triadic law illustrated in Christian Metaphysic Reconciliation of wills through

the Incarnation

87

CONTENTS.
SECTION
TOLSTOY.
FAG
[a)

IV.

PERSONALITY IN OTHER SYSTEMS

SPENCER,

WUNDT,

Schopenhauer's Thelology, impersonal and untenable (b) Comte's "Religion of Humanity" (c) Spencer's " Persistent Force " Logical inference ignored Correspondence between internal and external relations Deduction from the foregoing Professor Wundt on

Personality the expression and measure of psychical endowment Comparative Psychology Stages of growth Count Leo Tolstoy
Personality

13

SECTION

V.

MATERIALISTIC MONISM AND PERSONALITY.

Monism and

Personality "Matter moving" Vital Force? Protoplasm Professor Dolbear's definition The problem to be solved Subject and Object Two observations Professor Wundt and human progress^ Phenomena and Noumena Paul Professor Bain's
St.

Hypothesis incompatible with Monism

164

SECTION

VI.

PERSONALITY AND THE MECHANICAL THEORY OF NATURALISM.

ConsePsycho-physical Parallelism and Epi-phenomena quences of the Mechanical Theory in regard to Personality,

Morality, and Religion

184

SECTION
BEAUTY

VII.

IN RELATION TO PERSONALITY.

What

is

beauty?

Quantitative

and

qualitative

analysis

Origin of the ^Esthetic Faculty

The

evidential value

xvi

CONTENTS.
and witness of beauty
of beauty

The

The functions of

beauty

Cliristian Ideal

Beauty teleologic
VIII.

Ideals
. .

PACE
191

SECTION

EERSONALITY AND RESPONSIBILITY.

Hegel,
Spencer, and Comte Altruism The Incarnation, and the Fatherhood of God as the source of human
responsibility

The brotherhood of Man Conclusion

207

PART

I.

REVIEWS AND FURTHER STATISTICS

CHAPTER

I.

REVIEW OF PRESS NOTICES AND CRITIQUES.

Spectator

(N. London Western Morning News Literary World Daily Chronicle James's Gazette New York Times Review of the Week Saturday Review Liverpool Daily Post Medical Journal Lancet Medical Press Indian Church Quarterly Review (N. York) Globe Democrat American Review

Christian

Advocate

Independent

Yorli)

Quarterly

Review Church Review

St.

British

Critic

Ecclesiastical

Church Quarterly Review.

WISH

it

to be understood that in this review I

am

not so

much concerned about defending

myself,

as in

examining the views and statements of

my
by

critics.

My

object will be rather to profit

it.

criticism than to refute

shall consider the

notices pretty

much

in the order I

have received
of them, being

them
little

and, I

may

add, that

many

more than a summary of

contents,

do not

present

much
The

to call forth

any remarks.
26, 1901.

Spectator,

January
allow

The Reviewer must

sincerely
for
his

me

to thank

him

appreciative

and

favourable

VOL.

II.

B 2

THE MORALS OF
I

SUICIDE.
;

critique.

only wish
bear

it

were better deserved

but

if

my

labours
I

fruit in

the direction he
re-

prognosticates,
paid.

shall feel to

be abundantly

To be
is "

told,

on so high an authority, that

my

book

very valuable for the statistical and

it

other information that

supplies as to the growth

of suicide and insanity in the world, and as to the

relations

between them and certain

is

social evils, of

which the chief

intemperance,"
I

is

a compliment,

of which I am, as
I

ought to

be, deeply sensible.

have been accused by one of

my

critics (the

Lancet) of want of sympathy for those

who
life."

find
It

themselves " cornered

is,

in

the battle of

therefore,

an intense
others,

relief to find that, in

is

the

judgment of
worthy and

whose opinion

equally trustfull

valuable, " the

book

is

so

of faith

and hope and

charity, of wise counsel

it

and tender

sympathy, that

cannot

fail

to be of ethical as well

as of psychological and sociological importance."

The Christian Advocate and Independent,

New York
The
lay

City.

notices which appeared in these journals

me

under a debt of gratitude.

My
I

book, I

am

sure, is in

many

respects far from being " an

admirable one."

On

the contrary,

am

fully

REVIEW OF NOTICES AND

conscious
indeed,
tive,

CRITIQUES.
But

of

its

many

imperfections.
" stimulating

if,

it is

found to be

and sugges-

and containing a great deal of information,"

is

that

enough

for

me.

And
"

heartily

do

re-echo

the wish of one of

of warning

my kindly critics, that my words

could
fall

and advice

under the eye

of

many who
it is

stand at the parting of the ways

before

too late."

God

help thee,
thine.

my

brother

My

sympathy and prayers are

The London Quarterly Review,

July, 1900.
"

The

writer

objects

to

the

term

Christian

Socialism," which he thinks would be better de-

scribed as " Christian Altruism."

But

would

reply that, though Altruism

features

is

one of the leading

it

of

Christian

Socialism,

does

not

adequately express the objects or the work of

the

Christian Social Union.

Even

Morselli and

the

Comtists, with Mr. Harrison as their chief

in this country, are Altruists.

exponent
Christian

But the
in

Social

Union

has

its

origin

the

recognition of the Fatherhood of

God

as revealing
is

the Brotherhood of man. And

its

object

to secure

the acknowledgment of -Christ as "the ultimate

authority " in
all

the manifold relationships and

life.

activities of social

notice with pleasure

my

THE MORALS OF

SUICIDE.
if

critic's

admission, that "the remedy,

efifective.

indirect,

would undoubtedly be

The

universal

keeping of the golden rule would prevent most

of the conditions out of which the crime of self-

murder grows."

This
is

is

all I

contend

for.

The
and

aim of the Union

department of
principles

to leaven every class

social life

and industry with the

and precepts of Christianity.

By

so
life

doing
for

it

hopes to ameliorate the conditions of

classes

all

of the

community down to the

renders
life

lowest.

For, while education

more

attractive to the kvi,

and opens out fresh avenues

of employment to those of
it, it

who can

avail themselves

seems to do
life for

little

towards improving the

In spite of our
for
life
is

conditions of
increasing

the masses.
the

civilization,

struggle
is

perhaps keener than ever, as

shown by the

increasing death-rate through suicide,

Mr.
there

W. W. Westcott, while fully admitting that are many proximate causes which result in

self-destruction, says
" I should add that in modern times it is the high pressure at which we live, the difficulty of obtaining a livelihood, and the forced education of the young, which fills our asylums and swells our voluntary death-rate." '
'

Suicide, p. 143.

REVIEW OF NOTICES AND

CRITIQUES.

The Church Review.

The
them

writer refers to the subjects of Physiological

Psychology, and Betting and Gambling.

has,

Each of
on

doubtless,

an important

bearing

suicide.

more

fitting place for

a few further
in

remarks on the

first will

be found

the chapters
I

on Personality and Responsibility, but what

have to add to

my

note on Betting and Gambling

may

as well be said

now

as later on.

The
It is

terrible increase in this habit is

one of the
social
life.

most distressing features of our modern

thus that

some of our judges have alluded

to

it

:
justice

Mr.

Grantham says

"

Gambling with

book-makers is the cause of more crime and misery than anything else in the land." Mr. Justice Wills : " When I first came upon the Bench I used to think drink was the most
fruitful

cause of crime, but

are not a

it

is

now a
for

question

whether the unlimited

speculation
.
.

facilities

illegitimate

more prevalent source

of mischief and crime even than drink."

" It

Sir James Vaugltan (Bow Street magistrate) is sapping the vitals of the nation."

In an appeal put forth by the National Anti-

Gambling League in

1900, urging on Local Govern-

ment

authorities

the

adoption

of

the

by-law

THE MORALS OF
street-betting,
is it

SUICIDEis

forbidding

stated

that this
less

pernicious habit
fifty suicides

responsible for no

than

and embezzlements, and thirty bank-

ruptcies during the past six

alone.

months

in

England

At

the time

am

writing this, a Select

Com-

mittee of the

House

of Lords

is

sitting for the

purpose of taking evidence as to the growth of

betting.

Mr.

I.

Hawke, Secretary of the Anticalled

Gambling League, when

evidence,
as to

upon

to

give

made some sad and

in

startling disclosures

the increasing prevalence of betting and

gambling

almost every class of the community,

It

from the highest to the lowest.

was spreading

amongst postal telegraphists and

public servants.
to

civil

and other

"In the

5J

years from May, 1896,

May,

1901, there

had been clearly traceable to

betting, 80 suicides, 320 embezzlements,

and 191 was

in

bankruptcies."

More

drastic
It
is

legislation

every

way

desirable.

much

to

be wished

that, as a result of the present inquiry, a Bill will

be passed to repress the growth of

evil,

this great social

its

which, as

we

see so frequently, leads

victims

to self-destruction.

CRITIQUES.
9

REVIEW OF NOTICES AND

The Western Morning News.

The

writer

has

very accurately gauged

the

purpose and scope of

passages
:

my

book

in

the following

"The psychology of the materialistic scientist man to an automaton, the psychology of 'the greater hope' finds in human personality a
reduces
corresponding, but infinitely greater, Personality

behind the

veil of the flesh."

And

again

" Indeed, the

main value of the

treatise lies in

this solid appreciation of the fact that religion

and

morality must
progress,

work hand-in-hand

with

social

if evils

of the nature of suicide are to

be stamped

out."

The Literary World.

There
is

great truth and value in the follow-

ing remark.

Would
!

that

we might

see

it

more

generally exemplified
"

There are, of course, many cases of suicide which cannot be remedied, for which, in fact, there but there are many more where a is no remedy
;

little

kindness, a

little

practical help, or a little

friendly counsel

crisis,

would have tided over what seemed and showed life again not at all hopeless

or impossible."


10

SUICIDE.

THE MORALS OF
The Daily
I

Chronicle.

fear

there

is
:

only too

much

truth

in

the

following remark

" The crime (of suicide) for such it is reckoned by our law is becoming more frequent, because a belief that there is no conscious life beyond is also becoming more common, though not perhaps

among

the most thoughtful people."

critic finds
"

My
" In

fault

with

my

quotation

from
point

Memoriam

on the

title-page.

Let

me

out that he has failed to grasp

principle,
" Life

my

meaning.
in

The
of
the
life.

which

is

writ so large
is

Nature,
true
in

through

death,"

equally

department of man's moral

and

spiritual

Only through the

animal passions
is

mortification

of

the

lower

the soul set free to soar into

the higher and purer atmosphere of spiritual light

and
a

liberty.

It

is

only by victory over self that

man
its

can escape those causes

;

and conditions
which rob
flee
life

which degrade and enslave him

of
zest

and

nobility,

and lead him to

from

the evils which encompass him

destruction.

by the

act of self-

Surely such a victory as this

may

well be described in Tennyson's beautiful lines

" That men may rise on stepping-stones Of their dead selves to higher things."


REVIEW OF NOTICES AND
Again says

CRITIQUES,

ii

my

critic

" There are quaint, but wholly irrelevant notes on Philology."

If

they are
say.

irrelevant,

then

have

nothing
are.
tell.

more to

But

cannot admit that they

;

Words

are like fossils

they have a tale to

And
light

just as the crust of the earth

its

contains the

record of

past history, so language throws

on the origin and progress of human thought.

are

Words
more.
their

more than empty sounds, conventional

tokens useful for the transfer of ideas, but nothing

If

we can

read them aright, and get at

full

radical

meaning,
toil
:

often they, too, will

amply repay the

primitive
stand.

for they will disclose the

ideas

of

the
it is,

things

for

which

they

And

certain

that a knowledge of the

is

names and terms we use

for accurate

absolutely necessary

thought.

apologize for alluding,

even in self-defence, to truths so obvious.

St. James's Gazette.

Reference
usually passed

is

made

to

the

form

of

verdict

by

coroners' juries.

" Mr. Gurnhill is right, we think, when he says some good might result, if attempts at suicide were more rigorously dealt with by magistrates."

12

THE MORALS OF

SUICIDE.

The testimony of Mr. W. W. Westcott, DeputyCoroner for Central

Middlesex, on
this

point

ought to carry weight.

"I cannot refrain from saying, that both law and custom with respect to suicide are in a very unsatisfactory and anomalous state. On the one hand, self-murder is ranked by the law as a felony, one of the worst of crimes on the other hand, hardly one suicide a year is called a felon. Suicide is not in law any proof of the existence of insanity, yet no sooner is the suicide quite dead, than almost every one cries out that he was insane. Again, an attempt at suicide is a misdemeanour punishable by imprisonment, yet a person caught in the act and taken before the magistrates is generally dismissed from custody, not because of insanity, certainly not, because if that were the plea he would be sent to an asylum, and not set free but let the culprit presently die from a cause dependent on the suicidal injury, and the verdict will be that he was insane. Surely such incongruities cannot be
;

allowed to exist

much

longer."

New
The
is

York Times.
in this journal

critique

which appeared

both
to

appreciative and discriminating,

offer the
'

and

beg

writer
by

my

best thanks.

With

Suicide,

W. W.

Westcott, p. 160.


REVIEW OF NOTICES AND
am
in

CRITIQUES.

13

regard to the increase of suicide in the United

States, I

glad to say that the figures which

the Chicago

appeared

Tribune

namely, from

987

in the

year 1885 to 5750 in 1895

appear to

be much exaggerated.
tion I

For more

reliable informa-

now refer my

readers to Chap. IL, containing

further statistics in the United States.

Review of
"

the

Week.

The

chapters in the book are of somewhat

like dis-

unequal merit, and in some cases we should e.g. in the to have seen fuller treatment

But our verdict that the work

cussion of Personality.

this in
is

no way impairs
bearing

a valuable contrisociology,

bution

to

the

literature

of

evidences of serious thought."

The

subject of Personality

is

one

'of great

im-

portance in relation to the moral aspect of suicide.

Moreover, as

it is

one of considerable complexity,

it

a fuller discussion of

will

be found

in

the Essay

on Personality, which forms the second part of

this

volume.

The Saturday Review.

The

notice which appeared in this paper can

neither be called a critique nor a review.

Indeed,

we might almost suppose the writer had accepted

H
regard
little

THE MORALS OF

SUICIDE.

a brief in defence of suicide.

He

is

pleased to

my

book

as to all intents
"

and purposes

more than
quote

a sermon

"

and he then goes

the

on'

to

evidence

showing

want

of

unanimity as to the lawfulness of suicide amongst

different
I

nations

in

ancient and

modern
this
;

times.

do not suppose any one doubted

though

the statement that suicide was not 'proscribed

by

Greek and

Roman

philosophy

must,

think,

be accepted with reserve; seeing that Aristotle

{Ethics, V.

chap, xi.) calls

it

a sin against the

State,

and says that the memory of the suicide

should be marked by infamy.

Under

the later

Roman Empire
and,
indeed,

suicide

became
fashion-

excessively

frequent,

quite

able.

But what was the cause?

The luxury
cul-

and
"

sloth

which predominated amongst the

tured classes, and the dictum of the Stoic School,

Mori

licit

cui vivere non placet"

for us to follow
?

But are those examples

Are

Zeno and Epicurus and

the rest, " the followers

of Odin and the Brahmins of the East," to influence the conclusions to be

drawn from Christian

Ethics

"Suicide,"

the

writer
in

adds,
his

"was permitted
Utopia,

by

Sir

Thomas More

and

has

REVIEW OF NOTICES AND

been
defended
1

CRITIQUES.
in

15

by many thinkers

modern

times."

The
the
it

following,

presume,

is

the passage in
refers.
I

Utopia to which
that

my
and

critic

quote

my

reader

may

see
to

for

himself

under
Sir

what circumstances

what

extent

Thomas More thought

missible.
in
I

self-destruction to be per-

do not remember any other passage

which he alludes to the subject.

"

said) they see to with great nothing at all pass concerning either physic or good diet, whereby they may be restored again to their health. Such as be sick of incurable diseases they comfort with sitting by them, with talking with them, and, to be short, with all manner of helps that may be. But if the disease be not only incurable, but also full of continual pain and anguish, then the priests and the magistrates exhort the man, seeing he is not able to do any duty of life, and by overliving his own death is noisome and irksome to others, and grievous to himself, that he will determine with himself no longer to cherish that pestilent

The

sick (as

affection,

and

let

'

It is the

custom,
stiletto,

am

told, for ladies in

Japan

to carry about

with them a

with which to take their

lives, rather

than

suffer dishonour.

The Czarowitz, when he

visited that country

time

some years ago, was attacked by a native policeman. after, a young Japanese woman immolated herself on Both to atone, as she thought, for the national disgrace.
and Japan
life is

A
in

short

the spot,

China

held very cheap.

THE MORALS OF

SUICIDE.

and painful disease. And, seeing his life is to him but a torment, that he will not be unwilling to die, but rather take a good hope to him, and
either despatch himself out of that painful
life,

as out of a prison or a rack of torment, or else

out of it by doing they tell him he shall do wisely, seeing by his death he shall lose no And because in commodity, but end his pain. that act he shall follow the counsel of the priests, that is to say, of the interpreters of God's will and pleasure, they show him that he shall do like a godly and a virtuous man. They that be thus persuaded, finish their lives willingly, either with hunger, or else die in their sleep without any But they cause none such to feeling of death. die against his will, nor they use no less diligence and attendance about him, believing this to be an honourable death. Else he that killeth himself before that the priests and the council have allowed the cause of his death, him, as unworthy either to be buried or with fire to be consumed, ^ tJiey cast unburied into some stinking marsh"
suffer

himself willingly to be rid

others.

And

in so

From
judge

this

passage

my

readers will be able to

for

themselves

circumstances. Sir

how far, and under what Thomas More justified suicide.

of

But who are the many thinkers

times
?

modern

Does

my

critic

refer

to

Schopenhauer
?

and

his followers
'

of the Pessimistic School

If

Utopia (The Camelot Series), p. 158.

REVIEW OF NOTICES AND

so,

CRITIQUES.

17

he

is

welcome

to their patronage

and support.

Perhaps he had Dr. Donne in mind, who wrote

Biathanatos in defence of suicide.

But
the

this

work

was not published

death.
It is

till

long after

author's

very plain to see that he was far

it.

from being proud of

been consulted,

And

if

he could have
it

in all probability
all.

would never

have

beeii published at

Liverpool Daily Post.

Even the title is challengeable, for it goes without saying that suicide has no morals."

"

The

writer,

however,
is

is

kind enough to say

that the book

eminently instructive on this

saddening subject.

As

to the

title,

confess I

fail

to

see
1

much
The

difference between

"

Morals

"

and

" Ethics."

distinction, if distinction there

be,

seems to

me
I

rather subtle and insignificant than practical and

real.

Of

course,

by

"

The Morals
"

of Suicide "

mean
sense

the moral aspect of suicide.

it

And

in this

certainly

is

not true

that suicide has

no

morals."
'

" Morals"

is

derived from Lat.

eflor,

" Ethics" from Gr.

Mos = a manner, or custom which has the same meaning.

VOL.

II.

i8

THE MORALS OF SUICIDE.

British Medical Journal, Lancet, and Medical
Press.
I

attach great importance to the reviews which

in these three journals, and, as

have appeared

an

expression of the opinion of the medical faculty,

they demand the utmost respect.

of Christ and medical

The
the

ministers

men should
in

surely regard

themselves

as

fellow-workers
welfare of

cause

of

humanity.

The
in

mankind and the

heal-

ing of their diseases are the objects which they

both have

common.
In

It

is

true that they are

not working in exactly the same department of

human
the

nature.

the

one case the bodies, in

are,

the other the souls of

objects

men
;

broadly speaking,
medicines

of

regard

nor are the

or the methods in each case the same.

But

it

should never be forgotten

that the that

two departis

ments frequently overlap

combining two elements,

man

a unity
flesh

body and

soul,

and

spirit

that these are

mutually dependent,
welfare
if

and that the health

and

of

the

one

cannot long be maintained

are

those of the other

is

neglected.

The same

conclusion

to

be

drawn from the example and teaching of

Him
Great

Whom

we

ministers

of religion

call

the


REVIEW OF NOTICES AND
Physician.
souls
It

CRITIQUES.

19

was not only the diseases of the

that

of

men

excited

his

sympathy, but

every form of
the the

human

suffering.

The
lame,

foul leper,

devil-driven epileptic,

the

the blind,

deaf and the

dumb
I

appealed to His com-

passion and received His gifts of healing.

For these reasons

felt

deeply interested to

know what

the medical journals would say about

my

book.

The British Medical Journal says

"

We

the evil of suicide.

should welcome any suggestions to abate But we do not think that

Mr. Gurnhill's suggestions are of practical use."

Did

my

critic

expect
?

remedy
that

for suicide

me to discover a specific He knows, as well as I do,

But,
if

none such

exists.

my

suggestions

are worthless, has he any others to offer ?

Appa?

rently

not.

What,

then,

are

my
this
:

suggestions
that,

They
sistent
causes.

resolve themselves into

having
per-

ascertained

some of the more general and

causes of suicide,

we should
it

attack those

Thus, for example,

that

is

proved beyond
is

a doubt
directly

large

percentage of cases

due to drink, another large percentage and gambling, and so on.

Is,

to betting

then,

my


20

THE MORALS OF SUICIDE.

we might reduce
the

suggestion that
suicides

number of
no

by reducing the amount of drinking,

betting and gambling, and similar vices " of

practical use "
?

Let

my

reader decide for himself.

his

Dr.

Magnus Huss,

in

standard work

on

Chronic Alcoholism, stated

"that the than
of
suicidal impulse is a more frequent accompaniment of the melancholia of drunkards

melancholia
that

from
the

other

causes,

and,

uneducated classes suicide frequently follows on the disordered emotional tone, which sooner or later results from the abuse of alcoholic liquors."
further,

amongst

Again, Dr.
Officer of

W.

C.

Sullivan,

Deputy Medical

H.M.

Prison, Pentonville, in an article

on "

The Relation

of Alcoholism to Suicide," after

as

referring to the

Registrar-General's Returns,

showing the

close

connection

between a high

rate of alcoholism

and a corresponding frequency

is

of suicide, points out that the explanation

to

be found in the visceral and organic depression,

and consequent melancholic tendency

resulting

from alcoholism, which are powerless to overcome

suicidal

impulses

arising

during

intoxication,

whereas in healthy subjects such impulses speedily

vanish and

come

to nought.

REVIEW OF NOTICES AND

The Lancet.
This review
blame.
is

CRITIQUES.

21

a curious mixture of praise and

The

reviewer asks

why
?

should suicides be
Especially as "
I

amenable to any arguments

excuse myself from dealing with the arguments

of Pliny, Seneca, and others,

who have expressed

approval of suicide under certain conditions."

In reply,
that
I
I

would venture to remind

plainly
I

my

critic,

stated

approached the subject

from the standpoint of the Christian Socialist

and,

consequently,

that

never

undertook

to
set

collate
forth
I

and compare the views and arguments

writers.

by ancient Greek and Latin

not afraid to meet

But

am

my

critic

on

his

own
of

ground.

He
I

quotes Pliny the Elder, and Seneca,

and

others,

who have expressed approval

and Pliny the Younger,
permissibility
all

suicide.

could quote Socrates, Plato, Aristotle,

Virgil,
its

^schines,

of

whom

denied
it.

and strongly con-

demned

Again,

am

accused of "a

great

want of

thoroughness," because " from cover to cover there

is

not a word about that awful

problem

the
"The
of

duty that sometimes corners the true Christian and

good

citizen

of

laying

down
the

his

life."

tragedy,

the

problem,

unselfish

dread

22

THE MORALS OF SUICIDE.

becoming burthensome, or of cankering a young

life

with

the

infirmity of
for

an

old

one

these
deadly
suicide,

things

do not exist

the author,
'

who can

speak of suicide only with horror as

sin.' "

this

But
is

surely

the

argument
is

for

which

suggested in these words

justify the custom,

one which

would equally
told prevails

which we are
tribes

amongst some of the Indian

their

of tomahawking
become
useless

aged parents when they

I

and burthensome.

confess
I

dare not espouse such an argument, for

do
yet

not
I

know where

it

would lead me.

if

And

should be truly sorry

my

critic

were to

me wanting in sympathy for those unhappy who find themselves "cornered" in "the God forgive me, if I were for battle of life." I know full well how truly awful and tragic is
think

beings

the dilemma in which they sometimes find themselves placed.

But,

if

the laying

down

of our lives for the sake

is

and the good

of others

to

be called suicide,

then Jesus Himself was not only a suicide, but

"

He bade all His disciples He laid down His life for

down own
lives
'

follow
us,

His example.
to
is

and we ought
^

lay

for the
I

brethren."
i6.

This

John

ii.

REVIEW OF NOTICES AND

quite true
;

CRITIQUES.

23

nevertheless,

we must not complicate

ideas.
I

the question
that

by the confusion of

grieve

my

critic

should have so far misunderstood

me
I

but, seeing that

he has,

do not wonder he For myself

concludes his critique as he does.

would only

say, that
;

my

motive has been more

to provide dissuasive

than he imagines

more than

arguments

for

those comparatively few

persons

who, contemplating self-destruction, are yet open

to the voice of reason to save

and

religion

more than
from
a

a few hundreds or thousands

suicide's grave.

Rather has

it

been to represent
those fester-

suicide as the

symptom and index of

their healing.

ing sores, moral and social, which

afflict

humanity,

and that with a view to

The Medical
This review
is

Press.

thoughtful and appreciative, but

It is gratifying,

by no means
to

eulogistic.

however,

find that the writer thinks

its

my

book, in spite
is

of

many
I

defects, of
its

which no one

more

conscious than
perusal."

author, " deserving of intelligent

for

do not ask

more.

With regard
on the one

to " a functional relation existing

willing, or feeling
in

between every act of thinking,

side,

and some molecular change

24

THE MORALS OF
body
(the

SUICIDE.
side,"

the

brain)

on the other

my

critic will find

some further remarks

This,
I

in the essay

on

" Personality."

hope, he will also do

me

the honour to criticize.

" In this

work," he says,
It is

"

the preacher

is

much
But

in evidence."

not

my

wish either to preach,

or sermonize, except in the proper place.

I

do

hold,

and firmly hold, that

religion

and the must

in

religious instincts of

man
like

are facts which

be faced and treated,

scientific

any other

facts,

manner.

If

they be real

they must

justify their reality as part of the great

body of

philosophic and metaphysical truth.

The Indian Church Quarterly Review,

I

April, 1901.
his

beg

to

thank
of

the

reviewer

for

kind

commendation

my

book.

His remarks about

the neglect of Moral Theology in the English

Church

are, I fear,

only too true.

" If the

English Church ever really took serious

notice of the evils which are preying

lives of the

upon the

inhabitants of her great towns, and

perhaps even to a greater degree of the villages, she would insist on her candidates for Holy Orders acquiring some considerable knowledge of the principles of Moral Theology."


REVIEW OF NOTICES AND
TJie Critic

CRITIQUES.
City).

25

(New York

This notice

is

brief
is

and almost amusing.

And

yet, withal, there

a spice of truth about the

writer's suggested

remedy.

needs to be insisted upon than its possible sinfulness. In five cases out of six a good dinner will do more to ward off self-destruction than a barrel full of sermons and texts."
folly of suicide

"

The

in these days, rather

Similarly Mr.

W. W.

Westcott, in his chapter

on the prevention of
" Suicidal

suicide, says

patients require most watching early morning: a good lunch often dispels the tendency /<3r the day!' ^
in the

There

is

no doubt that a great number of

persons are annually driven to suicide through

want

and

destitution.

But

how

is

the

good
}

lunch or dinner to be brought within their reach

Here

is

the great problem for Christian socialists

to solve.

and philanthropists But the same

writer,

whose

practical acquaint-

ance as a coroner with

the subject of

suicide

renders his testimony deserving of special respect,

though he does not prescribe

'

" a barrel full

of

Suicide, p. 170.


26

THE MORALS OF

SUICIDE.

sermons and texts," speaks out very clearly on

the value of religion as a preventive.
are worth quoting.
"

His words

The
is

cultivation of a
life

religious

conviction

of

the sanctity of

and the
certain

sin of a self-inflicted

death
(than

more

education).

Persons

hindrance to suicide who are unable to

;

obtain this mental conviction, are, I believe, more prone to take their lives in time of trouble and

beyond good advice, and the care of their I do not know that any means exist to
them."
1

friends,

restrain

Globe Democrat (St. Louis, M.C.).

The

following extract

is

worth notice

" If ministers can help in the matter

prayers or treatises, very well

is

by sermons, but the main relief

health.

in

wholesome

life

morals promote

all

this,

and robust and so

Good

indirectly touch

the main question."

American

Ecclesiastical Review.

The
any
for

notice which appeared in this

Review

is

one of the most thoughtful and discriminating of

I

have seen
candid,

and
even
'

beg to thank the writer

severe
criticism.

his

though

Suicide, p. 172.

REVIEW OF
There
are,

NOl'ICES

AND

CRITIQUES.

27

however, two or three points which

silence.

cannot pass over in

1.

He

considers

my

definition of personality as

very inadequate, and

is

of opinion that no more

adequate definition has ever been formulated than

that of Boethius, " Persona est naturae rationalis

individua substantia."
will

As, however,

my

readers

find

the subject of
in

Personality

discussed
the

at

some length

the essay which forms

I

second

part of this volume,

will

only point

out in this place that

my

definition of Personality

was

framed

to

express

the fundamental idea,

latent in the

etymology of the word persona, as

a mask,

denoting

first

and secondly the

actor

who speaks
2.

through, or behind, the mask.

criticism

But the next point of

careful

demands a
of

more

consideration.

The wastage
led

philanthropic effort through want of union

and
to

co-operation

amongst

Christians

me

consider the causes of division leading to a loss

of the

moral and

spiritual

power which ought

to be available for the amelioration of the social,

moral, and religious condition of mankind.

Amongst
Christ

these causes,

pointed out, was the

lack of obedience to the rules and precepts of

Himself.

And

as

a striking instance of


28

THE MORALS OF
disobedience
in
I

SUICIDE.

this

quoted the action of the

Roman Church
laity,

withholding the cup from the

and so delivering a mutilated sacrament to

the people.
one,

The

charge,

I
it

admit,

is

a very grave

and

cannot wonder

has seriously disturbed

critics.
t

the

mind of
is,

my Roman
can
to
it

Catholic

But the
if not,

question
I

be substantiated
it.

For,

am bound

withdraw

My critic

accuses me, in the

first

first

place, of being

untrue to the

principles of
to say

my own

position,

and he then goes on

apostles

"If Christ, the God-Man, commissioned His (and their lawful successors) to teach men all things whatsoever He had commanded them, and if He promised to be with them in their appointed official duty unto the end of time, so that the powers of hell should never prevail against the teaching organism He had constituted, either He, the God-Man, was unfaithful to His promise, or else the organism, which traces its origin historically back to Him, could not be permitted by Him to 'make void
the
souls of

Word of God,' and 'to proffer to men a mutilated sacrament' "

the thirsty

But the writer does not seem to see that

this

in

passage he
completely.

is

giving himself and his case

away

What

did Christ commission

CRITIQUES.
29

REVIEW OF NOTICES AND

His apostles to do
all
?

things whatsoever

men to observe He had commanded them.^

teach
this?

To

Has
all

the

Roman Church done

"

"Drink ye

of this," said Christ.

No," says the

so.
I

Roman
absolve

Church,

"you must not do

will

you from your obedience

sufficient for

to Christ.

It is quite

you

to receive the

Sacrament

in

one

kind."

Doubtless Christ did promise His Presence with

His apostles and their successors.

a condition to His promise
to observe
all

that

He attached of "teaching men

But

things

and
to

this condition

He had commanded them " the Roman Church has failed

;

fulfil,

not only by omission, but also by addition

not only by withholding the

Cup and

so proffering

a mutilated Sacrament to the people, but also

by
'

setting
St.

up a system of mediation

for

which

Matt, xxviii. 20.

illustration
is

'

As an

of the length to which the Church of

I

Rome

has gone and

the late
vol.
i.

prepared to go,
Article

quote the following extract from

'

Dean Church's

on

Our

p.

352 of his Occasional Papers

Irenicon,' republished in

"From
gruous
'

to the

the single consideration of what was fitting and 'conMother of our Lord, a whole system has grown up,
to proportions which, to those

and expanded
its

who were
incredible.

not under
Inference

influence, appear simply inconceivable

and

has been piled upon inference, deduction has been drawn out from deduction, each grovfing more astounding than its predecessor. .
. .

The only way

of describing what

it

all results in is

by

saying, that

what the general sense of Christians has considered

for centuries to

30

THE MORALS OF
is

SUICIDE.

there

not a vestige of authority in the words,

the teaching, or the

commandments
is

of Christ.

Let us see what

the history of this strange

infraction of Christ's express

command.

In
to the

the Catholic Dictionary

we read

"

Down
Popes

Middle Ages the

faithful usually received

the

Eucharist under both kinds."

I.,

Two

(Leo

440, and Gelasius, 490) specially con-

demned

the Manichajans for withholding the Cup,

to.

and commanded them

fellowship of saints.

be expelled from the

The

practice

was condemned

by the Council of Clermont (1095) and by Pope Paschal II. (11 18) as "a human and novel institution,

departure from what

^

Christ

the Master

ordained and did."

Then came the Council of

in

Constance positively forbidding Communion

be the special and incommunicable prerogatives of the Saviour of mankind are now claimed, sometimes with something that marks

When she is proved in deliberate dogmatic language, duly guarded by appropriate distinctions, to be
superiority, for his mother.
. .

what she

is

frequently called, our 'co-redemptress,'

it

might be
but

thought that the zeal of her devotees had reached

they have advanced one step further, and laid

its limit,

down

that she, too,

is present and is received in the Eucharist ; they have not only maintained her co-presence, but defined the manner of her presence "

(PP- 353. 354)'

Dearden's Modern
Polity
until after

Romanism Examined,
Church,
thirteenth

p.

i68.

See also
it

Pelliccia's

of the Christian
the
at

who

admits that

was not
fall

century that the custom of

to

receiving the

Cup

the

Holy Communion began gradually

p. 453.

into disuse in the

Western Church,

REVIEW OF NOTICES AND

both kinds to the
laity
;

CRITIQUES.

31

and

lastly,

the Council

of Trent confirming

the decision of Constance

and pronouncing
souls

its

anathema against those poor

keep the commandments

who would

fain

of Jesus.^

What
sanctions
as

an extraordinary history

reverses the decrees of a former one.

One Council One Pope

infallible

what previous Popes had condemned

Christ.

disloyalty to
as

Yet

all

are

And,

though the cjimax of inconsistency had

last

not been reached, the

Pope

(Pius IV.)

and

the last Council (Trent) presume to revise the

very ordinance of the Founder Himself, and forbid obedience to one of

His most

imperative
action

commands

Only on one plea can such

that

be justified the plea and claim of possessing a

wisdom and authority superior

Founder of Christianity Himself

to

of

the

Does

my

critic
.'

make
If

this claim
I

on behalf of the

Roman
is

Church
say.

he does,

have not another word to

If

he does

not, then

what escape

there from the

in

charge that the

Roman

Church,

adding

to,

and
"

subtracting from, the teaching of Christ, has

made

void the

the thirsty souls

Word of God," and proffered of men a mutilated Sacrament ?

to

Council of Trent, Art. XVII. and XVIII.


32

THE MORALS OF
But even
this,

SUICIDE.
is

sad as

it

is,

perhaps not the

stands com-

saddest feature in the case.

Rome

mitted to her errors.

Infallibility

By

the decree of Papal

she has crystallized and stereotyped

her.

them upon
accretional,
for

They have become not merely

but organic.
regret,

And
it

this

is

a matter

profound

because

renders the hope

of reunion remote indeed.

And
Christ,

because

have pointed out

this instance

of disobedience to the teaching and precepts of

as

cause

of

disunion

amongst do

His

followers, entailing a loss of

force,
I

moral and spiritual

I

am no

Catholic.

Truly

call

and

consider myself a Catholic, in the sense of holding

all

the Articles of the Catholic

I

Faith.

At

the

same time
to

humbly hope

shall

never cease

be a Protestant in the sense of protesting

against the unwarranted and unscriptural additions

which the Church of

Faith.
I

Rome

has

made
I

to

that

confess

do not see how

can withdraw

my

charge.
critic

My
And
"
lies

has coupled his review of

its

my

book

with that of another, The Bible and

Interpreter ;

he adds

In the position established in the latter work the only hope for the unity of faith and


REVIEW OF NOTICES AND
CRITIQUES.

33

loyalty of obedience for which Mr. Gurnhill pleads, and in which alone is there healing for the
individual and the nations."

Now,
work.

have been at the trouble

to procure this

It is written

by the Rev.

P.

H. Casey,

S.J.,

Professor of Dogmatic Theology in

College,

Woodstock

and appears with the imprimatur of the

Archbishop of Philadelphia.
of
it

The main
Holy

object

is

to prove that the

Roman
Churches

Church, being
Scripture.

infallible, is

the true interpreter of

this,

Nay,
claim

more than
infallibility

"

that

cannot

and

what Protestant Church

it ?

or Churches dare claim

Catholic
it ;

are not a part of the

they
lie

and

Apostolic

Church;
it."
^

outside

they are cut

so,

away from
a "

And

forsooth, the

Church which has not

" into
;

scrupled to read

not

one of our Lord's

most imperative commands

which has invented

mediation for
to be found in
all

and

still

maintains a system of
is

which not a shred of evidence

Holy

Scripture

which presumes to declare

infallibility to

Churches which cannot claim

be

no part of the Catholic and Apostolic Church,

to
lie

outside
'

it,

and to be cut away from

Interpreter, pp. 90, 91.

it

this

The Bible audits

VOL.

II.

34

THE MORALS OF
is

SUICIDE.
infallible

Church

to

be for Christendom the

!

interpreter of the Bible

Comment

is

needless.

The Church Quarterly Review.

The
the

writer
I

is

disposed to find fault with

me

because
title

have

attached " too expansive a sense " to

book.

of

my

He

has read

it

"

not exactly

perceiving

why one chapter precedes another, doubting now and then whereunto this discursive
that the author has brought himself

treatment will grow, realizing with some alarm

and us

into

deep water."

He

has been unable to solve the

enigma of "the symbolical device on the cover."

He

does not see the least connection between " the

lines

from Tennyson" quoted on the title-page

in hand.
I

and the subject

am

truly sorry for

having so grievously perplexed him.

But, then,

we cannot swim

in a

duck-pond, and

if

we wish

to

catch anything bigger than

minnows we must not

be afraid sometimes

" to

launch out into the deep."

But to be

serious,

my

critic

must pardon

me

if I

say, with all respect, that

he appears unable to

take in that aspect of the subject which to

me
its

seems

its

most important and

significant

one

aspect as a

symptom and index

evils

of those

many

and various

which

afflict

the social body,

REVIEW OF NOTICES AND

and which are the
destruction.

CRITIQUES.

35

active causes leading to self-

.To deal with

I

these causes, even in

a cursory manner, must,

hardly need point out,

involve from time to time " frequent enlargements

of scope."

My

critic finds fault

with

me

again for what

have said

about

the

action of the

State with

reference to religious teaching in English

Board

Schools,

regret that I should have expressed

myself
literally

in

terms which

are
I

not

formally
that

and
the

true.

What

meant was

ministers of the various religious denominations

have no

locus standi,

no recognized

right to enter

a Board School and impart religious instruction.

Boards of managers,
they like
in

know, can do almost what

;

the matter

but, as a general rule,

ministers of religion are not asked, and therefore

cannot teach.

In saying

this, I

am

speaking from

my own
with

experience.

Before taking leave of

sincere

my

critics,

which
I

do

respect

and

gratitude,

cannot

refrain

from expressing a feeling of disappointso

ment, that

few of them,

especially

those

representing the more distinctive Protestant forms

of Christianity, have examined

my

suggestions as

to the basis of the reunion of Christendom.

What

36

THE MORALS OF

SUICIDE.

worthier object, I ask, could Christians set before

them

for

attainment during the century on which

so recently entered, than the reconcilia-

we have

tion of their differences, that so with

one heart

and one mind they might co-operate

of their
evil

in the

work

common Lord ?

Great are the powers of

for

the destruction of

mankind

but great
if

also are the

powers of Christ's Church

only

they be concentrated and applied.

CHAPTER

II.

FURTHER STATISTICS OF
I.

SUICIDE.

In England and Wales.

In the United States.

II.

I.

England and Wales.

Report
for

From
it

the

Registrar-General's

1900

appears that the

number of

actual suicides

in

England and Wales during 1900 exceeded

1899
7.

those of
females,

by 52

namely,
the

of

males,

45

The

following table gives

total

number
1890

of suicides,

male and female,

for the years

and 1900, together with the approximate rate

per 100,000 of the

whole population of Engthe increase

land and Wales, and

during the

decade

38

THE MORALS OF
TABLE
I.

SUICIDE.

I.


ENGLAND AND WALES.
Mr.
39

W. D.

Morrison, in his article on the above

last half-century,

statistics/ " within the

and
is

its

persistent increase within the last few years,

very sinister social phenomenon."

And
"

he adds
to

Most writers who have devoted attention

this sad subject are of opinion that its

alarming

growth among modern communities is as much due to moral as to economic causes. The im-

mense increase of material wealth in the nineteenth century has been accompanied by a tragic increase of moral misery. This is no doubt to be attributed, in part at least, to the decay of faith, and the growth of pessimism. One thing, at least, is plain. Men are more than ever in need of the
. , .

inspiring powers of hope and consolation. To supply this great need is the imperative mission of the Church."

Since the issue of

carefully collected
all

my

former volume

have
at-

cases

of suicide and

tempted suicide that have met

newspapers, in
order
that
I

my

eye in the daily

for

might judge

myself as to their nature and, as

their

far as possible,

determining cause.
classified,

These
and
I

cases

have
a few

analyzed and

now

offer

remarks such as can hardly

'

fail

to be suggested.
1

TAe Guardian, August

21, 1901, p.

131.

40

THE MORALS OF

SUICIDE.

Observations.
1.

In looking over

my

analysis

observe two

features,

which stand out with a

First, the large

lurid significant

prominence.
in

proportion of cases

which suicide treads on the heels of crime.

First

comes crime, very frequently the violent

assault ending in murder,

and then, to escape the

consequences of crime, self-destruction.

2.

The second
The

feature

is

the entire absence of

all

sense of responsibility in the great bulk of the

restraining influence of religion
less

cases.

and
This
of
is

morality seems to be growing

is

and

less.

what

Mr.

Morrison
" the

calls

"the

doctrine
It

faith "

and

growth of pessimism."
says,
in
" I

the

spirit

which
of
sin

dread
life,
;

the pains and

penalties

this
inflict
life,

the

punishment

which man's law can

but as for any other

or

punishment

in

another

any

responsibility
I

to a higher tribunal than that of

man,

neither

know nor

care anything about

it." ?

But have we any right to be surprised

Are

not such sentiments as these the legitimate pro-

duct of the factors which are at work in our

modern

civilization

A scientific

Monism

is

seek-

ing to monopolize the whole

field

of philosophy;

ENGLAND AND WALES.

of

41

the worship of humanity to supplant the worship

God

and a secular socialism to represent the

highest aims and interests of mankind.

What
hope or
appear

wonder, when
annihilation,
fear
;

men

are taught to regard death as

it

ceases to

awaken

either

and

that,

when

their circumstances
slip
!

desperate, they

prefer to

the cable, rather

than try to ride out the storm

Causes connected with the Amatory Passion

Disappointment, Jealousy.
3.

The number
in

of suicides which are due to

the miscarriage

some form of the amatory

illicit,

passion

to

misplaced,

or

disappointed
in

affection,

forms another significant feature

the

analysis of cases.

The only

preventive in

such cases as

these

would seem to be the exercise of greater care and

deliberation on the part of

young men and women

before contracting engagements, and a truer per-

ception of the sanctity of the affections

when they
only too

have done

so.

But the practical

difficulty in the
is

way

of applying such a

remedy

as this

obvious.

42

THE MORALS OF
Methods of
4.

SUICIDE.

Self-destruction.

The extreme

variety of the

means or

instru-

ments employed
or two remarks.

for self-destruction calls for

one

The most extraordinary method

which

have come across was that adopted by an

inmate of the Connaught Hospital, who tried to

choke himself by swallowing a tablespoon.

to say, although the
diflSculty,

Strange

man

swallowed his food with

in

and was strange

his

manner, and

though the doctors suspected some obstruction,

they only discovered the spoon wedged
throat at
'Cos.

in

his

post-mortem examination.

Abuse of
5.

the Revolver.
to

It

is

impossible

study the

annals

of

suicide as recorded in the daily newspapers with-

out observing

how frequently the

revolver

is

chosen

as the instrument of death.

arises

And

the question

whether some steps ought not to be taken

to stop the fatal facility with which these

weapons

of destruction are procurable.

Murder followed

by

suicide

is

becoming increasingly common.

I feel

And
for a

one great reason,

few shillings any

assured,

is

because

man

can provide himself

with the means for the swift execution of both.

ENGLAND AND WALES.

why
?

43

If the State interferes with the sale of poisonous

drugs,

should

it

not also interfere in the

matter of revolvers, which are equally dangerous

and deadly

In the Hampstead shooting case

{^Standard, January 19, 1902), the jury desired the

coroner to add a rider to their verdict, calling the

attention

of the

Home

Secretary to the indis-

criminate sale of revolvers to those having no

licence to

carry
that

firearms.

It

certainly

seems
of

probable
revolvers
licence

law

prohibiting

the

sale

except to persons

who produce such a

would tend to lessen the number of both

suicides.

murders and

To
is

afford facilities for the

commission of a crime
to

next door to a temptation

commit

it.

The Verdicts of Coroners^

6.

Juries.
this

have already referred to

subject in

my

first

volume
I

(p. 206),

and

need not repeat

usual form of

the remarks
verdict
still

then made.
is

The
"

given

that of
in

Suicide during temcases this verdict

porary insanity."
is
it

And
the

many

no doubt true so

far

but

only

so

far

as

means

that

mental

balance

has

been

disturbed, and the mind become unhinged, and

in that sense

deranged.

But

this loss of balance

44

THE MORALS OF
this

SUICIDE.

and equanimity,

derangement, as in the case

is

of the bodily functions,

It is

due to assignable causes.

due to the neglect of the rules of

Mental Hygiene.
7.

Unwholesome
wise

diet,

insanitary

habits

and

dwellings, derange the bodily functions.

fore,

There-

men

are very careful

to avoid them.

But because the mind and mental faculties are

invisible

and intangible we are apt to

ignore

them, and neglect those precautions which are

necessary to preserve them in health.

There

is

science of mental as well as bodily hygiene,

and

the importance of attending to both was fully

recognized by the ancient moralist,

nobis ut sit

Orandmn

est

mens sana in corpore

sano.
is

Our
limited,

reserve of mental and nervous energy

and when the

strain

is

put upon

it,

either

through excess of work, or intemperance, or worry,

or excitement, exceeds those limits,
it

stands to
disturbed.

reason that the mental equilibrium

is

The mind
But

gives way,

and that nervous collapse

ensues which so frequently ends in suicide.

it

may

be asked,

is it

possible in this workfor

a-day world

in

this life

which

many

is

one

of rough-and-tumble, where the weakest must go

ENGLAND AND WALES.

to

45

the

wall

to
it

avoid this

mental
?

strain

and
in

consequent

nervous
not

exhaustion
;

No

doubt

many cases it is in many cases

taken.

but
if

it

is

equally true that

is,

proper precautions be

What
men
it,

mean

is

this

if

through the inordinate

love of money, and the haste to

resort to illegitimate

become

rich,

methods of obtaining

such as betting, gambling, speculation, and

;

fraud

if,

through the unbridled love of pleasure

rein

and excitement they give the

illicit

to

lust

or

affection

or

if,

through want of proper

care and observation, they overtax their mental

powers,

is it

to be

wondered

at,

that such courses

should end at last in nervous collapse, or a frenzied

state of mind, which

may

be termed "temporary
sufferer is
?

insanity,"

and

in

which the unhappy

no longer wholly accountable

Doubtless,
if all

for his actions

men

could be induced to

live

according to laws of mental hygiene, and avoid

those habits and pursuits which are almost sure
to

disturb

the

mental balance and deaden the

moral

sensibility,

we
do.

should

hear

far

less

of
or

suicide than

we

But, again, the

difficult

remedy
;

preventive

is

very

of application

and
it

especially so in the cases of those

who need

46

THE MORALS OF
The work
is

SUICIDE.
believe,

most

one,

which only

the teachers of the Christian religion and morality-

can attempt with any prospect of success.

tion will not

Educa-

do

it.

Civilization only intensifies

like

the

evil.

Sociology,

the

gardener's

rake,

may remove some

of society,^ but
to
its
it

of the rubbish and smooth some of the roughness which deface the surface

does not probe the mischief

this

root.

To do
men

we need something
at the

that

will

impress

with the sanctity and responsi-

bility of their lives,

and show them,

for.

same

time,

what

is

best worth living

,i^
8.

i/"

^''' Child

Suicide.

The

increase
to

of suicide

amongst children
In the
Registrar-

is

much

be

deplor^.
for

General's

Report

1899 we

find that out

all

of

a total of 2 12 1 suicides of persons of

67, or about three per cent.,

ages,

were under the age

of twenty, namely, between five

I
;

and ten years,

60.

ten

and

fifteen,

fifteen

and twenty,

But out of the

first

hundred of

my

collected

' For example, intemperance, betting, and gambling, overcrowded dwellings, poverty, and want of work, are amongst the chief causes of suicide ; and to effect reforms and remove defects

with regard

to

these

things falls

within the proper

scope of

Christian Socialism,

ENGLAND AND WALES.

cases of suicide
less

47
I

or attempted suicide
.

find

no

than 6 were those of children between the

I

ages of eight and sixteen.

do not say
figures

it

would

be safe to assume that these

correctly

represent the average percentage of child suicide

in

the present day, but I do think they

is

show

that the percentage

It will

on the increase.
I

be interesting,

know, to some of

my

readers to learn the nature of the causes which

were operative

in these deplorable cases.

No. 2
ran

is

the case of a boy, aged seven,

school, and, rather than

who

away from
himself.

return,

drowned
No.

29.

Girl,

age not stated.

This was clearly

a case of over-wrought religious emotion, amount-

ing to mania.

No. 31.
a
fit

Boy,

Girl,

aged

eight,

at

school,

who,

in

of passion at being punished and sent to

bed,

hanged
53.

himself.

No.

aged fourteen.
;

Cause:

ill-treat-

ment by step-mother
No. 90A.
self in

three previous attempts.

Boy

in service,

who

destroyed him-

fit

of passion at being told to clean

some
No.
"

boots.
80.

Boy

at

public

school,

aged

16.

Thoroughly

tired of school-life."

48
I

THE MORALS OF
will not

SUICIDE.

comment on
own
moral
;

these cases, for they

point

their

but

they
is,

concur

in

teaching one plain lesson, which

greater care

the need for

and consideration on the part of

training

those

who

are entrusted with the

and

education of the young.

of
the mind, as

The opening

faculties

of

the body,

may be

easily

over-taxed, with consequences which cannot be

foreseen.

Gentleness coupled with firmness should

rule.

be the invariable

Extraordinary Cases.
g.

There

are

a few cases

in

my

collection

which, owing to their exceptional character, call

for a few

words of comment.
distress
is

Acute mental

frequently the pre-

cursor and cause of suicide.

But

it

is

astonishing

from what comparatively insignificant causes the

distress

sometimes
io8b
is

arises.

No.

the case of a

man who was

pony

so
to

overwhelmed with

grief at the loss of a

which he had become greatly attached, that he

drowned
live
for.

himself, saying he

had nothing

left

to

In another case, a young

man hanged
Such

himself rather than submit to vaccination.


ENGLAND AND WALES.
examples show how
is

49

easily the
cases.

mental equilibrium

disturbed in
If there
is

some

one word that

may

be said in extenuit is

ation of the crime of self-destruction,

suicide

that the

may sometimes by

his very act

emphasize

and
in

call attention to

some abuse or

festering sore
its re-

the social body, and so help to secure

moval or remedy.
cases following
:

Such,

think, are the

two

No.

64.

This

is

the case of a clergyman of

the Church of England,

who

for eighteen years

had been the incumbent of a

income of .^80.

living with a princely

Finding himself unable to struggle

his increasing poverty,

any longer against

to be allowed to

he asked

resign,

and had even gained

;

permission to enter a charitable institution

but

even
him.

this

escape from his troubles was denied

In a letter sent to a friend shortly before

his death,
"

he wrote
not to be disposed to accept

The Bishop seems

my

resignation, as I should never be able to

I

pay

the dilapidations {i(X>). ...

shall

have to make

myself a bankrupt, and afterwards apply to the guardians for admission to the Union-House

terrible

and shocking termination of

my

life."

If his case excites our deepest

sympathy and
E

VOL.

11.

50

THE MORALS OF SUICIDE.

we

compassion,

may

at

least

hope

that

the

reproach

it

contains for the richest Church in

will

Christendom

not pass by unheeded.^

You

Churchmen and Churchwomen,

rolling in all the

luxury of untold wealth, think of that poor priest

and pastor of your own Church,

sleepless couch

rising

from his

one

bitter winter morning, driven

by poverty and

distress

to

end

his

miserable

existence in a horse-pond

The next
a

case (No. i8i)

may
!

truly be termed

a tragedy of old age ;

but, alas

only the type of

numerous

class.

A poor
character,

old man, aged 80, bearing an excellent

is

reduced to

state

bordering on

starvation because he cannot find work,

and the
is

miserable dole of

is.

6d.

from the guardians

quite insufficient to enable

him

to support his old

fit

wife

and keep

his

home

together, so in a

of

utter despair
table-knife.

he
It
is

tries

to destroy himself with a

easy to say that his

into

proper

course was

to

go

the workhouse, but

we
our

must

at least admire the old man's love of free-

dom and
'

independence, and

wonder that

The number of benefices in the Church of England is about Of these, 4704 are worth between 100 and ;^200 per annum and about 1500 are less than ;^ioo.
14,000.
;


UNITED STATES.
51

boasted civilization should have no alternatives

to
in
offer

to

the industrious

and deserving poor

the evening of their days but starvation or

the workhouse.

II.

The United
number

States.
the Chicago

The
in the
1

truth of the statement

made by
in

Tribune, that the

of suicides had increased

United States from 978

1885 to 5750 in

89s, at the rate of 500 a year, has been

I

much
to

canvassed. obtain

have,

therefore,

endeavoured

some trustworthy information on

results I

this point,

and the
For

now

lay before
I

my

readers.

this information

am

indebted to the kind-

ness and courtesy of Mr. Commissioner Wright of

the Labour Department, Washington, and also to Dr.

I.

S. Billings,

Director-in-Charge of the Con-

solidated Libraries,
I

New

York,
vital statistics are

must premise, however, that

not collected and recorded in the United States as

they are in England and Wales.

There

is,

in fact,

no publication answering to the Annual Reports of

the Registrar-General in England.

Roughly speaking, the whole country

into

is

divided

two

parts, the Registration

Area and the Nonvery important to

registration

Area

and

it

is

53

THE MORALS OF
in

SUICIDE.

bear this in mind

or

seeking to

make comparisons
readily under-

draw conclusions from the

statistics published.

The
stand,

Registration Area, as
is

we can

being enlarged year by year.

it

Between

1890 and 1900

cent.,

has increased by almost 50 per

and now comprehends nearly 29,000,000 of

population.

The Registration Area now appears

the

to

comprise

all

more important

states,

with the

exception of Delaware, Maine, and Michigan, and

153
cities

of 8000 or

more population

in

other

states.^

In consequence of the insufficiency of data from

the Non-registration Area, the death-rates and ratios
for the census of

1900 are based only on the returns

from the Registration Area, and in endeavouring

to ascertain the truth as to the annual increase of
suicide

we

shall follow the

same

rule.

TABLE

II. Showing the Increase in the Population of

THE United States.

UNITED STATES.
TABLE
Whole
1890

S3

III. Showing Suicides recorded throughout the of the United States, with Proportion due TO this Cause in 100,000 Deaths from all Causes in

AND

1900.

Year.

54

THE MORALS OF

SUICIDE.
1

Registration Area during the decade

the above increase
It
is all

890-1900,

the more significant.

would seem,

then,

from the above

statistics

that the figures quoted by the Chicago are

Tribune
the

considerably exaggerated,

at

least for

decade 1890- 1900.

During that decade the annual increase

in

the

number of

suicides recorded throughout the whole

of the United States appears to have been not 500,

but 156-6, and in the Registration Area during the

same

period, 130 or 0'i5 per 100,000 of population.

On comparing
sponding

the

statistics
I.,

in

the

above

Table IV. with those of Table

statistics for
it

giving the corre-

England and Wales during

the same period,

appears that, though the rate

of suicides per 100,000 of population, male and

female,
in
1

was 26 greater

in the

United States than

England, yet the increase during the decade

in

890-1900 was identical

both countries.

UNITED STATES.
2

55

56
7,

THE MORALS OF

SUICIDE.

UNITED STATES.

57

Statistics collected frogi the Registration States

show

that the

number of

suicides

nearly four times as great as

among males among females.

(9'83)
;

is

It

was highest of all

districts,

in

New Hampshire
it

rural

ii"28.

Amongst males
Vermont
Columbia
it

was highest
and next

of

all in

the cities in

(22'i5),

in the district of

(i8'25).

As

regards age,
is

appears that the rate of deaths

per 100,000

least

between the ages of

15

and 45,

namely, iO'43, ^nd greatest amongst those of 65

years and over, 27-32
24-54.
It is highest
;

between 45 and 65

it

is

among males

in cities (i9'39),

and

least

among
as

females in rural districts (3"34).

In the age group from 45 to 65 the rate was

five

times

high

amongst

males (4r44) as
in cities

amongst females

(7"8o),

and much higher

of Registration States (23"o6) than in the rural

districts (i6"9i).
cities

It

was highest among males

and

in

of 100,000 and over (5646),

lowest

among

females in the metropolitan district (7"05).

it

In the age group of 65 years and over

nearly seven times as high
as

was

among males
all

(49"I9)

among

females

(7 '80),

highest of

among
cities

males in cities of Non-registration States (76-00),

and lowest of

all

among

females in the

of

the Registration States (6-13).

58

THE MORALS OF

SUICIDE.

TABLE

VII. Showing, for the Registration Area, the Death-rate from Suicide among the Whites during the Census Year 1890 per 100,000 of White Population, WITH Distinction of Birthplaces of Mothers AND A Comparison of the Same with Ethnological Differences of Suicide amongst European Nations as given by Morselli {page 84, International Series).
;

Rate per Million.

Birthplaces of Mothers.

UNITED STATES.
nations
;

59
is

and

in the

United States the rate

lowest

among
in

the offspring of Irish-born mothers.

On

the other hand, the Germanic races rank highest

Europe, and the highest rate

is

in

the United

States
races,

found amongst the descendants of those

with the exception of Bohemia and Hungary.'

number
for

'

Morselli does not give the annual

Hungary.

PART

II.

AN ESSAY ON PERSONALITY

PREFATORY NOTE
Truth
truth
in in religion

must ever be the outcome and

expression of truth in metaphysic.

And
it

between
idle

metaphysic

and science

is

to

suppose that any real discrepancy or antagonism

can
exist.
:

Hence we
either there

are placed in the following

is

dilemma
physic
of

no such thing as meta-

and

science monopolizes the whole field

epistemology

or
I

the claims of science and

of
reconciliation.

metaphysic

must

be capable

Thoughtful men,

imagine, will hardly be pre-

pared to accept the former alternative, and the

following essay
as
is

offered, with all in

due deference,
of
the

humble

contribution
it

support

latter.

In other words,

presents the outline of

a system which, in the opinion of the author

at
least,

affords

reasonable

basis

on

which

64

THE MORALS OF

SUICIDE.

the claims of science, metaphysic, and religion

may be

harmonized, and which

facts

is

capable of

dealing with the

and phenomena of our

varied environment, whether material, moral, or

spiritual.

PERSONALITY
SECTION
Definition
I.

trasted with Christian Metaphysic Hegel's attempt to reconcile

Aristotle's

The

Metaphysic

Pantheism

a priori and a posteriori views Personality in In the Hegelian System The higher The Formula I = I The Logic of Hegel con.

the two.

Exception has been taken

Personality,
ferred
:

to

my

definition of

and that of Boethius has been preest naturce rationalis

"

Persona

individua
substance,
all

substantia"

an
my

individual,

complete

subsisting in a rational nature.^

But with

due

respect to

critic, this

definition, to

my

mind,
I

savours too

much

of mediaeval scholasticism.
it

doubt, moreover, whether

would convey any

very clear and definite idea to ordinary readers.

Personality
interested,
is

a subject in which

all
is

of us are

inasmuch as every man

a person

by

virtue

of possessing an intelligent, self-conscious

It will

soul, or spirit.
'

be

well,

however, to avoid

American

Ecclesiastical Review.

VOL.

II.

66

AN ESSAY ON
far

PERSONALITY.

as

as

possible all

terms and forms of ex-

pression

which the ordinary reader cannot

I

be

expected to understand.
to

shall, therefore, stick

my

guns, and be guided in forming the con-

cept and definition of Personality by the radical idea embodied in the

word and

its

etymological

meaning.
the

Self-consciousness, then, I hold to be

essential feature
I

of

Personality.^

And "a
and

person "

conceive

of,

and

define, as a rational,

self-conscious
acts

being,

who

thinks,

speaks,

under the figurative semblance of a mask

{persojia)?

But, whichever

method we adopt, there are two

Reason demands a

things to be kept carefully in view, the terminus a

quo,

and the terminus ad quern.

Prius, or First Cause,

all

adequate to the production of

this Prius is

phenomena.

And

our terminus a

quo.

The human

Personality, being,

on the whole,
actual

the greatest
experience,
'

phenomenon
is

of which

we have

our terminus

ad

quern.

These two
we know
to
it

" Thus the fundamental characteristic of

spirit as

in

human personahty
other things as

is

self-consciousness,
self

mental distinction between

all

power and other things, and

the

make

to regard
self."

objects

over against our subjective

p. 6.

Z>imne Immanence, Illingworth,

'

actor

By metonymy the persona, or mask, is used who wears the mask and acts from behind it.

to

denote the

"A PRIORI" AND "A POSTERIORI" VIEWS.

limits represent

67

the whole field

of

our investi-

gation.

Neither

may be

ignored,

and neither

separated from the other, seeing they must be,

so to speak, organically connected.

Two

Points of View
"a

The

"

a priori" and

posteriori"
is

Personality, again,

a subject which

may
;

be

regarded and discussed from two opposite points

of view.

The

first

we may

call

the a priori
start

the

second the a posteriori.

We may

from the
it,

postulated Prius, whatever

we may
the

call

and

endeavour to

trace

downwards

connection

between

it

and the phenomenon of the human

Personality to which

we

are

bound

to

come.

Or,

on the other hand, reversing the operation, we

may

begin with the fact of

human

Personality,

and by reasoning backward consider the conclusions

it

will lead us to

form as to the nature

of the Prius.

Let us take the a priori view

various

first.

Many and
as
all

have

been

the speculations

to the
things.

existence and nature of the Prius of

That a Prius of some kind does

existed from
all eternity,

exist,

and has

seems to be one of the

68

AN ESSAY ON

PERSONALITY.
thought.
all

necessary laws of

human

Its existence

has been postulated in

the best accredited

systems of philosophy, that have ever appealed

to the

judgment of mankind.

Progress in the Study of Metaphysic,

" If we look to completely elaborated theories," says Professor Baird,^ " and disregard all tentative and imperfect sketches, it may fairly be said that
all that has as yet been done in the region of pure metaphysic is contained in two works, in the Metaphysic of Aristotle and the Logic of Hegel."

It

will

be

well, then, to consider, in

the

first

place,

how and

to

what extent Personality enters

into these

two systems.

Personality in the Metaphysic of Aristotle.

The

recognition of reason

and

intelligence in

Nature, the

employment of means

to

an end,

and the display of something which looks very

like design, has not always led to the inference

that there must be, behind

all

natural phenomena,

a creative, intelligent, and personal mind.

the contrary, the

On

tendency

has often been to

invest Nature herself with Divine attributes

'

that

Art. " Metaphysic" in Eticyc. Brit., p. 99, vol. xvi.

IN THE METAPHYSIC OF ARISTOTLE.

is,

69

towards Pantheism.
with

This was not the case,

however,

Aristotle.

His

theory

of

the
sur-

universe has long been exploded, and

vives

now

only

as

an

interesting

relic

of
it is

ancient
desirable

philosophical speculation.

And

yet

we should know what

correlate

it

was

in outline, if

we would

rightly his

conception of

Personality,

whether human or Divine.

The
in

earth he held to be the stationary centre

of the universe, with the seven planets, including

their

number the sun and moon, moving

left.

in

oblique courses from right to

But the whole

outer heaven, or sphere of the stars, was composed,

not of matter, but of a divine ether, moving from

to right,

left

and deriving

its

motion from the surround-

ing Godhead, the Essence, or Being, which moves

all

things,

but

is

Himself unmoved.

Aristotle

speaks of
things."

Him

as "the
else

Unmoved Mover

of

all

Whatever

He

is.

He

is

Personal.
;

He
His

is

not pure thought, like Hegel's Prius

the thinking upon thought.

for

life is

Nor can

He
is

think of anything inferior to Himself, for to

do so would imply change and degradation.

a Personal Deity
; ;

He

but

He
is

lives aloof

from His

creatures

and enters
If

into

no
its

relations with the

material universe.

He

Maker,

He

leaves

70
it

AN ESSAY ON
to take care of

PERSONALITY.
Such was
all

itself.

Aristotle's

conception of the Prius of

it

things.

He

held

to be

no abstract impersonal thought, but a man, and the human Per-

personal Deity.

How,
sonality
within,

then, about
>

Man

he conceived of as being partly

and partly without the sphere of Nature.

Within, so far as

man

is

the highest product of

all
is

Nature, and, in a sense, the end, for which

besides
is

the means.

And

yet,

he held, there
fall

something about

man
this

which does not

within

the sphere of Nature, and therefore transcends

Nature.

And
in

something he regarded as

coming
to

from

without,

and therefore belonging

that ethereal

essence of which the supernal

heavens,

and the starry spheres are composed.

And

thus the Personality of man, by virtue of his

soul,

reasonable

was brought

into

relationship

more or

less direct,

with his personal Prius, the

all things.^

Unmoved Mover

of

Personality in the Hegelian System.

"Pure thought," according to Hegel,

Prius
'

is

the

of

all

things.

But
article

it

is

not

easy to

See Sir Alex. Grant's

I

on Aristotle in the Encyc,

Britannica, to which

am

partly indebted for the above digest.

IN THE HEGELIAN SYSTEM.

ascertain with

71

certainty

what he conceived
it

this

pure thought to be, and what

contained.

In

one place we are told

as

"

that

it

must be conceived

a living principle, a principle which only in

itself,

self-manifestation can be conscious of

to

and
self-

the

very

nature
is

of

which,
^

therefore,

manifestation

essential."

In another place
all
'

we

are told, "

At

the basis of
is

reality,

whether material or mental, there

thought.'

But the thought thus regarded as the

is

basis of all existence

distinction of
stuff of

not consciousness with

its

ego and non-ego.

It is rather the
(? "

which both mind and nature

extended
as in

matter

")

are

made, neither

the

natural

world, nor self-centred as in the mind.

in
its

Thought

primary form
fluid,

is,

as

it

were, thoroughly

transparent,
trable
life

free

and mutually interpenespirit

in

every

part

the
had

in its

seraphic

before

Creation

produced

natural

world, and thought had risen to an independent

'

Encyc.

Brit.,

Art.

" Metaphysic,"

p.

100.

The following
the fundamental
to

passages
basis from

from

the article on

Metaphysic in the Encyclopedia

Britannica will be found helpful as laying

down

which self-consciousness proceeds, according

Hegel

"In the Hegelian Logic self-consciousness is interpreted as a unity, which realizes itself through difference and the reconciliation
of difference

an

organic unity of elements, which exist only as

Ibid.

they pass into each other."

72

AN ESSAY ON
is

PERSONALITY.
'

existence in the social organism."

Thought,
the

in this

primary form,
which, though
in

what Hegel

calls

" Idea,"

fundamental, becomes also

It

final

the process of the world.

in

only takes the

form of consciousness

the crowning develop-

ment of the mind.

thought become
origin

Only with philosophy does

of itself in
its

fully conscious

and development.
to

Now, whatever we may be able

of the above paragraphs,
assent
to

make out

and whether we can

them, or not, one thing at any rate

that

seems

plain,

Hegel himself did not claim

for his Prius, his pure thought, his " Idea," either

self-consciousness

or

personality.

We
itself

are

to

regard

it

as a living principle, indeed, and, as a

for

principle,

ever
at

manifesting

in

the

universe, but
in

the same time as

unconscious

and of

itself,

and only reaching the summit of

self-conscious

personality in the

mind and

soul

of man.^

Encyc. Brit., Art. "Hegel,"

vol. xi. p. 6i8.

"

The

criticism
is

of

Professor

Ward,

though

directed

against

Naturalism,

equally applicable to the Hegelian theory of a Prius

of pure thought, or "mind-stuff."

in

"The more

clearly

we succeed
its

mentally depicting such 'mind-stuff' or 'matter-stuff' in

which we call it the more hopeless and absurd will appear the emergence therefrom of a living feeling, Ego, and a known non-Ego." Naturalism and Agnosticism, vol. ii.
nakedness
it

is

indifferent

255-


THE HIGHER PANTHEISM.
The
there
inevitable.,

73

and only legitimate conclusion

to which
is

we

are led

by Hegel's Logic

is,

that

but one Personality in the Universe

the

Personality of

Man.

And

as

for

any

dis-

tinction

between a Divine and human Personality,

between
latter

or

any relationship
of
the

the
to

two,

or

any
it

responsibility

the
is

Former,

cannot be maintained.

The Divine
Divine.

the human,
is

and the human

is

the

The human

not an object to the Divine nor the Divine to

the human.

Such a system,

it is

hardly necessary
its

to point out, can never, as regards

theological

aspect, rise higher than an intellectual Pantheism,

that

Higher

Pantheism

so

well

expressed

in

Tennyson's
" Dark
For
is is

lines
:

the world to thee

thyself art the reason

feel

why
'

He

not

all

but thou, that hast power to

am

'

"

The Higher Pantheism.

It

has been said that Hegel, because he grasped

itself,

the concrete character of thought in

was

enabled

to

understand

the

necessary unity of

thought or self-consciousness with the world, and

heal

the division

of

physics

from metaphysics

which Aristotle had admitted.

But,
if this

be

true,

then

it is

evident that the

breach has only been healed by the triumph of

74

AN ESSAY ON
the
allowed, the

PERSONALITY.
of
that

Pantheism, and
Aristotle
deity,

loss

which
Jove

even
as

existence

of

though somewhat too otiose and neglectful

of his duties.
I

know

shall

be laying myself open to a

if I

charge of great presumption,

venture to

make

any

critical

observations on the reasoning and

conclusions of the Hegelian Logic and Philosophy

in

regard to the subject of Personality.

so, I

If

venture to do
I

wish

it

to be understood, that

submit

my

criticisms with the

utmost deference

to far deeper thinkers

I.

and logicians than myself.

that
is

It

appears to

me

we

are

left in

a state

of uncertainty as to what

to be understood

by

the Prius of " pure thought."

or

Perhaps we have,
is

we
is "

think

we

have,

some notion of what

;

nieant
it

by

" pure

thought

"

but when

we

are told

mind-stuff "

the
I

stuff of

which both mind

and nature are made, neither extended and embodied as

in the

natural world, nor self-centred

confess, I find myself at sea.
least,

as in mind, then,

Surely,
if

there

is

here an inconsistency at

not a contradiction in terms.

Surely "pure

thought" must be thought unmixed and uncombined with anything whatsoever beside
especially with matter.
itself,

but


KANT, FICHTE, SCHOPENHAUER.

75

2. Have we any experience of thought, or can we conceive of it, except as the product of the mind of a thinker ? As throwing some light

on

this

aspect of the
to

Hegelian system

and

its

relation
I

the precurrent philosophy of Kant,

venture to quote the following extract from

article

the

on

Schopenhauer

in

the

Encyc.

Britannica.

According to Kant

his successors

Behind thinking there is the thinker. But to from Flchte to Hegel this axiom of the plain man is set aside as antiquated. Thought,
or conception, without a subject-object appears as

"

the principle
sality,
it

thought

or thinking in

its

univer-

is

without any individual substrata in which Thinking {to voeTv) or thought embodied.
to be substituted for
part, there

(vot)(Tte) is

mind

(vov?)."

For
choose
the

my

seems
"

little

or nothing to

between the
of

thought

"

of

Hegel and
are
;

" will "

Schopenhauer.

Both

alike

impersonal and void of self-consciousness

I

and

can no more conceive of "thought" without

I

a thinker, than

can of "will " without a "wilier."

Perhaps

shall

be called " antiquated

Well, be
it

" for

hold-

ing such a view.

3.

so.

Is the self-manifestation
'

theory satisfactory
p.

Encyc. Brit.,

Art. " Schopenhauer,"

457.

76

AN ESSAY ON
are
told

PERSONALITY.
Prius of pure thought
it

We

that the

is

self-manifesting,

and that

reaches

its

highest

stage of self-conscious personality

first in

mankind.

Now, geology

assures

us that

man appeared on
nature.
itself"

the earth late in the order of animated

Assuming, then, that "thought conscious of

is

a higher form
stage
it

of thought than

when
would

in

the

unconscious

(otherwise

it

be

no

development),

follows that

the only Prius, or

living principle,
all

which

is

the root and source of

existence, whether

natural

or spiritual, proitself.

duces something greater than

words, the stream
4.
is

In other
its

made

to rise above

source.^

Again

ask, is not Hegel's theory of a self-

manifesting Prius,

arriving

at

self-consciousness

and personality

in

man, an

illogical concept,
?

and

really a contradiction in terms

"Only
become
But

in

self-manifestation

does

the

Prius

self-conscious."

if

Nature and the whole universe be the

of

self-manifestation

the
is

Prius

then,

surely,

it

follows that whatsoever

self-conscious
'

manifested, up to the

personality

of

man,

must be

It is impossible,

beginning with the material world, to explain

potentiality, has

the

mind by any

process of distillation or development, unless

consciousness, or

its

been there from the

first."

Art.

"Hegel," Encyc.

Brit., p. 618.

THE FORMULA
manifestation
therefore

1=1.
Prius,

77

of the "self" of the

first
is

and

must have been from the

in
it
;

essentially

and potentially inherent

that

to say, the

Prius must always have been self-conscious

personal,

and

and the theory of an impersonal

Prius,

reaching self-consciousness through self-manifestation in

man

is

an

illogical concept.

The Formula

1=1.
is

This in the Hegelian System

the Universe.
It

the

Formula of

denotes the Unity of Thought

that the Prius of
it

with

itself

Not merely

Thought
one with

manifests itself in Nature, but that

is

Nature
or

that

Thought and Matter

are

two parts

aspects of

one organic whole, which stand

each other of subject and object,

in the relation to

and which

have

no

existence

except

in

this

relationship.^

This

is

analogous to the doctrine of Divine

Immanence, which forms one aspect of Christian

Metaphysic

the doctrine of God

1

in

Nature.
it

But the formula

is
'

1,

and what
equally
is

connotes,
to

one which
" Each

lends

itself

well

factor in this unity, in fact,

itself into

necessarily conceived as
is

passing beyond
it

the other

the subject
is

subject, only as
it

relates itself to the object, the object

object, only as

relates

itself to the subject."

Professor Caird, writer of Art. "Metaphysic "

in Encyc. Brit,

78

AN
is

ESSA Y ON PERSONALITY.
"God
is
it

Pantheistic interpretation.

Nature, and

Nature

God."

And

here, as

seems to me,

the Logic of

Hegel and Christian Metaphysic

must part company.

the Divine
to
find
its

The
in

Christian do'^trine of

Immanence

Nature

may be

said

analogue in Hegel's self-manifesting

Prius of pure thought.

is

But Divine Immanence

;

only one aspect of Christian Metaphysic

is

the

other

that of the Divine Transcendence.

Not

only does the Prius manifest Himself in Nature,

and so become one with

this.

it

but,

while doing
as
is

His self-conscious

Personality,

distinct

from Nature and transcending Nature,

asserted.

distinctly

And

it

is

just

because Hegel failed

Divine transcendence,

to safeguard this doctrine of

that his system can never be really brought into

harmony with

Christian

Metaphysic

and

the

Christian religion.

And

yet

it

does not appear that

Hegel was
discrepancy

conscious of

any

real

and

radical

between the two.

On

the contrary,

it

is

evident

from his Lectures on the Philosophy of Religion

that

he

thought

Christianity,

regarded

in

its

metaphysical

and

dogmatic

aspect,
in

would

be

explained

and

interpreted

accordance with

the principles of his

own

system.

HEGEL AND CHRISTIANITY.

forms and gradations of religious
to

79

In these Lectures, after reviewing the various

belief,

he comes

what

is

called the absolute religion of Chris-

tianity, in

which the mystery of the reconciliation

between God and

man

is

openly taught

and

expressed in Christian dogma. a Trinity because He is a Spirit. The of this truth is the subject of the Christian Scriptures. The Son of God, in the
"

God

is

revelation

immediate aspect, is the finite world of nature, and man, who is far from being at one with his Father, is originally in an attitude of estrangement.

The

history of Christ

is

the visible recon-

ciliation (Synthesis)

between

man and

the Eternal.

With the death of

Christ this union, ceasing to

be a mere fact, becomes a vital idea the Spirit of God, which dwells in the Christian community."^
Doubtless, there
this.
is

a Christian ring about

it

all

Nay,

further,

is

statement

of

the

Christian system, which in

many
;

points any ortho-

dox
Logic

Christian

might endorse
naturally on

but

is

it

fruit

which grows
?

the tree of

Hegel's

Or

is

it

only an attempt to apply his

antithesis,

triadic

law of

thesis,

and synthesis to

a system of metaphysic and philosophy, which,

on one cardinal point

'

at least,

is

opposed to that

Art,

" Hegel," Encyc. Brit.

8o

AN ESSAY ON

PERSONALITY.
to
establish
after

Logic?

The harmony he sought

opposed
its

seems forced and unnatural, and those who

his death his system, attacked
it

on the
ten-

very ground of
dency.'^

pantheistic or

atheistic

Indeed,

it

seems a self-evident proposition, that

the metaphysic which postulates nothing but an

impersonal thought, as the Prius of

all things,

can

never
'

rise to

the higher level of personality.

Hegelianism, as a separate system of philosophy, did not long

its

maintain

ground even in Germany, hut

its

influence

on philosophic

thought has been deep and widespread both in Germany and

outside.

" Fichte and

Hegel," says Dr. Bain, in his summary of the

"being overmastered with the idea of unity, and attaching themselves by preference to ; the dignified mental side, became Pantheists of an ideal school, resolving all existence into mind or ideas." Mind and Body, p. 194.
theories of the soul, to

had

make

a choice

"

SECTION

II.

PERSONALITY CONSIDERED ON
GROUNDS.
The a
posteriori

"

A POSTERIORI

view
tliis

Mr. Illingworth
view of the

from

subject,

on Personality Inferences and Summary.

Let

us

now proceed
start

to

consider

Personality

from the a posteriori point of view.

We
that

assume and

from the

fact of
is

human
to

Personality.

To deny

this to

be a fact

deny

we

are self-conscious agents, and in so doing

we preclude

ourselves from the capability and the

possibility of proceeding

any further with

this in-

vestigation

for, if

we

are not certain of the fact

spirits,

of our personal existence as self-conscious

then there
of which
the fact of

is

no other

fact in the

wide universe
of

we can be

certain.

The admission

human

Personality, then, forms the very

all

foundation, on which

subsequent reasoning and

conclusions must be based.

And

here

I
II.

would observe,

in passing, that the

VOL.


82

AN ESSAY ON
how
this

PERSONALITY.
Personality

question

human

came

to be

what

it is, is

a matter of indifference in our present

It

investigation.

matters not whether

it

it

sprang
fiat
its

into existence full-fledged, as

were, at the
it

of the Almighty, or present stage

of

whether

arrived

at

development by a slow

and
it

gradual process of evolution.

is

In either case,

the product of a power, and the outcome of

causes,

which must be adequate to the

total effect

produced.

But evolution, apart from the evolving

it,

force behind

can produce nothing.

It is

only

the

name

for a process or

method of procedure.

But,

if it

be a matter of comparative indifference

Personality

how
is,

the

human

came

to

be what

it

the question, "

what

it is

" is

one of paramount
this point
?

importance.
us hear what

Are we agreed on

Let

some

of the best authorities say.

Mr. lUingworth has made the subject of Personality

in

special

sense
his

his

own, and

the

following

extracts
is

from

book
:

on

Divine

Immanence

much

to the point

" Spirit, then, as

we know

it

in

our

own

personal

experience, has two different relations to matter,

that of

transcendence and that of immanence.

logically distinct, these
;

But though

two

relations

are not actually separate

they are two aspects


IMMANENCE AND TRANSCENDENCE
of one
single
fact,

83

two points of view from which the

of

action

our one

personaHty

may

be
self-

regarded.

As

self-conscious,

self-identical,

determined, we possess qualities which transcend, or rise above the laws of matter but we can only realize these qualities, and so become aware
;

conversely, material objects

of them, by acting in the material world ; while, our bodies and our works of art could never possibly be regarded

as expressions of

spirit, if spirit

were not at the

its

same time recognized

of manifestation."
^

as distinct from

medium

"

And again Now we find,

on

reflection, that
is,

what we

call

our

spirit transcends, or

in a sense,

independent
it

of the bodily organism on which otherwise

entirely depends.

so

Metaphysically speaking, this

is seen in our self-consciousness, or power of separating ourself as subject from ourself as object, a thing wholly inconceivable as the result of any

material process, and relating us at once to an

order of being which

material."

we

are obliged to call im-

Such, according to Mr. Illingworth,

Personality.
spirit
It
is

is

human
cominterspirit,

a wonderful combination of

and matter, of subject and object

is

bination in which, though there

action, there
is
'

mutual

no confusion,
Divine Immanence,

in

which the

p. 68.


84

AN ESSAY ON
it

PERSONALITY.
and
in a

while

is

immanent
it,

in matter,

measure

dependent upon

is

yet able to rise above, and

it.

to act independently of

We

have to remember, besides, that

is

this

human

Personality

part of the natural order of things,

the outcome of
energetic in

some

force or

power inherent and

nature,

and the highest product

far as

the finished article

so

our experience goes,

which that force or power has produced.

Inferences

and Summary.

What, then, are the inferences or conclusions

to which this
fact of

human

Personality points
:

They would seem

1.

to be the following

On

the principle, Causa semper mqiiat effectum,

call
it

there

must be behind nature a Power,

will,

what you
results

that

is

adequate to the highest

the
self-conscious

produced,

including

personal spirit of man.

2.

That, judging from analogy, this Power, not

its

being of a lower order than the highest of

products, will be a Spirit similar to our
kind, though infinitely superior in degree
;

own

in

a Spirit
at the

which

is

both immanent

in Nature,
;

and

same time transcends Nature

a Person in

Whom,


SUMMARY.
85

as in our own, both subject and object are combined, but not confused.

To
"

quote Mr. Illingworth once more

tain

a machine, or book, or picture, but a perpetually

be conceived as ever-present to susand animate the universe, which then becomes living manifestation of Himself no mere

He must

sounding voice."

Summary.
clearly

The

consideration of

Personality,

then, from the a posteriori point of view, points

and consistently to the existence of a Prius and personal,

" in

spiritual
in

Who

is

immanent
live,

in

Nature

such sense that

Him we

and move, and

have our being," yet

Nature, and
is

at the

same time transcends

it.

not to be confounded with

:

It is

the view of the Psalmist the water-flood

for ever."
:

"

The Lord

sitteth

above

and the Lord remaineth a King

Reader,

let

me

ask, did

you ever grow a Trumpet

?

Lily {Lilium longifloruvi)

If not, let

me

recom-

mend you to do so, for you do not know, until you try, how much pleasure it can give you. " Sermons
in stones," says our great English Bard.

"Con-

sider the

lilies,"

says the Prophet of Nazareth.

this

And

what a sermon does

'

exquisite flower

Divine Immanence,

p. 73.

86

AN ESSAY ON
its
!

PERSONALITY.
its

preach me, with

trumpet tongue,

sublime

yet silent eloquence

instance of Divine

stand before

it I

I seem to see in it a striking immanence in Nature. As I feel bound as by a spell, in which

admiration

is

mingled with reverential awe.

Its

graceful form

and purity of
outline,
its

tint, its

boldness and

symmetry of

ravishing perfume and

dignified repose, bespeak the presence of a

Power
It

before which

could

fall

down and

worship.

seems as though God

Himself were speaking to

me

through that flower, and revealing to

me

some-

thing of His ineffable beauty and loveliness.

To

entertain an impure thought, an unchaste desire,

in the presence of that flower

would surely be an
done to
see in
it
it

act of sacrilege, a dishonour

Him Who
a reflection

manifests Himself

therein.

of the Divine Being, which, while

soul,

ravishes

my

begets in

and possess

me the desire to know Him Him in fuller measure.

better,

SECTION

III.

PERSONALITY IN THE CHRISTIAN SYSTEM OF

METAPHYSIC AND RELIGION.
Three propositions
I.

The

Prius of

all

things

is

a Self-conscious personal Unity.

{i)

II.

Self-manifesting

by

{a)

Generation,

Creation,

{c)

Im-

manence,
III.

{d) Incarnation,

Self-reconciling.

First Proposition.

Second Proposition.
(a)

The Prius a Self-conscious Personal Unity. The Christian Prius Self-manifesting by Creation What Life? Mr. Spencer's Generation, definition The birth of the Soul Manifestation of the Prius
{!>)

is

by

(it)

Immanence

ITomi) speculum

Dei

Prius through (d) Incarnation

non-Christian systems

The

Not

Manifestation

of the

considered improbable in

Christian Incarnation

The argu-

ment

for

it.

Third Proposition.

Dualism
sin

Hegel's

Differences and their reconciliationThe mystery of

triadic

The Christian
law

Prius a Self-reconciling Unity

illustrated in Christian

Metaphysic

Reconciliation of wills through the Incarnation.

In no

respect, perhaps,

is

the difference between

the various systems of secular and Christian Metaphysic more clearly defined and accentuated than
in

their

respective treatment of the

subject of

Personality.


88

AN ESSAY ON
We

PERSONALITY.
is

have already seen how Personality

dealt

with in some of the principal systems of secular

Metaphysic.

We

now come

to consider

how

it is

dealt with in Christian Metaphysic.

By

Christian Metaphysic, as distinguished from

secular, I

understand that Metaphysic, which forms

the philosophic basis of the Christian Religion, and

of which Christianity
is

the religious expression.

?

But what

is

Christian Metaphysic

It is

almost

needless to say, that for any authoritative state-

ments

in

answer to

this question

we must have

recourse to the sacred Records of the Old and

New
three

Testaments.
following

And

venture to submit the

propositions, as

embodying the

main doctrines and conclusions of Christian Metaphysic

:

Propositions of Christian Metaphysic.

I.

The

Prius of

all

things

is

a self-conscious

personal Unity.
II.

Self-manifesting.

III. Self-reconciling.

Of

course,

it

is

needless to say, that these pro-

positions do not admit of absolute proof.

But there

are two points, on which the reader has a right to

demand

the fullest satisfaction.


CHRISTIAN METAPHYSIC.
First, are

89

they such as

may

rightly be called
?

propositions of Christian Metaphysic

in the second place, afford a rational

Do

they,

and probable

theory, on which to

account for the facts and

are conscious or sensible,
?

phenomena of which we

either within or without us

To
fore,

afford satisfaction on these

will

two

points, there-

be

my

first

endeavour.

And we

will

take the propositions in the order in which they

appear.

Proposition

I.

The Christian Prius

Personal Unity.
is

is

Self-conscious,

That the Christian Prius

consistently repre-

sented as a self-conscious Unity in the sacred

Scriptures
will, I

imagine, be generally admitted.

Both

in the

Old and

New

Testaments the

fact is

both repeatedly and variously asserted, as every

child in a

Sunday school would

tell us.

There

is

no need,

therefore, for a long string of texts,

and

two

will suffice.

Deut.

vi.

"

God (= Jehovah, (= Jehovah)."

Col.
i.

Hear, O Israel, the Lord our our Elohim) is One Lord

is

17
all

"

And He

before

all

things,

and

by Him

things consist."

90

AN ESSAY ON

PERSONALITY.

Self-conscious

Neither can
consciousness
for
is

it

be necessary to show, that

self-

an attribute of the Christian Prius

passages without number could be quoted in

it
is,

which

either

directly stated, or left to be

inferred.

Creation,
is

and especially the creation of man,

:

spoken of as the result of self-conscious action Let us make man."

"

of of

And again, St. Him as " working all things after His Own Will." (Eph. 1 1.)
i.

Paul speaks
the counsel

Personality of the Prius.

If the Christian

Prius be self-conscious, then

Personality must also be attributed to

self-consciousness
is

Him,

for

of the essence of Personality.

But,

if

Personality be claimed as an attribute of

the

Prius,

we must remember
which

that
it

it

is

in

different sense to that in

is

claimed for

man.

Each man
Divine Prius

is is

individually a person.

But the

not an individual Person, but a

Trinity of Three distinct Persons.

And He
is

is

One, only by virtue of the unity or union of these

Three Persons

in

One.

His Unity

not the

PERSONALITY OF THE PR /US.

91

unity of a single individual, as in the case of man,

but that of a community of Three Persons.

of these

Each

Persons possesses the same attributes

in equal measure,

and

it

is

the participation in
in

common

of these attributes

which the Unity

If
I

of the Personal Prius consists.

may be

per-

mitted, without irreverence, to borrow an illustration

it

from the world of commerce,

a

would compare

to

company

or society of three men,

who

unite to form a business firm for trade or

manu-

facture, and in which they each place equal sums

of money.
three.

The
firm

firm
is

is

one, but the partners are

The
is.

not a person, but each of the

firm possesses no personality,
partners,

partners

The

and
it

yet,

by virtue of the personality of the

attribute,

becomes invested with that

is

and the
the

firm

said

to

do

things, as

representing

unanimous consent and intentions of the partners.

So the

Prius of Christian Metaphysic

is

a Unity,

not by virtue of being

of the Three Persons

One Person, but because each

is

an equal sharer
is

in the

One

Divine Substance which

common

to

them

all.*

" Each Person

in the Blessed Trinity has the attributes of the

Others, so that the distinctions of Persons whereby They be, in some incomprehensible way, distinguished from Each Other, coalesce
in the Unity of the

Godhead."

(St.

Aug.,

De

Trin.

lix.)


92

AN ESSAY ON
That

PERSONALITY.

this doctrine of the threefold Personality

in the

Unity of the Prius

This,

is

mysterious

we

fully

admit.
its

however,

is

no argument against
For
in

truth

and

probability.

the
its

human
Maker,

Personality,

regarded as a type

of

we

encounter the same, or a similar,

therefore, as
St.

difficulty.

And,

Augustine points out, we

until

ought not to question about Him,

first

we have

learned the mystery in ourselves.

itself and its knowledge, and love as a sort of image of the Trinity and these three are one and one substance. Nor is the offspring less (than the parent), since the mind

"

The mind
is

the third,

knoweth
less,

itself just as
it

much

as

it is ;

since

loveth itself as
it is."

and as much as 4&ff.)

much (Aug., De

as

nor the love it knoweth,

I.

Trin.,

ix. c.

The Names of God.

The very names by which

are

the

Divine Prius

is

revealed indicate the nature and attributes which

claimed for Him.

:

Take, for example, the

following

Elohim (Heb.).
but
first
is

This

word

is

a plural in form,

joined to verbs in
of

the singular.
Prius,
it

As
is

the

name

the Divine

asserts

His
the

Unity, and claims in His behalf, that

He

THE NAMES OF
only Source of
all

GOD.

93

the forces and influences by

first

which the Universe was

created,

and

is

now
into

governed, developed, and maintained.

Jehovah
existence."

(or

Yahveh),

"

He Who

brings

This

name denotes

that the

Divine

Prius

is

the Self-Existent, the one and only source

of being

the

Absolute, the Unconditioned, the

Eternal One.^

El-Shaddai (Heb.).
lated

El, which

is

usually trans-

"God,"

denotes

primarily

"might,"

or

" power," or " force."

The second name,

is

Shaddai,
not that

indicates the nature of this power, which

of violence, but All-bountifulness and Love.^

is

He
the

Almighty, but His

'

Almightiness

is

of

"And God said unto Moses, ' I Am that I Exod. iii. 14 and He said. Thus shalt thou say unto the children of (Ehyeh) hath sent me unto you." And Is. xlv. 6, Israel, I Am "I Am, and there is none beside Me." See also Deut. vi. 4: " Hear, O Israel The Lord our God (Jehovah our Elohim) is one Lord (Jehovah)." This latter passage claims on behalf of Jehovah that He, and He alone, is the One Absolute Uncaused God. 2 "'Shaddai' primarily means 'breasted' or 'the breasted Shad = breast, and especially a 'woman's one,' from Heb.
Cf.
: '
:

Am

'

'

'

'

breast.'

"

Rev. A. Jukes, Names of God,

titles,
i.e.

p. 66.

" Shaddai" as one of the Divine

denoted the " Power " or

fruits.

" Shedder-forth,"
37),

of blessings

and

The Sheddim,

referred to as objects of idolatrous worship (Deut. xxxii. 17 ; and were the many-breasted idols representing the genial Ps. cvi.

powers of nature, the givers of rain, and pourers-forth of fruits and See '?sx\!aax%\.'i Hebrew Lexicon, s. v. "Shaddai" and increase.

" Sheddim."

94

AN ESSAY ON
:

PERSONALITY.

breast

that

is,

of self-sacrificing affection, giving

the good of others.

and shedding

itself for

El Shaddai,

then, reveals the Divine Prius under

the attribute of Love.

He Who
;

is

power and force

pure thought and intelligence

the Absolute, the

is

Unconditioned Self-Existent One,

also Love.

He
of

is

Power,

Thought,
All
life

Existence,
is

rendered

operative the

by Love.

the self-realization
is

All-loving

One.

The Universe

the

Self-manifestation of the Uncreated, instinct with

His own attributes of power,

love.

intelligence,
it

and

And
as

this

name. El Shaddai, while

claims
Prius,
in

Love

the animating

principle of the
it

so also,

by

direct inference,

reveals
is

Him

His

Attribute of Paternity.

He
is

the All-Father,

and from
But

Him

all

fatherhood
is

derived.^
;

" will " also

the prerogative of a father

hence a further inference to be drawn from

this

name " El-Shaddai

" is

that the Divine Prius, beside

embracing under His Personality the attributes

of Power, and Pure Thought, of Self- Existence, of

Love and
'

Paternity,

is

also the source

and seat
xii.

Epli.

iii.

15
is

'E^ ov iratra irarpta 6uofid^Tat.

See also Heb.

Ixviii.
Ixiii.

9,

where

He

called

" the Father of

spirits

" and Ps.

Is.

"Jah"
of us."

is

also

"A

Father of the fatherless ;" and

5 : 16:

"Doubtless Thou

art our Father,

though Abraham be ignorant


TRINITY IN UNITY.
of Sovereign Will.
will

95

Indeed, a moment's reflection

show
latter.
is

us, that the

former necessarily involve

conceive of
is

the

It is impossible to

One
not

Who

power and thought and love who

also possessed of will.^

The
position

following,

then,

to

speak

briefly,

is

the

assumed by Christian Metaphysic with

its

regard to
1.

Divine Prius

It involves Personality as its essential

prin-

ciple
2.

and

characteristic.
is

This Personality
It is that

not

simple, but

three-

fold.
3.

of a Trinity of Persons.

These Three
that

Persons

are

so

intimately

united

they form but

One

Being,

Who

is

the Absolute, the Unconditioned, the Uncaused

Cause of

all things.

Bearing in mind, then, how, according to the

teaching
of
Christian

Metaphysic,

Personality
let

forms an essential principle of the Prius,

pass

us

on

to

the

consideration

of

our

second

proposition.

'

We

see
is

how Schopenhauer's
under
its

contention, that " Will

is

Lord

of all,"

the enunciation of a great truth, which only becomes

reconciled with reason

physic.

treatment

by Christian Meta-


96

AN ESSAY ON

PERSONALITY.

Proposition II. 7^^ Christian Prius

Self- man ifes ting.

is

We
indeed,

are not left in

any doubt that Christianity

be
will
true.

does claim this proposition to

And,

moment's

reflection

show, that,
illusions,
it

unless Nature
follows, as

and the Universe be

necessary corollary
Prius

from the
things

first is

Proposition, that the

of

all

personal Unity.

In various ways has this Self-manifestation been

going forward
most,
if

but we shall
of them,

find,

believe, that

not

all

may be

arranged under
:

one or other of the following heads

()
{b)
{c)

Generation.
Creation.

Immanence and

Effusion.

{d) Incarnation.

Let us consider them

bering, that
true, which

in this order, still

remem-

my

object

is,

not to prove them to be

is

under the circumstances

impossible, but

only to show that they are concepts and doctrines

of Christian Metaphysic, which are either explicitly, or
implicitly contained in the Christian sacred writings.

SELF-MANIFESTATION BY GENERATION.
{a) First

97

Method of Self-manifestation of
Prius: by Generation.

the

From

all

eternity the Prius adopted this

method
of the

of Self-manifestation.

The very mystery

it.

Threefold Personality involves

For the second

Person
of a

is

represented as

occupying the relation

St. Paul, the great

Son

to the First Person.

exponent of Christian Metaphysic, speaks of the

Second Person as

" the first-born of all creation."

And
"

the First Person he calls the Father, because

from

Him

every family in heaven and earth

is

named.^

Then from the

which

First

and Second Persons, Co-

equal^ and Consubstantial, there proceeds the Spirit,

is

shared in

common by them

both, the

Third Person of the Trinity

^

the Holy Ghost.*

cTri yrisovofj.<i^eTa.i.

Col.

i.

15

'

TIpwtotSkos

irdcTTis

Kria-ews.

'E^ ov trao'^ Trarpia iv ovpavols KaX

Lit. "all-

fatherhood."
'
*

Col.

i.

ig

nSc

t!) irXiipuixa.

See for the further enunciation of these doctrines the Nicene From the Eternal generation of the and Athanasian Creeds. Second Person there follows the Eternal procession of the Third. The view held by the Bishops and Doctors who drew up these Creeds was " that the Father is the Head and Fountain of Deity (ni)7^ coT^TOs), from Whom the Son and Holy Spirit are from
all eternity derived,

but so derived as not to be divided from the

but they are in the Father and the Father in Them by a Bp. Browne, Thirty-Nine certain irepix^pTiais or inhabitation."

Father

Ari.,p. 58.

VOL.

II.


98

AN ESSAY ON
But
this

PERSONALITY.
falls

aspect

of our subject

rather
I

within the
will
its

domain of Theology, and therefore

it,

not dwell upon

further than to point out

important bearing on those methods of SelfIt is " in

manifestation which follow.

Him "
as
is

and

"through
creates
;

Him "2
is

that

the

Prius,

Father,

it

by His

Spirit that

He

immanent

throughout the Universe.

In his paper on

"The Evidences
J.

of Design in

Nature," the late Mr. G.

manifest approval extracts from the Rev.

Romanes quoted with Aubrey Amongst them

is

Moore's Essay in
the following
:

Lux Mundi.

" It seems as if, in the providence of God, the mission of modern science was to bring home to our unmetaphysical ways of thinking the great truth of the Divine immanence in creation."

{V)

Second Method of Self-manifestation of t/ie Prius: by Creation.

in the Christian

That many of the statements

Records,

which

describe

the

Prius

as

Self-

manifesting in creation, are couched in anthropo-

morphic language need not surprise

us,

when we

remember they were intended

'

to convey abstract
'

Col.

i.

i6.

Heb.

i.

2.

SELF-MANIFESTATION BY CREATION.
ideas
to

99

people in an early stage of civilization

and

intellectual

development.

In

no other way-

could those ideas have been rendered intelligible.

And we
heathen

find the

same method adopted

and
especially

in
in

the

mythologies,

the

polytheism of ancient Greece and Rome.

while
less
it

But

need not surprise

to

us,

it

is

none the
for
it.

important

make due allowance

fact,

Moreover, as a matter of

we do

find

abun-

dant warnings, even

in

the Jewish and Christian

Records themselves, against errors and misconceptions,

which might

arise

from anthropomorphic

language and modes of thought.

The very

prohibition of idolatry in the Second

Commandment of the Decalogue is a case in point. God is a Spirit nor must we conceive of Him as comparable to any earthly similitude. And this applies not only to outward form, but
;

to inward thought

and

intelligence.

" For as the so are

heavens are higher than the

earth,

My

ways higher than your ways, and

than your thoughts."
^

My

thoughts

And

St.

Paul,

when reasoning with

the Epi-

curean and Stoic philosophers at Athens, warned

them against the misconception of supposing

'

that

Isa. Iv. 9.


100

AN ESSAY ON
Maker of
all

PERSONALITY.
made

the

things " dwells in temples

with hands," or

" is like

unto gold or silver or stone,

^

graven by art and device of man."

If this

means anything,

it

means that

in

our

conception of the Christian Prius and His method

of Self- manifestation by
Creation,

we must

rise

above, and free ourselves from anthropomorphism.

He

is

the Great Poet, and the Universe

is

His

poem.
carves

But

He

writes not with pen

and

ink.

He
is

not with chisel and hammer.

Nature

the canvas, on

which
is

He

is

for

ever depicting
pencil that

Himself, but
paints.

it

with no

human

He

The

following I venture
:

humbly

to submit as

the true position

1.

All

life

proceeds from and

If there

is

a manifestation
this
is

of the

Prius.

be a Prius,
is

an

axiomatic truth, for there

no

other

source
Prius,

from which
then

life

can spring.

If there

be no

chance, or

necessity, are

the

only alter-

natives.
2,

But
it

what
is

is

Life.''

According

to

Mr.

Spencer,

"

the continuous adjustment of in^

ternal relations to external relations."

And

he

adds, that
'

we may

consider the internal relations

'

Acts

xvii. 24, 29.

Psychology, p. 374.

WHA T
as
"

IS LIFE

loi

simultaneous and successive changes," and

the connection between them as "a correspondence."

This

means that

internal

phenomena

answer to external phenomena.

I

humbly submit,
is

that this
at all
is

so-called definition
;

of Life

no

definition

because

it

leaves

the question of what Life

in itself

untouched,

and gives us only a generalized expression of the

forms in which Life
is

manifested to
?

us.

Is,

then,
it

a definition of Life possible

is,

do not think

beyond saying

it

is

" the

power

to produce all

its

manifestations."
is

But we must not confound

its

what a thing

in

essence with what

potter can

it

can

produce, or become.

make
pots

pots
are

but pots don't

make
skill,

a potter.

The

the product of his

distinct

but his wares are entirely

from

it.

Life, then,
"

submit,

is

not

"

adjustment

"

or

correspondence," but the power under suitable

conditions to produce
as
I

them

and

for this power,

have endeavoured to show, we must go back

Prius,
it

to the Personal

seeing that

there

is

no

other source whence

can be derived.
this.
;

But
to

life

is

more than

It

is

the power

assimilate

for self-support

to

receive

imits

pressions,

and respond

to

stimulants

from

102

AN ESSAY ON
;

PERSONALITY.
an internal image, or
external

environment
reflexion,

to produce to

answering
or

phenomena,
the

whether physical
periential

spiritual.

And

ex-

result of all

this is the

production of

interior psychical relations,

relations,

corresponding to outer

and forming the psychical content of

in

each
ment.

stage

the

progress

of

vital

develop-

But Life

is

more even than

this

it is

the power,

not only to receive and respond to impressions

and impulses from without, and so

to

beget by

experience inner relations corresponding to outer

relations
;

it is

the power to register, to collect, to

finally to transmit all

store up,

and then

accumu-

lated experiences

and relations

to successors

by the

laws of generation and heredity.

Take a young

mole and a young

born, keep

squirrel as

soon as they are

them

in a

cage

till

they are fully grown,

will

and then turn them

hide
itself in

loose.

The mole
call

quickly

the ground, and the squirrel will run

tree.

up the nearest
It is

And we

this

instinct.

really nothing

but inherited physical and

psychical faculty.
I

submit, then, that Life

conceives
for
it

is

not

all

what Mr.
to

Spencer

to

be,

an

efTect

be

accounted

by

the

experience

of

purely

103

SELF-MANIFESTATION THROUGH
material and physical forces
;

LIFE.

but a power proceed;

ing from the Self-manifesting Prius

1.

a power

2.

To To
To

assimilate for self-support

receive,
reflect

and respond

to impres-

sions
3.

and stimulants from the environment

deal with them, and translate

them

into

mental ideas and concepts, thus establishing a system of internal psychical relations corresponding
to external relations
4.
5.

To To

register

and accumulate these

relations

transmit them to successors by the laws

of generation
cal

and

heredity,

whereby the psychi-

contept goes on continuously increasing paj'i

passu with each higher development of the vital

organism.
It is thus, I

venture to think,

we may

give a
its

rational account of the

phenomena of

Life from

lowest to

its

highest stage of progress

from the

amffiba to the

man

and whether
light,

regarded from

a physiological or psychical point of view.

Regarded
will

in

this
all

further
in

consideration

show that

Life

is
:

a double sense a
in respect to its

manifestation of the Prius

first,

source

second, in respect to

its

development.

Those who

are acquainted with Mr. Spencer's

Psychology are aware, that

on no point does he


104
insist

PERSONALITY.

AN ESSAY ON
that there
is

with greater force and frequency than the

a
perfect

fact

correspondence or

adjustment between our inner and outer relations.

"

Every form of

intelligence,"

he says,

" is

in

essence an adjustment of inner to outer relations."^

This must mean one of two things, either our

inner relations
are adjusted
to,
i.e.

our whole psychical content

in a great

and so

measure an
;

effect

produced by, our outer relations

relations
i.e.

or our outer
all its

our whole environment, with

material
or

phenomena, whether
adjusted
to,

spiritual

are

and influenced by our inner

supposition
first
is

relations.

The
effect,

latter

manifestly

absurd,

therefore the

must be
inner

true.

This means in
are
really

that

our

relations

the

product, as regards their

form, disposition and

outer
relations,

development,
material

of

those

both
our
?

and

spiritual,

which
is

constitute

environment.
is

But what

our environment

It

the world of Nature,

is

it is

the boundless Universe,

which
Prius.

again only the Self-manifestation of the

And
origin,

so

it

appears, that Life, not only in

in
is

its
its

but

every

successive

stage

of

development,

the product and creation of the

'

Psychology, p. 486.

THE BIRTH OF THE SOUL.

Self-manifesting Prius.

105

Each

individual concrete
in the

form of
life,

life,

and each increment

content of

whether physical or psychical, represents a

further adjustment

and correspondence of inner to

each manifestation received
for

outer relations.

And

and appropriated prepares the way

further

manifestations in succeeding generations.

But the
establish

power
internal

to

adjust
relations

and

correspond,
to

to

answering

external,

to

accumulate experiences, and

generation

transmit
these

them by
must
be

and

heredity,

all

regarded as the product and creation, so to speak,

of the

One and only

efficient

Cause, the Self-

manifesting Prius.^

The Birth of the

Soul.

The account

of the creation of the soul of

is

man

given us in Genesis

evidently couched in anthrocalls for

pomorphic language, which

interpretation.
life

allowance and

inferior

to

And man

in

all

the ranks of animal

the psychical development,

'

Of course, every

manifestation of the Prius must be a matter of

experience by the vital organism, for in no other

received and appropriated.

way can they be

is

In this sense there

truth in Mr.
is

Spencer's Experience Hypotliesis.

But experience

not, as

he

appears to regard
of
it.

it,

an

efficient cause,

but only the application

io6

AN ESSAY ON

PERSONALITY.

effected

through the manifestation of the Prius,

;

only reaches the stage of consciousness

but

in

man
the

it

has advanced a step further, to the stage

It
is

of self-consciousness.

at

this point,

when

Ego becomes
will

differentiated

from the non-

Ego, when the

assumes the supremacy and

control over all the other elements of the psychical

content, such
as
feeling,

thought, memory,

etc.,

that the spirit of

man becomes

a living soul, a

being endowed with individual personality, formed

through the Self-manifestation of the Prius in the

image and likeness of the Prius Himself

this
final

And
seems

result

is

well

expressed, as

it

to me,

by Professor Wundt under the heading

Personality."
^

of

"

The Ego and

"

As

the

Ego

13

the will in

its

distinction from
is

the rest of conscious content, so Personality

the

Ego

reunited in the manifold of this content, and

thereby raised to the stage of self-consciousness."

May

it

not be thus that the claims of Science

and Revelation are to be reconciled?

of Science only, but of Metaphysic also.

And

not

In the

language

of
is

Metaphysic

we

say

the

human

Personality

a Self-manifestation of the personal

Principles of Morality, p. 21.

'

IMMANENCE OF THE
Prius
;

PRIUS.
"

107

in the

language of Scripture we say,

God

made man
into

in

His own Image,"

the breath
If

"

He
life,

breathed

man's

nostrils

of

and man

became a
can teach

living soul."
us,

Metaphysic and Science

as doubtless they can, something

of the method adopted by the First Great Cause

in

the

production

and

development

of

Life,

should

we not be

thankful for their help in our

?

quest after the truth

{c)

Third Elethod of Self-manifestation of the Pruis

by Immanence

and Effusion.

As

this

branch of our subject has already been

dealt with at considerable length,

and

in a

very

convincing manner by the Rev.

J.

R. Illingworth
it

in his book on Divine Immanence,

does not

seem necessary
in detail.
I

for

me

to

go over the same ground

out, that, while in

would only point

Christian Metaphysic the Self-manifestation of the

Prius

by Creation

is

regarded as the work of the

Trinity, Self-manifestation
is

Second Person of the

by Effusion and Immanence

Third Person

the work of the

the

Spirit

which proceeds

from

the First and Second.

There are two main aspects under which the

subject

may

be regarded

though some persons


io8

AN ESSAY ON

PERSONALITY.
them
as

might, perhaps, be disposed to regard

one
{a)
{b)

Immanence

in in

Nature

Immanence

Man.

The

influence of Nature

that
The

is,

of the material
is

Universe

upon the mind and soul of man

universally acknowledged.

literature of all

nations, since the time they possessed a literature,

bears witness to

it.

Even the lowest and most

degraded forms of religion and mythology are

but the expression of a consciousness of something in Nature which
is

yet above Nature.^

And

though men have put different interpretations on

their

experience of

this

influence,

and framed

diff'erent

systems of religion and philosophy to

it,

explain

still "

beneath them

all,

that experience

remains
contact

a sense, in the presence of Nature, of

with

something

spiritual

sense

of

affinity, or kinship, as
it,

the Neo-platonists described

with the material world, implying spirituality

it."
^

within or behind
'

"Sun-myths, star-myths, myths of the mountains and the rivers trees Ue at the root, as we now know so well, of all early We have long outgrown mythology, and are intolerant religion.

and the

of doubtful logic, but the religious influence of external nature strong upon us as
it

is

as

ever was, possibly even stronger than in

p. 22.

some

bygone times." Divine Immanence, - Divine Immanence, p. 50.

IMMANENCE IN MAN.
And what
is

109

has been the result so far as

?

man
call

concerned

the birth of what, to use a single

term embracing sentiment and emotion, we

the religious instinct.
life,

Of

all

created

forms of
it.

man
is

is

the only one

it,

who
and

possesses
it

He
other

alone

capable of

is

that,
all

which

differentiates

him most completely from

of
creation.

and

lower orders

This

religious

instinct forms
It is
it,

part of

my

psychical equipment.
I

one of
it

my
It

spiritual assets.

cannot deny
universal

for

is

a matter of
is

daily and

experience.

one of

my

inner relations

but

my

inner relations, to use the language and

reasoning of Mr. Spencer, are only the counterpart of

my

outer relations, and without the latter

the

former

cannot
?

exist.

And what

is

the

inference from this

I

conclude that
its

my

religious instinct

demands

both for
in

existence and satisfaction the presence Universe, of a

in

Nature, and the whole

Spirit

answering to

my

spirit,

immanent

matter yet

transcending matter, the effluence and Self-manifestation of the Prius.

AN ESSAY ON
Immanence

PERSONALITY.

in

Man.

Homo

Speculum Dei,

But, bearing in

mind the unity of Nature and

all
life,

the solidarity of
is

we

perceive that

man

part of Nature.

Therefore in him, too, we

should expect to find the immanence of the same

Spirit

which indwells and animates Nature.

shall

Nor

we be

disappointed.

The

religious

instinct testifies to the presence in

spiritual

Nature of a
is

Influence.

But

my

religious instinct

only a part of
ment.

my

psychical content and equipfaculties

There are other

and functions

of an instinctive nature, of the reality of which

I

am

as conscious
instinct.

and assured
There
is

as I

am

of

my

religious

the perception and

apperception of

beauty
love.

for

example, of truth
I

and
it is

justice

and

However
I

came by them,

vain to

tell

me
are

do not possess them, or

that they are the illusive fictions of

tion.

my

imaginafactors,

Not only

they

co-efficients,

attributes of that
I call

entity,

which

for

convenience

my

soul,

but they are indices of a something

is

behind them which

real

and

spiritual.

And

if

my

religious instinct bears witness to the existPrius, manifesting

ence of the

Himself through

HOMO SPECULUM
immanence
in Nature,

DEI.
to

in

do not these reveal

?

me

something of His character

It is

Nature, or rather the Spirit which animates

first

Nature, which gives us our

and most

trust-

worthy lessons
tive perception

in art,

and begets

in us the instincIt is the

and love of the

beautiful.

study of the mathematical axioms and laws of

matter and space, which reveal to us the foundation stones

on which the whole

is

edifice of truth

and

justice

erected.

It is

Nature which imparts

;

to all things living their first lessons in love

and

the function of the

the

human

soul

is

to

translate

material impress into the spiritual

idea or

concept.
Spirit

But

life itself is

the immanation of the

of the Prius, and the soul of

man

is

the

mirror of God, SpeciUum Dei, in which

He

causes

Himself to be reflected

the

plastic

wax which

received the impress of His Image.

My

innate

sense of the beautiful bespeaks

source of beauty.
justice
tells

Him
and

to be the

My
that

consciousness of truth and

me
holy

He

is

true

just

my

conscience, with
that

its
;

categorical imperative of duty,

He
is

is

my

sentiment of affection, that

attribute.

love

His abiding and essential

We must not suppose, however, that the influence

of the
Self-manifesting
Prius

on man

is

only

113

AN ESSAY ON
indirectly

PERSONALITY.
through

experienced
Nature.

immanence

in

So soon

as the spirit of

man, through

the attainment of self-consciousness, arrived at the

stage of personality,
recipient of
shall

it

became thenceforth a

fitting

more

direct manifestation.
for

How

else

we account
and

the appearance from time

to time,

in various lands, of those great

ones

of the

earth,
;

such as Socrates, and Plato, and

philosophers,

Buddha

of poets and

who have
and aston-

risen like meteors in a midnight sky,

ished and enlightened

lives,

the world by their holy

their

their

devout

aspirations,
?

deep

and

prophetic insight into truth

inspired

These, surely, were

men

and what could be the source of

Prius im-

their inspiration but the Spirit of the

manent both

in

Nature and

in

man ?

"

Illingworth, "

Thus God's immanence in Nature," says Mr. we may reasonably assert, reappears
Meanwhile, our
spiritual

as inspiration in man.

character reacts upon the material instrument of

its realization, moulding the brain and nervous system, and thence the entire bodily organism, into gradual accordance with itself, till the expres-

sion of the eye, the lines of the face, the tones of

the voice, the touch of the hand, the movements, and manners, and gracious demeanour, all reveal

with increasing clearness the nature of the Spirit


IMMANENCE IN MAN.
interior

113

which has made them what they are. Thus the beauty of holiness comes by degrees to be a visible thing and through His action on
;

our

spirit,

God

is

made

manifest in our flesh."

life

And

it is

not only in

that

we have evidence

of the transforming influence of the Divine Spirit

immanent
at least of

in

the body.

doubt not that some

my

readers have been privileged to

behold that wonderful transfiguration which sometimes takes place at the

face of the

moment

of death.

The
for

humble servant of Jesus becomes

moment
now

suffused with an unearthly glory, which

ere

has wrung from the sorrowing bystanders

the exclamation, "

is

How

beautiful

death,

where

thy sting

"

It is

the Christian Euthanasia

the kiss of Psyche

with

which she bids adieu

for a while to her frail earthly

comrade

and, as

she does

so,

whispers in the

ear, "

See what glory

awaits us in the far-off land."

But

religion

is
is

the people's
this true in

Metaphysic, and

pre-eminently

the case before us.

The

Christian Religion, including in the term the

it,

Jewish Dispensation, which was preparatory to

is

the practical exemplification of the metaphysical

law of a Prius self-manifesting through effusion

'

Divine Immanence, p. 76.

I

VOL.

II.

114

AN ESSAY ON
And
it

PERSONALITY.
is

and immanence.
say, that the

hardly too
is

much
I

to

whole Christian system

based on
scarcely

the acknowledgment of this principle.

need remind
the

my

reader

how

in the

Old Testament

immanence of the

Spirit of

God

in

man
"

is

claimed, or inferred, over and over again.

in

Create

me

a clean heart,
within me.

God, and renew a right

spirit

Cast

presence, and take not

me not away from Thy Thy Holy Spirit from me."

;

Such was the prayer of the Psalmist

Prophets claimed to speak not their
to give utterance, not to their to those of the Spirit
Spirit
is

while the
words,

own

own

thoughts, but
:

which inspired them

"

The
they

of the
the

Lord

God
this

is

upon me."
the

Such

ever

justification

of
all.

message

delivered.

Nor was

These same holy

men, who "spake as they were moved by the

Holy Ghost," same

Spirit

foretold

a fuller effluence of the

:

Spirit in the future

" I

will

pour out

My

upon

all flesh

"

and a more complete and

I will

intimate immanence, " and

walk among you,

and

will

be your God."

All these promises and predictions the Christian

holds to have been

'

fulfilled, or, at

least,

the means

Isa. Ixi. I.
'

Joel

ii.

28.

Lev. xxvi. 12, and Jer. xxxi. 33.

INCARNATION.
for

115

their

fulfilment

provided, in

the

Christian

Religion, which

may

truly be described as a Dis-

pensation of the Spirit.

further in this direction

To

pursue the subject

would bring me into the

domain proper to Theology.

be
sufficient,
I

What

have said

will

imagine, to

show the consistence

and harmony between Christian Metaphysic and

the Christian Religion in respect to immanence and
effusion as

modes of Self-manifestation of the

Prius.

(^d)

Third Method of Self-manifestation of Prius : through Incarnation.

tJie

We
is

have considered the Second Proposition of

Christian Metaphysic

that the Prius of

Creation,

all

things

a self-manifesting personal Unity

as

realized

by Generation, by
Immanence.

by

Effusion,

and
last

We

come now

to the fourth

and

method, that of Incarnation, where by Incarnation

we mean
I

the Christian view and presentation of

in the first
is

it.

would observe, then,

place, that

the subject of Incarnation

Christianity.

not one peculiar to

The

ancient Mythologies and Reli-

gions of India, Greece, and other countries,

tions.

Rome, not

to

mention

may

be said to abound

in incarna-

For example, Hinduism, the most ancient

of which

religion

we have any

historic

records.

ii6

AN ESSAY ON

PERSONALITY.

claims no less than ten incarnations of Vishnu,

of which the two

most important are those of

;

Rama and
modern
the "living

Krishna

while,

to

come down

to

times,

we read only god" of Urga, who

the other day of

is

to the millions

of Chinese and Mongolian Buddhists

what the

Dalai

Lama

is

to the Buddhists in that part of

the world.^

All these
tion

many examples
show

of so-called
is

incarna-

at least

that there

nothing in the
the score

idea abhorrent to the

human mind, on
or

of being intrinsically improbable

impossible.

'

Christianity

'^

See

letter

Nov.
letter

15,

and Hinduism, by Bishop Caldwell. from a correspondent of the Standard,^\i\<^ appeared I give the following extracts from this interesting 1901.

" In the flesh he is a young man under thirty, and was in a house which is an exact replica of the Russian Consulate-General. His
personification of a deity
is chiefly

confined to religious occasions

. . .

and his public life. In private he is of the world, worldly. I was fortunate enough to see this extraordinary personage under Outside one of the beautiful Budconditions not easily forgotten. dhist temples, in a carefully guarded enclosure, was pitched a semiThe central one, resplendent with yellow silks and circle of tents. gold embroidery, with huge yellow silk umbrellas and cushions to
match, contained the throne of the living god. and surrounding him, were crowds of Lamas,
princes,
.
.
.

On

either hand,

priests,

Mongol

Upon entering the ring, each pair of and Ambans. wrestlers prance up with curious movements of the arms and legs to living god,' before whom they the immediate presence of the kowtow, falling on their knees and striking the ground repeatedly
'

with their foreheads."

AN INCARNATION NOT IMPROBABLE.

On
of

117

the contrary,
is

we

are led

to infer that,

where

there
it

a belief in the supernatural, an incarnation

appears reasonable, possible, and probable.

Of
of

course, a belief in the probability

and

possibility
it

an

event,

and

the expectation that

it

will

happen, affords no proof that

has happened.

But

neither,

on the other hand, because many

incarnations are held to be spurious and untrue,

are

we

justified in

concluding that

all

incarnations,

or

any one

in particular, are false

and therefore
in
dis-

to be rejected.

Neither are

we

justified

crediting incarnation on the ground of

its

being
Is

miraculous

and

contrary
is

to

experience.

nothing to happen that

experience
}

contrary to our limited

Is

it

not true, that in the evolution

and development of any subject

necessarily

every step
?

is

contrary to experience

If nothing

were to happen but what accords with our very

limited

experience in the past, there would at

all

once be a stop put to

progress in the future.

miracle,

if

we analyze

the
at,

word,
as

is

merely

something to be wondered

being unusual

in the ordinary course of Nature.

And

certainly

no miracle can happen without an adequate cause.

But to argue from

sible
is

this,

that a miracle

is

imposis

tantamount to saying that there

no

ii8

AN ESSAY ON

PERSONALlfV.
herself.

Supernatural, no

Power higher than Nature

Nature, indeed, cannot produce a miracle in the

ordinary sense of the word, as something contrary
to Nature.

But

if

there be a Supernatural,

i.e.

a Power working according to some higher law

and

for a higher end, then

an event which appears

not be
so,

miraculous
is

may

in reality

because

it

in

accordance with the higher law, and brought

about for the attainment of the higher end.

And

this, as it

appears to me,

is

precisely the

position of the Incarnation in the Christian system

of Metaphysic and Religion.

It is

but a further
all

development of a
been
in operation, Prius.

principle,

which

along had

namely, the Self-manifestation

principle be
true,
if
first

of the
Prius

If that

the
in

has

been
(Nature),
is

manifesting

Himself
in

Creation

and

then

Effusion

and
or

Immanence,
impossible

there

anything

improbable
that

in

the

supposition,

He

would

make

further

and more
"i

direct manifestation

of Himself

by Incarnation
it ?

Nay, should we not

rather expect

There

is

another point on which a few words

Is the Incarnation

may

not be out of place here.

to be merely regarded as the climax of the Self-

manifestation

of

the

Personal Prius in matter

"

THE CHRISTIAN INCARNATION.

through Immanence
is true,
? ^

119

In
will

a certain

sense this

and theologians

not be at a loss for

passages which seem

tion.^
Still,

to

support such a contenit

on the whole,

seems more

fitting

to regard

Self-manifestation through Incarnation

as

differing,

not

only in degree, but

in

kind.

Immanence and

Effusion are the special function

Spirit.

and work of the Divine

But Manifestation

through Incarnation, though effected by the cooperation of the same Spirit,

to the
is

specially attributed
Trinity, the

Second Person of the

Word

or Expression of the First.

" I

He who

could say

and the Father

are

something more than a

the Spirit
is

One " must needs be human person in whom

however high a degree.
Incarnation,

immanent,

in

And,

therefore,

the Christian
it

while
further

we may regard

as

a prolation

and

development of the metaphysical law of a Selfmanifesting Prius, should not,

I

think, be confused

with Immanence
'

and Effusion.
we

That the Prius

culminate

"In

proportion as

are enabled to recognize this progressive

manifestation of
in

God

in matter,

we

are prepared to find

it

His actual Incarnation, the climax of His Incarnation in the world." lUingworth's Divine Immanence, p. 77. ^ As, for example, St. Luke i. 35, "The Holy Ghost shall come upon thee, and the power of the Highest shall overshadow thee ;

St.

Matt.

iii.

16, the descent of the

iii.

Holy

Baptism by John ; and St. John by measure unto Him."

34,

Spirit on Jesus at His " God giveth not the Spirit

I20

AN ESSAY ON
Himself
is

PERSONALITY.
in

has manifested

Nature, and in

man

as part of Nature,

the contention of Christian

Metaphysic and Philosophy.

festation

That

this Self-mani-

was carried to a higher stage by Spiritual

indirect

Immanence both
Christian

and

direct has ever

been

both the belief and teaching of the Jewish and

Religions.

But that and

all

this

latter

stage,

was

all

that

was

possible,

that was required

to satisfy

the religious instincts and aspirations

I

of mankind, none,

imagine, would dare to assert.

Moreover,

it

is

fact of

some

significance that

the further and fuller manifestation of the Prius

was, like Effusion and Immanence, the subject of

the clearest prediction.

ceive

"

Behold, a virgin shall con-

and bear a Son

:" so

spake Isaiah hundreds

of years before.

And

Jeremiah, foretelling the

advent of

"

the Branch " which should grow out

far

of the stem of David, went so

as

to give

Him And

a Name,

"The

Lord, our Righteousness."

these predictions, apart altogether from the

question of their fulfilment, were,

admit, of an astonishing
in the history of
ture.
all

we must

all

character, unparalleled

previous or subsequent literato

They

led

men

expect,

not merely a

fuller effusion

of the Spirit, but a veritable Incar-

nation of God.

But each and every incarnation


INCARNATION FORETOLD.
must stand or
that
is,

121

fall

by
it

its

own

intrinsic

merits

according as

can satisfy the demands

of reason and congruity.

And
in

the question to

be

settled is this, "

in the

Was

the Christian Incarnation,

when, and

manner

which

it

is

said to

have taken place, of such a nature as to satisfy

those expectations which previous predictions had
led

men
its

to entertain

Was

it,

both

in its character

and

consequences, a true manifestation of that

Being,
self in

Who

all

along had been disclosing

in

Him-

Nature and

man

Whether, or

not, this

was the
I

case,

it

is

not for

me

to attempt even to prove.

real

would only point

which every
for

out that they are

thoughtful

questions,
to face

man

is

bound

and answer

himself

In the words of Bishop Caldwell,^ he has

to consider

"Whether the purpose for which God became man, namely, to furnish men with a pattern of moral excellence, and to reconcile sinful men to the holy and blessed God, was not a purpose Whether the worthy of a Divine Incarnation. life and doctrines and death of Christ, or the influence of them upon Christians, has not, as a matter of historical fact, been the origin of all that
'

Christianity

mid Hinduism,

p. 47.

122

AN ESSAY ON

PERSONALITY.

most elevated in the moral and spiritual life of Christendom, and of all that has rendered Christendom the source of moral and spiritual life to the rest of the world. And, lastly, whether it would not be unreasonable and unscientific to attribute results so divine to anything less than a Divine
is

Cause."

Proposition

III.

The Christian Prius a

Self-reconciling Unity.

The Third
Unity,
sarily

Proposition of Christian Metaphysic,

is

that the Personal Prius

is

also a Self-reconciling

really a conclusion

which follows neces-

from the First and Second Propositions. be granted that there

is

For,

if it

a Personal Prius,

Who
and

manifests Himself in nature, through variety

difference, then, in case that variety

and

differ-

ence issue in antagonism and

hostility, the Prius

must

also

be

Self-reconciling.

The

contrary

supposition would be inconsistent with our First

Proposition, and would be tantamount to a practical denial

of the supremacy of the Prius.

In the dualistic creed of Zoroaster the existence

of differences and antagonisms received a different

explanation.

From

the beginning there existed

two

Principles,

Ormuzd, who represented the power

that of
evil.

of good, and

Ahriman

Thus

evil is

THE PRIUS A SELF-RECONCILING UNITY.

presupposed from
physical dualism
all

123

eternity.^ this

But a metalong

of

kind has

been

abandoned.

And

even the Parsees,

whom we

may
still

regard as the lineal descendants and repreof the Zoroastrian

Zoroaster
his dualistic
faith,

sentatives

though they
Prophet,
for

acknowledge

as

their

have abandoned

doctrine

pure

Monotheism.

Though

the powers of Nature sometimes seem

not only diverse, but hostile, sometimes benevolent,

and sometimes
is

malefic,
all

we

still

believe that she

one, and that

her energies proceed from one

If a frost
;

and the same and cuts

overflows

source.

comes

in

May

off all the

its

blossoms

if

some mighty river

banks and spreads devastation and

death far and wide,

we do not

attribute

these

catastrophes to an evil principle in Nature wilfully

counteracting the principle of good, but rather to

the infinite variety in the Self-manifestation of the

One Creative Prius. The existence of differences and

tion
'

their reconcilia-

is,

indeed,

the

one

great

problem which

" Both Principles possess creative power, which manifests itself Ormuzd is light in the one positively, and in the other negatively. and life, and all that is pure and good in the ethical world, law,

order,
evil

and truth
in

his antithesis

is

darkness,

filth,

death, all that

is

the world,

lawlessness and

lies,"

Encyc. Brit,,

Art.

" Zoroaster."

124

AN ESSAY ON
all

PERSONALITY.
solve.

Metaphysic and Philosophy has to

ences exist on

Differ-

sides of us in the material, moral,

and

spiritual worlds.

said to

The whole Universe may be be made up of differences.^ But when we

it is

speak of differences and their reconciliation,

essential to

remember that

differences are of

many

kinds,

and

arise

from several causes.

Differences.

Assuming a Prius
creation,
it

manifesting

Himself by

is

evident that, unless only one kind

it

of thing be created, in which case

could not be

a true manifestation of an

infinite Creator, there

is,

must be endless variety

things created.

that

difference in the

But

all

differences

do not imply
is

antagonism.

Sometimes the
as,

difference
for

only

one of contrast or degree';

contrast between long and

example, the

short, thick

and

thin,

rough and smooth.

is

In such cases the difference

in

no more than the absence of a quality which

is

one

thing,

present in another.
is

'

In the Hegelian Logic, Self-consciousness

regarded as " a

unity which realizes itself through difference and the reconciliation

an organic unity of elements, which exist I have already pointed out some of the flaws and inconsistencies, as they seem to me, at least, which mar the Hegelian system.
of difference
as, in fact,

only as they pass into each other."

DIFFERENCES.
But we cannot close our eyes to the

125

fact that

beside differences of contrast and negation, there

are others which are far more.

There are
the
acids

differ-

ences

which seem to

contain

element of

antagonism and

hostility.

Thus

and

alkalis

are mutually destructive.

The

forces of

Nature

are frequently opposed.

life

Animal and vegetable

is

alike,

from beginning to end,

a struggle
is

between

vital

and physical

force,

and death

the

triumph of the
So, too,

latter over the former.

when we ascend
spiritual
life,

to the higher range of

differences,

moral and

we meet with
radical

which seem to
antagonism.

imply a

and

essential

Such

differences as these present a far greater

difficulty,

even

if

they are not entirely beyond the

reach of solution by ourselves.

That powers of
they are

good and

evil

do

exist side

by

side, that

both energetic and mutually

daily experience.

hostile, are facts of

it

Primd

facie,

would appear

impossible to reconcile
a Prius
are

them with the existence of

Who

is

One, Supreme, and Good.

.'

How
up the

we

to explain this
in despair
?

Or must we

give

problem

The

opinion of some Moralists and Theologians

given

who have

much thought

to this subject,

and


126

AN ESSAV ON

PERSONALITY.

whose conclusions,

therefore, are entitled to our

is

respectful consideration,

that

we must seek
late Dr.

the

solution in the action

I believe,

and

effect of Free-will.

Such,

was the opinion of the

in its

Liddon.
religious

The argument
aspect
is is

metaphysical and
:

somewhat
a free

as follows

God

Agent

that
the

is,

Free-will

is

one

of His essential attributes.

If,

then.

He
and

chose to

manifest Himself,
it,

or,

as

Scripture expresses
likeness,

to

make man
also
it

in

His

Own Image
Free-will.

man
then

must possess a

If he does not,

is

evident that any service or worship he

in

might render would be a matter of compulsion,

which
free will
part.

and voluntary surrender would

service, therefore,
will not

have no

Such

would have

no moral
pulsion,

value.

God

be served by com-

but by love.

But Free-will means the

to

power to obey or
impulses

refuse

obey impulses, and

may

arise

founded on ignorance and

selfish

appealing to a narrow and

egoism.

If,

then,

these be listened to and obeyed, the

phenomena
Free-will

of opposing wills comes in sight.

of

The
sin,

man may oppose and

consequences.
Professor

rebel against the Freeis

will of
its evil

God, the result of which

with

all

Similarly

Wundt,

in

discussing

the


DIFFERENCES
THEIR RECONCILIATION.
is

127

question of immorality, which

as
sin,
will,

really the

same

makes

it

to consist in the perversion of

:

the
"

caused by a narrow and ignorant egoism

is

The

ultimate spring of immorality

egoism."

And

he adds

" The conflict of good and evil is just this strife between wills. Since the empirical social will is finite and liable to error, the ultimate solution of this conflict is to be found only in an idea of reason, which makes the infinite series of willforms terminate in a Supreme Will, phenomenally

manifest in the individual consciousness, as the

imperative of the moral idea, in the State and in society as the Spirit of History, and in the religious conception of the world as the Divine Idea." ^
I

quote these words of Professor Wundt, not

I

because

think

his

ethical

system altogether
they show

sound and convincing, but

because

that in his opinion too, as an independent Moralist,

and not as a Christian Advocate, the essential nature of sin is to be sought and found in the
antagonism between the
will.

different

forms of Freeis

If this

be

so,

then the conclusion

is

obvious.

The triumph

of good over evil

only to be
antagonistic

secured by the reconciliation of

will-forms with the
'

all

Supreme Will which "in the

Ethics, p. 112.

128

AN ESSAY ON

PERSONALITY.
is

religious conception

of the world

the Divine

Idea."

That

sin

is

a perversion of the

will,

leading to

overt acts of rebellion and disobedience, seems to

admit of

little

doubt

whether the above theory-

offers a true

explanation of the manner in which

is

that

perversion

brought

about

is

another

question.

At any

rate, the

only other hypothesis

would seem to be that of the co-existence of a

power, or principle, of evil together with that of

good, which contravenes the unity and supremacy

of a personal Prius.
If,

on the other hand,

origin

this

be the true solution

evil,

of

the

and existence of

then

the

" difference " of

good and
it

evil

becomes explicable.
the
;

We may
the Prius

regard

as

illustrating

Second

Proposition of Christian Metaphysic

is

namely, that

self-manifesting through differences.

all

Nor
Third

is

this

that

may

be said of
the
Prius

it.

The
Self-

Proposition

defines

as

reconciling,

which

is

really a necessary consequent

or corollary from the First.

For the continued

hostile differences

and

permanent existence of

would be incompatible with the existence of a

Prius

which

is

One and Supreme.

And

if

all

differences are to be reconciled (by the Prius), then.


RECONCILIA TION.
above
all

129

others, the
evil,

hostile
all

difference

between

good and

by bringing

antagonistic will-

forms into harmony with the

of the Prius.

One Supreme Will

And

here Hegel's triadic law of

Thesis, Antithesis, and Synthesis finds a cardinal

illustration.

The Divine Will

of the

is

the Thesis, the

is

antagonistic will
thesis,

creature

the

Antiis

and the harmonizing of the two

the

Synthesis.^

Recalling, then, the

fact that

Religion

is

the

people's Metaphysic, and

that

no Religion can

be true which

is
it

not also the expression of a

true Metaphysic,

remains for

me

to

show two

things

First, that

the principle of a

Personal

Prius

manifesting Himself through differences and their

reconciliation
is

a doctrine

of

the

Christian

Religion.

Second, that Christianity

is

a religious system

which provides for the exercise and application

of this principle
'
:

that,

concretely, sin,

and the

notion, its opposite or contradictory, and which embraces or reconciles the two, or, in other words, a represent a complete thesis, an anthithesis, and the synthesis And on the type of act of logic, or one movement of dialectic. this environment Hegel undertook to explain the entire course and action of thought in its efforts to comprehend the Universe."
that

"Three elements a

Handbook

oj Biography, Art. " Hegel."

II.

VOL.


130

AN ESSAY ON
between

PERSONALITY.
evil,

difference

good and

arising
in

from
the

the antagonism of

a perverted free-will

creature and person of

man

to the

Supreme Will

of the Creator,

is

reconciled through the Incarna-

tion of the Son, or

Word

of God, in the Person

of Jesus Christ.^

Of
will,

all

the writings of the

New
may

Testament,

it

think, be admitted that none display so

clear

an insight into what

side

be called the

metaphysical

or

aspect of Christianity as
St. Paul, indeed,

those of St. Paul and St. John.

may
us
is

truly

be

called

the

great
these,

exponent
therefore,

of
let

Christian

Metaphysic.
recourse,
in

To
order

have

to

ascertain

what
recon-

Christian

doctrine on

this

subject of

ciliation.

St.

Paul,

in
:

his

Epistle

to

the

Colossians,

writes as follows
"

For

it

was the good pleasure

should
all

(of the Father)

;

^ and to reconcile all things unto Himself, through having made peace through the blood of His

that in

Him Him

the fulness dwell

'

To

express the above in terms of the Hegelian Formula

the Personal Prius
personality
is is is

the

Supreme Will of
will of the

the Thesis, the perverted

human

the Antithesis,

and the Person of

the Incarnate AVord

'

the Divine Synthesis.

Or,

"for the whole fulness of

margin.

God was

pleased to dwell in

Him."

R.V.,


RECONCILIATION.
Cross
the
;

131

through Him,
or

say,
in

whether things upon

heavens." (Col.
i.

earth,
1

things

the

19, 20.)

Writing to the Corinthians, he says

"

To

wit, that

God was

in Christ reconciling the

world (Cosmos) unto Himself."

(2 Cor. v. 19.)

And

again, in his
:

first

Epistle

we

find the

same

doctrine enunciated

" For He must reign until He hath put all His enemies under His feet. The last enemy that shall be abolished is death. And when all things have been subjected unto Him, then shall the Son also Himself be subjected to Him that did subject all things unto Him, that God may be all in all." (i Cor. xv. 25, 26, 28.)^
.

'

This passage, taken in connection with the previous context,

verses

especially
St.

I5~I7>

is

all

the the

more

significant,

because
of the

Paul's object

was

to define

Christian

doctrine
the

Universe,

of

creation

and
of

reconciliation, as

against

meta-

some of whom, where Persian influences predominated, held the doctrine of two separate and antagonistic Principles of Good and Evil, and others traced
physical speculations
the

Gnostics,

the origin of evil to matter.

See also Ephes. ii. 16 "And that He might reconcile both God in one body through the Cross," where Bishop Ellicott has the following note " This brings out the profound idea, which
:

unto

so especially characterizes these Epistles, of a primjeval unity of

all

created beings in

Christ,

marred and

broken by

sin,

and

restored by His manifestation in

human

flesh." Commentary for

English Readers.

132

AN ESSAY ON
his

PERSONALITY,
Romans
(viii.

In

Epistle to the

19-22)

he speaks of the whole creation ^ groaning and

travailing in pain together, because in pursuance

of the

sovereign

purpose of

God
It
is

it

has

been
tells

subject to vanity.
us, is

That purpose, however, he

hope

not yet worked out.

is

a purpose in

which there

and

earnest

expectation

because Creation shall finally be delivered from

that bondage of corruption under which for the

present

it

groans and travails "into the glory of

the liberty of the children of God."

The Apostle and

called His

Evangelist St. John records a

prayer offered by Jesus Christ to God,

Whom He

Heavenly Father,

in
:

which the follow"

ing significant petition occurs

That they may

them, and Thou
perfect in One."

be one, even as
in
(St,

We

are

One
be

I in

Me, that they

may

made

John

xvii. 22, 23.)

Now, the foregoing passages taken together

clearly show, I think,
I.

two things

That the Christian Religion, regarded under

its

metaphysical aspect, involves the principle of

manifesting

a Personal Prius
differences
V. 19

Himself through

and the reconciliation of them.

'

inanimate."

Bp.

^ Kt/o-is

" the whole world

of Nature, animate

and

Ellicott.

RECONCILIA TION.
2.

133

That

this

reconciliation

is

claimed

to

be

effected through the Incarnation of Jesus Christ.

He is
" in

the Divine Synthesis in

Whom

Thesis and

Antithesis are reconciled.

And He

is so,

because

Him
all

dwelleth
bodily,"

all
i.e.

the fulness {pleroma) of the the essential

nature,
ii.

Godhead
prising

com-

the attributes of God.

it

(Col.

9.)

JMoreover,

will

appear on further investigation

that the reconciliation effected through the Incar-

nation consists mainly in the harmonizing of

antagonistic

all

forms

of

free will,

with

the
virtue

one

supreme
efficacy

will

of the Prius.

The very
is

and
the

of the

Atonement

attributed

to

cheerful oblation of the perfect will of Christ, the

God-man,
" I

to His Father, God. to

will, but the will Wherefore, when He cometh Lo, I am come to do into the world He saith Thy will, O God. ... By which will we have been sanctified through the offering of the body of Jesus Christ once for all." (Heb. x. 5, 7, 10.)

came not

do mine own
. .

of

Him that

sent Me.

This willing oblation of His

note and motto of His whole
the works of

will

was the key" I

life.

must work
it is

Him

that sent

Me

while

day

the night cometh, when no man can work." And death, when it came, was only the anticipated

climax of His willing

self-sacrifice.


134

AN ESSAY ON

PERSONALITY.

But the reconciliation of the Atonement through

the oblation of a perfect will
is

not limited to the

its

Person of Christ.

It is

to find

counterpart
all

on a lower
His

scale in the life

and experience of

followers.

The
is

Christian

must be

like his

Master.

Christ

represented, not only as the

New Man,
The
will

but the

Type

of the

New
is

Creation.

daily prayer of the Christian

to be

"

be done on earth, as

it

is

in

Heaven."

Thy And

his

whole
give
it

life

is

to be one constant endeavour

expression,
until

to

practical

the entire

man, even to the innermost recesses of thought

and motive, are brought into cheerful and loving
acquiescence to what
is

held to be the Divine

will.

And

here

should like to point out the conattained and the

gruity between the end to be

means employed

for attaining
evil

it.

The end

is

the

triumph of good over

tion of divergent

through the reconciliawills.

and opposing

The means
character

are
1.

The

exhibition

of

faultless

appealing by

its intrinsic

loveliness to the moral

perception of an intelligent and spiritual personality.

2.

The

action

and influence of a Divine

spirit of

Spirit

upon the cognate created

'

man.^
and they that are

Heb.

ii.

1 1

" For both

He

that sanctifieth

sanctified are all of

One."


RE CO NCILIA TION.
Such are the means to be employed, and
1

3S

ac-

cording as they have been employed has Christianity

proved

itself

a power for

good

in

the

world.
tried,

Has

Christianity,

where

it

has been fairly

its

tended to raise the character of

followers,
sin in all

to liberate
its

them from the thraldom of

countless forms, to

selfish,

and true
is

make Then the

in

their lives pure, un-

secret of the trans-

formation
Religion

to be found

the power of that

to

bring about the reconciliation,

practical, of
all

not

merely theoretic, but

individual

and antagonistic
Personal Prius.
"
is

wills

to the supreme Will of the

Teach me

to

And the prayer of the Psalmist do Thy Will, O God, for Thy Spirit
It
is

good"

is

something more than a pious ejacuthe practical

lation,

a devout aspiration.

recognition

and expression of a profound meta-

physical truth.

SECTION

IV.

PERSONALITY IN OTHER SYSTEMS SPENCER,

WUNDT, TOLSTOY.
(fl)

Schopenhauer's

Thelology,

impersonal
(c)

and untenable

{6)

Spencer's "Persistent Force" Logical inference ignored Correspondence between internal and external relations Deduction from the foregoing Professor Wundt on Personality Personality the expression
Comte's "Religion of Humanity"

and measure of psychical endowment Comparative Psychology Stages of growth Count Leo Tolstoy.

Hegel's Prius of

"

pure thought "

is

by no means by

the only one which

philosophers.

has been

propounded

"Will," said

Schopenhauer, "is Lord of

all,"

and

" persistent Force

is

unknown and

inconceivable,"

says Mr. Spencer,

closes the door to

the Prius which ruthlessly

investigation.
"

any further
nor
"

But
is

neither

to

"

Will "

Force
I

apparently

personality attributed.

As

have already referred

theory in

to Schopenhauer's " Will "

my

former
to
its

volume,

shall

not devote

much space


SCHOPENHAUER'S
further consideration.
"

137

WILL'' THEORY.

Tiie question
:

to be con-

sidered
Is

is,

at the bottom, this

"Will," apart from the person of a Wilier,

?

a philosophic concept
in

Does

it

not land us either

chance or necessity

We
On

are not justified in regarding Schopenhauer

as the original propounder of the " Will " theory.

the contrary, he appears to have imbibed his

views from the previous teaching of Fichte and

Schelling.

"The
is

will

is

the living principle of

last

reason," said Fichte.

Schelling, " there
is

"In the

resort," said

no other being but Will." Will

primal being.

Where Schopenhauer

differed

from his teachers was

listic

in his physical or naturais

views of Will, which, according to him,

the result of impulse given to the nerve-organs

by the
itself,

objects of the external world.

its

Knowledge

and

instrument

the
is

mind, or intellect
it

is

immediately dependent on, and, as

of,

were, the

product
action.

these nerve-organs thus brought into

This knowledge

only a type or special

feeling, or will,

example of that intimate

is

which
of

the underlying reality and

existence,^ the

the
all

principle

all

essence of

manifestations

'

"Analogy and experience make

us assume this will to be

in

omnipresent."

Art. " Schopenhauer "

Encyc, Brit.

138

AN ESSAY ON

PERSONALITY.
Thus, in Schopenhauer's

inorganic and organic.

system Will, impersonal and without motive, takes

the place of reason or thought, as the Prius or

primal principle of
of

all

things.

And

the origin

man

is

not to be sought for us by Hegel in

at

any theory of self-manifestation of thought

unity with itself
;

nor, as

by Spencer,

in the

theory

of evolution, but in " automatic action " and " ad-

justment

"

which
"

is

everlasting
"

and ever-present.

Both
"

the
"

Will

of

Schopenhauer and the

Force

of Spencer are alike the result of " autoIn

matic action."

both
fail

systems

the

Prius

is

impersonal, and they

reasonable
solution

equally in affording a
that
is

of
It

great
here,

problem
again,

of

human

personality.

where

Christian Metaphysic
its

comes to the rescue with

Prius which, while
it

personal Prius

em-

braces the

Thought

of Hegel, the Sovereign Will

of Schopenhauer,

and the "persistent Force" of

Spencer,

offers,

at the

same

time, a reasonable

theory on which to explain the fact of

personality.

human

The philosophy
soul into

of Schopenhauer landed him

at length in a sort of pessimistic

Buddhism.
for,
is

The
born
for

of man, unowned and a world

of sin

uncared

and sorrow, the sport

RELIGION OF HUMANITY.
a time of

139

an
it

insensate

purposeless Will, until

through death
oblivion.

reaches the Nirvana of the eternal

that Schopenhauer

No wonder

was the

apologist of suicide.

Personality in Comte's System of the Religion

of Humanity.

The

Philosophical

System of Comte so

far

resembles that of Hegel and Schopenhauer, that

the only form of Personality which can be recog-

nized

is

that of mankind. that

it

But

it

differs
in

in

this

respect,

merges

individual

collective

Personality.

Comte even goes

is

so far as to<iassert

that

the former

only an abstract idea, which

latter.

has no existence save as part of the

Not only can the

part

individual not

be separated

from the social organism of which he forms a

;

but that organism

is

something essential
individual person

to his very existence.

Thus the

has no separate existence.

the spirit which pervades

He

exists only through

the whole family of

men, and manifests

of
life

itself in

them

as a principle

and development.
is collective,

This

as distinguished from individual as being in Comte's view the

Personality.

And

highest and only form of Personality of which

I40

AN ESSAY ON

PERSONALITY.
or experience,
it

we have any knowledge

of Humanity.

not

unnaturally led him on to the religion and worship

The weakness and

mistaking a
for

defect in Comte's

System

lies

in

finite

and particular

example of being

the infinite and universal.

is

His system of Humanity

nothing more than

its

a philosophical fragment, detached from

surroundings,

proper

without

antecedent

and

without

consequent.
all
life,

He

loses sight of the solidarity of

all

and the unity of

Personality of

being.

Beyond the

collective

man he propounds no
which becomes

Prius

while for that Personality he supplies no

object, save the Personality itself

deified as the

highest and only proper object of

human
If

worship.
in

mankind could be shut up

a box, or

transported to a desert island, and cut off from

all

intercourse

with the outer world until they

in existence,

imagined they were the only beings

then Comtism as a philosophy, and the worship

of
it

Humanity
cannot
be.

as

a religion,
is

might

suffice.

But

Humanity

only a part, and a very

the Universe.

small part, in the equipment of

Doubtless
life,

man

is

the highest

example of terrestrial
most

the

most delicately constructed, the

richly endowed.

But to regard him as the hub

RELIGION OF HUMANITY.

141

of the Universe, to construct a philosophy limitfed

to his

own microcosm, and

life

to imagine there are

is

no forms of sentient

but those he

aware

of in this small satellite of perhaps the smallest

of the solar systems, scattered in endless profusion

through the boundless regions of space

a religion in which
the only

to preach
as

man

is

to be worshipped
in

God
all

and to teach a morality

is

which
motive

the welfare of humanity

the highest

and end

this

betokens, to

my

mind, such

short-sighted self-conceit and such a want of the

sense of integrity and proportion as

it

would be

impossible to surpass.^

The
the

recognition,

however,

of

the

collective

Personality of

mankind does import a sense of

of
is

responsibility

every
a

man

to

the

social

body of which he
takes the form

member.

This

sense

and

is

expressed by the term

of Altruism,
" But

i.e.

the absorption, or extinction, of

further.

which has gone so far, must logically go humanity as an organism without extending the organic idea to the conditions under which the social i.e. to the whole world. And if the life of humanity is developed recognition of a universal principle manifested in humanity naturally
'

the philosophy,

It is impossible to treat

led

Comte

to the idea of the worship of humanity, the recognition

man and nature alike must lead to the worship of God." (<y<:. /?/., Art. " Metaphysic,"
of a universal principle manifested in
p. lOI.)

143

AN ESSAY ON
self-love
in

PERSONALITY.

mere

the nobler duty of promoting

the welfare of the

community at large.^ When, moreover, we come to consider the effect of

such a sense of responsibility as a deterrent from

self-destruction,

we

are

bound

to

admit that

theoretically

it

should have this

effect.

"I am
for

not free to injure or destroy myself;

is

such injury or destruction

done, not

to

myself alone, but to that body whose welfare

ought to be to
portance."
will

me

a matter of paramount imfar

But how

such theoretical reasoning

be practically
is

effective as

a deterrent from

suicide
is

a matter of opinion.

At any

rate, it

the only and the strongest argument against

suicide on the score of responsibility which could

have any weight with a disciple of Comte.

Some man is

provision

for

the

religious instinct

of

afforded

by proposing Humanity

itself

as an object of worship.
is

Whether such worship

all,

deserving the
the

name

of religion at

any more
is is

than

Ancestor-worship of

the

Chinese,

open to question.

The

last

day of the year

for the

set apart in the Positivist

Calendar
in

com-

memoration
'

of

the

dead, and
tlie

his

address
But the

The same

result is arrived at in

Christian system.
\\\\\

premises are of a different and higher order, as

appear when

we approach

tlie

subject of Christian Mctaphysic.


RESULTS OF COMTISM.
delivered to the

\\l

members

of the Positivist Society,

of which he

is

the head, on
is

December

31,

1900,

Mr, F. Harrison

reported to have said of

"The

religion

submission

to

the will of

humanity had no crude worship of heroes, no vain apotheosis of genius. The day was dedicated to all the dead to nameless, as to those of name,

to the lowly as to the great, to those as

who
.

served

much

as

to

those

who

ruled.

He

need

hardly remind them that the one name which he held to be destined to perpetual honour in the coming ages was that of the founder of the
religion of humanity."

How
belief

utterly
in

destructive such

a system

is

of

any Personality higher than

:

that of

man is shown by the following instance Some few years ago a young man, who had
embraced Comtism and the Religion of Humanity,
emigrated to America and settled
In a letter to his sister at
in

San Francisco.
the
following

home

passage occurs
"

You say you remember me

so far as
it
is

in

your prayers.
sisterly

This,

mark

of your

affection, I fully appreciate.

But, otherwise, you

might save yourself the trouble. Believe me, there no God. It is not that we have a God without In ears, but there is absolutely no God to hear. this country religion is a commodity for which
is

144

AN ESSAY ON
is

PERSONALITY.
find

there

no demand.
it."

We

we can

get on

very well without

A
in

missionary,

who had been working

told

in the

same part of North America, once

me

that

the course of a conversation he had with an

old settler on the subject of religious education

in

the State Schools,

abolished

the settler replied,

this side of the

"Oh,
;

we have
so

God on

Rockies

we

don't trouble ourselves

much about

religion

or religious education."

Mr.
Let
us

Spencer's Prius

and

Personality.
briefly
:

now

turn
in

to

consider

Mr.
for,

Spencer's Prius
like
all

respect to Personality

other philosophers and

to

metaphysicians,

he

is

bound

have a Prius of some kind.

Force."

Mr,
does
for

Spencer's

Prius is " Persistent

this

What

he mean by
himself.

expression?

Let him speak

we really mean the some Power which transcends our knowledge and conception. The manifestations,
the persistence of Force
persistence of
as recurring, either in ourselves or outside of us,
is

"By

do not

persist

but that which persists

^

the

unknown cause
'

of these manifestations."

First Principles, p. 187.

it

And

again, p. 192, he says,

" In

assert-

ing

(persistent Force)

we assert an Unconditioned

Reality without

beginning or end."

SPENCER'S PERSISTENT FORCE.

Thus the prime
system
is

145

factor of Mr. Spencer's

whole

a Power which transcends our knowBut, indeed, Mr. Spencer's

ledge and conception.

statements and postulates respecting his persistent

Force are inconsistent and mutually self-destructive.

For

first

he

calls it "

a Power which transcends our

knowledge and conception."

And
tell

then, having

done

this,

he proceeds to

us

that " every

antecedent

mode

of the

Unknowable must have

an invariable connection, quantitative and qualitative,

with that

mode

of the Unknowable, which

we

call its

consequent."

Mark
to

the words " invari-

able connection,

quantitative,

and

qualitative."

How

comes Mr. Spencer

know

this, if his

Per-

sistent

Force be both " unknowable

?

"

and
it

" incon-

ceivable "

And

if,

on the other hand,

be true

that this connection between the Absolute Force

and the phenomenal

exist,

forces

which we know, does

the Absolute Force,
is

then

how can he say that

Reality "
?

the "

Unconditioned

which persists,

un-

known
for

and inconceivable
" are,

We

know what

" the

consequent modes
cal,

both physical and psychi-

they are matters of experience.

is

And
both
all
is

since there

"an

invariable

connection

quantitative and qualitative between these

and
it

antecedent modes of the Unknowable Force,

VOL.
II.

146

AN ESSAY ON
Such
"

PERSONALITY.
is

obviously untrue to say the Force

inconceivable.

unknown and
"

an invariable connection

amounts to an analogy, and must lead

to something far

logically

more than the postulation of a

It will surely en-

Power transcending conception.

able us,
if

there be any truth in the analogy, to

form, not indeed a perfect and exhaustive idea,

but at least a general conception of the nature and

characteristics of the Persistent Force, from which
all

other

forces,

both

physical and

psychical,

proceed.

But the
is that,

fault

we have

to find with Mr. Spencer

having assumed or postulated the existence

of a great

unknown and
which

inconceivable Power, he

forthwith proceeds to fabricate a philosophy and

psychology

in

it

is

practically ignored, in
it is

which, as a factor of thought or mind,

absent.

entirely

Mr. Spencer's Force

is

clearly

only a

name

for

something unknown and unknowable,

therefore, he thinks
is

and which,
shelved.

may be

practically
is

It

shorn of what, even to man,

the highest concept and attribute of being, namely,

self-conscious personality
;

and,

save as a blind,

unconscious force,

it

is

permitted neither to interAll this

is

vene nor act

in the

Universe.

strikingly
first

exemplified in the " Psychology," which from

MR.
to last
is

SPENCERS PSYCHOLOGY.

147
^

the product of materialistic evolution

pure and simple.

But

is

this

philosophy

Ought

not Mr. Spencer to have seen that, though his

Prius transcends both our knowledge and conception, this
it

by no means

justifies

him

in

excluding

as a working factor in
?

any hypothetical scheme

of nature

His Persistent Force

may

be unknown

and inconceivable
it

in its fulness, but,

inasmuch as
all

is

ex hypothesi the only source of

power,

it

must

follow, that every form of force of

is

which we
a mani;

have any knowledge and experience

festation of that

Force which persists

in all things

and therefore
so
'

all

these various manifestations are

many

indications of the nature of his Persistent

After reviewing Mr. Spencer's doctrine of Persistent Force and

his attempt " to bring organisms

taining

and societies and all thereto permind, character, language, literature, and institutions of every kind under the cover of a single formula, " Professor Ward

life,

writes as follows

"

We are,

therefore, not surprised to find

Mr.

Spencer treating of the transformation of physical forces into mental forces, and insisting on a quantitative equivalence between the two,
just as

he

treats of transformation

of mechanical work into heat and

calorie.

the value

in

foot-pounds of a

and the

British Constitution, nay, the

all,

The poetry of Milton human mind and the Christian

Religion, are

according to him, equally with the tidal bore on the

Severn, or gales at the equinoxes, so

many secondary

results of the

nebular hypothesis, cases of integration of matter and dissipation of motion in obedience to the persistence of Force. It is to encompass
all

these within one formula that he

all

is

tempted to stretch a great

to justify his ven-

physical generalization beyond

meaning and
p. 221.

ture by questionable metaphysics concerning Absolute Being."

Naturalism and Agnosticism,

vol.

i.


148

AN ESSAY ON

PERSONALITY.

Force

the
"

unknown Power, "the Unconditional

it

Reality

which, though

transcends our knowledge

and conception, has not

" left itself without witness."

And
and

if

among

the forces

we know, whether simple

is

or complex, there be one which

intelligent

self-conscious

that

is,

the

human

Personality

may we

not

safely

postulate on

behalf of Mr.

Spencer's Persistent Force, that

this, too,
^
.'

must be

a self-conscious intelligent Personality

But Mr. Spencer's Psychology

out by the hiatus

is

vitiated through-

the unbridged and unbridgeable

his

abyss

between

Persistent

Force and those

material quantitative and mechanical forces which

alone he allows to have been operative in the

production of physical and psychical phenomena.

Where does
in the

the Persistent Force intervene

Where

whole of his evolutionary system, embracing

products and organisms from the protozoa to the

personal soul of man, do

we

find a

nexus between

the Force and the forces?

Nowhere.

But what

do we

find

.'

marvellous capacity for transideal.

muting the material into the

of his
'

By the sweep magic wand, Mr, Spencer summons idealism

personality
is

My

are "invariably connected with antecedent

one of those " consequent modes," which modes of the unknowable

Force."

CORRESPONDENCE.

149

from the vasty deep of his imagination to crown

his materialistic edifice.

Sensations have only to

times,

recur a certain

number of

and forthwith

they blossom into ideas and memories of the past

There has but to be a complexity of impressions

on the organism
from
without,
;

which

do

not

produce direct automatic action

of hesitation,

then after a period

for

and a struggle

the

mastery,

reason, deliberation, and will spring forth like a

Deus ex machind
the command.^

to settle the dispute

and take

Correspondence between Internal

Relations.

and External

On no

point does Mr. Spencer lay greater stress

than that of the invariable correspondence between

our internal and external relations.
indeed, which
'

It is

this,

lies

at the root

of his

experience

The

following

is

fair

specimen of what we
find that as,

Spencer's dialectic.

"

We shall

may call Mr. when more complex

:

and

less frequent

correspondences come to be effected, the internal

actions effecting

them become

less

automatic

as in ceasing to

be

automatic they necessitate a previous representation of the motions

about to be performed and the impressions about to be experienced, and in this involve at once both harmony and reason ; so in this

same previous representation they simultaneously involve the germ of what we call the feelings." Psychology, p. 585. And again, p. 590, " As the psychical changes become too complicated to be perfectly automatic, they become incipiently sensational. Memory, reason, and feeling take their rise at the same time."


15

AN ESSAY ON
And
:

PERSONALITY.
is

hypothesis.

the following

a brief

summary
relations,

of his position
1.
i.e.

Corresponding to absolute external

in the universe

around

us, there are

developed
relations,

in the nervous

system absolute internal

birth,

developed before

antecedent

to,

and inde-

pendent of individual experiences, and that are

automatically established along with the very
cognitions.
2.

first

These internal

relations, nevertheless, are not

in general,

independent of experiences

but have

been established by the accumulated experiences

of preceding organisms, handed

down by

heredity

from parent to offspring.

3.

Hence the brain represents an

infinitude of

experiences received during the whole evolution

of
life

in

general.

The most uniform and

and

cha-

racteristic of these experiences

have been succesinterest,

sively

bequeathed, principal

from
to

father to son,

and have thus slowly amounted

is

that high intelligence which

latent in the brain

of the infant,
after
life,

which the

infant, in the course of its

exercises

and usually strengthens

or

further complicates, and which, with minute additions,

it

again bequeaths to future generations.^

'

Psychology, p. 583.

DEDUCTION FROM
I

'^

CORRESPONDENCE."
is

151

should be sorry to deny there

It

much

truth
life

in all this.

must,

think, be admitted that

means the power of adaptation and correspondence

to environment
;

that outer and objective relations

produce inner and subjective relations which answer

to them,

and that

this

correspondence has gone on

increasing from the lowest to the very highest form

of
life,

physical, intellectual,
all

and

psychical.
is.

This

may

be

quite true, and probably

at the

But we

must not forget

same time what the very

be

theory necessitates, that without the real objective

relations
relations.

there

could
if
it

no

inner subjective

And,

be true that our external

relations are the cause of our internal, then, conversely,

it is

equally true that our internal are the

record and reflex of our external.

But what are

our internal relations

in

Are they not summarized

personality
is

our personality

Our

the involute

and ultimate
experiences.

collective expression of all previous

The

brain

is

the

muniment room

wherein are treasured up the archives of our past

history,

and the

title-deeds of the ever-increasing

heritage of mankind.

What,
led
?

then,

is

the conclusion to which

we

are

This, namely, that

is

somewhere

in

our external

relations there

that which corresponds to our

152

AN ESSAY ON
personality.

PERSONALITY.
it

own

Or, to put

briefly, the Per-

sonality of man implies

and demands the Personality

of God.

My
duty,

whole psychical content,

my

perception of
right

my

power to distinguish between

and

wrong, between sin

instinct,

and

holiness,

my

religious
all

my

sense of beauty, truth, and love,

these form part of

my

inner relations, and they

are mine simply and solely because the Personal

Prius,

Who

is

in the world, has thus manifested

Himself to

me

through the experience of

my

outer relations, through Creation and

Immanence
he does,

and Incarnation.
But does Mr. Spencer see
has he ever pointed out
this
?

Or,

if

its

far-reaching conseaffinity

quence
the

in establishing the

bond of

between
I

human

Personality and the Divine?

am

not aware that he has.

postulated an

On

the contrary, having

unknown
known
is

persistent Force, the source

of

all

other

forces,

and of which every

its

antecedent

mode
of

invariably connected with

known

consequent, he proceeds to construct the

cosmos out
interpret

purely material elements, and to

Life,

the phenomena of

Mind,

and

Society in

terms of matter,

motion,

and me-

chanical force, without so

much

as an allusion to

PROFESSOR WUNDT AND PERSONALITY.

that postulated

153

Force which

is

the only cause

of

all.i

To sum
bring me.

up, then,

in

few words,

this

is

the

conclusion to which the foregoing considerations

The human
product of
built
all

Personality

is

the latest and highest

past vital experiences, the fabric

up of

internal subjective relations answering

its

to those external relations which form

environ-

ment.

It is like the lense

of the camera, which

gathers up and focuses into one consistent intelligible picture the

multitudinous rays which

fall
it

upon
is

it

from the world without.

And

because

all

this, it

bears irrefragable testimony to the

unity in diversity of the Power which works in

Nature,

call it " persistent Force," or

all life,

what you will

to the solidarity of

and the supremacy of

a self-conscious, designing and, therefore, Personal

Intelligence.

Professor

Wundt and Personality.

According to Professor Wund't, Individual Personality

in
is

the unity of feeling, thought, and

will

will,

which the

appears as the active power that

"

sustains the other elements.

'

As
vol.

the
i.

Ego

is

the

See Ward's Nat. and Ag.,

p. 256,

154

AN ESSAY ON
is

PERSONALITY.
rest

will in its distinction

from the
the

of the conscious
reunited to this

content, so Personality
content,

Ego

and thereby raised

^

to the stage of self-

consciousness."

Now, without entering

of this definition,
tolerably correct.
it

into the minute discussion

say, perhaps, that
is
it

we may
What,

is

then,
?

the presentment

gives us of Personality

It is that Personality

is

the final outcome of our psychical development

feeling, thought,

of

and

will.

And

perhaps we

shall not

be far wrong in regarding Personality as

the result of those

otherwise,
faculties

same

processes, evolutionary or
rest

by which the
activities

of

our psychical

and

have come into being.^

But the
is

effects of this admission, that Personality

is

the expression of the psychical content,

first
it

more

far-reaching than at

sight appears.

In the

first

place,

is

evident that

man

has no

monopoly of what we may

that
is,

call psychical content,

of those faculties and functions which are

to
fall

usually supposed

within the domain of

' Tlie PnHciples of Morality, by Willielm Wundt, professor of Philosophy in the University of Leipzig. English Translation,

p. 21.
^

In saying

this, I

wish once more to guard against the supposiis

tion that evolution of itself

a power capable of creating anything.

As my

readers are aware,

hold that Evolution

is

only a modus

operandi,

which demands the power and presence of the Operator.

PSYCHICAL PROGRESS.
psychology.
Intelligence,

155
will,

thought, feeling,

memory,

afifection,

these he shares, in

common, with
animal
life.

creatures far below

him

in the scale of

Man

is

but the

last link in the

great chain of

evolutionary process, the heir of the accumulated

experiences of a thousand generations of genera

and species which have preceded him on the

earth.

And

all

along the line the Eternal Prius has been

manifesting Himself in ever-increasing forms of

beauty and

loveliness.

But there seems good

reason for thinking that physiology and psychology

have ever gone hand-in-hand, and form integral

parts

and different aspects of the progressive moveperfection.

in

ment towards
If there

be any truth
from
a

Darwin's

Origin of

Species regarded

physiological point of

view, then

it

must

also be true, regarded from a

psychical point of view.

in respect to its physical
tiation, it will

As

the species advances

differen-

organism and

advance

also in point of psychical

faculty and development.

If,

then, Personality be the expression of the

it

psychical content,

follows (i) that

it
;

man
in

is

not
it

the only being that can claim

will

and
life

(2) that

vary in each order of animal

its

exact

accordance with

psychical endowment.

156

AN ESSAY ON
man
is

PERSONALITY.
richly

Just because

more

endowed with
But the

psychical faculty than any other terrestrial order

of beings, his Personality

is

the highest.

lower orders of animated nature also possess a

Personality varying according to their psychical
content.
I

have a dog which goes with

me

to

Matins every morning, but he patiently waits for

me

outside

the

church,

because

his

psychical

development does not enable him to join

the service of prayer and praise to the

me in common

Maker and Father of us

both.

In the lowest organisms, whose functions are

limited to the

common

object of preserving

life,

either by procuring food, or avoiding danger, the

Personality

is

only of the collective or social kind,

as yet exist.
life,

and individual Personality does not

But as

we mount the

scale of animal

when

the organism becomes more complex, and a variety

of conturbing motives

come

into play, the psychical

content

is

increased,

and the personality tends to

character.

assume an individual

Examples of
in creatures

both forms of Personality may be found

far

below the rank of man.

Compare

a flock of

starlings, or a shoal of herrings,

with the solitary

spider spinning

its

web with almost mathematical

its

accuracy, or the beetle burying

in the

loathsome prey

depths of the

forest.

COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY.
In the
social,
first

157

two we see plenty of

little

collective or

but very

of individual personality.
is

In

the latter two, the exact converse

the case.

The

spider and the beetle, without being actually

severed from the collective personality of their

kind, appear to have acquired a sort of individual
personality,

which enables them to

live

and

act for

themselves.

Much

of what Professor

Wundt

says on the
is true,

relation of the social to the individual will

mutatis mutandis, of the relation of the social, or

collective, to the individual personality.

But we

shall

do well to remember, that

in neither case is

their earliest origin

in

and manifestation to be found

far deeper, if

mankind.

We

must dig

we would

get to the root of the matter.

The

fact is

we need
as
;

a comparative psychology just as

much

we

need a comparative anatomy or physiology

investigation of either subject can

and no

be thorough,

which loses sight of the comparative aspect-r-that

is,

of the unity and solidarity of

all

forms of

life.

The study

of Natural History and Comparative

Anatomy

reveals the fact that, physiologically

and

structurally,

the Vertebrate

man is allied to the lower orders of Kingdom that he differs from them,
;

158

AN ESSAY ON
much
in

PERSONALITY.

not so

kind and form, as in degree and

organic development.
learn that what
psychically,
is

But we seem to have yet to

is

true physiologically

also true

and that very much of the content of

Personality
is

the

human

common

also

to

the

lower and less highly developed orders of animal

life.

As each

successive genus or species increases

in

complexity of organization, so do the psychical

activities

functions and

increase,

and there

is

corresponding advance to more specialized and

individualized forms of personality.

That the

earliest

and lowest form of personality

is

should be the collective or social should expect.

It is a fact

only what

we

which connotes

little

more than what we understand by gregariousness.

But as we
rise

higher in the scale of animal

life

the psychical content increases, and the birth of

self-consciousness synchronizes with

the appear-

ance of individual personality

and egoism.

Each

member
that he
is

of the

community begins

to see, not only

is

one of many, and with many, but that he

also a personal unit distinct from the rest, and

capable of separate and independent action.

Then

follows

higher
that

stage,
this

in

which

the

individual

perceives

distinction
adrift

and

independence does not cut him

from the


COUNT LEO TOLSTOY.
family of which he
individual
is

159

a member, but that his

is

personality

something to be used

for the welfare

and advancement of the whole

collective body.

And

last of all

comes that stage

of personal development in which the individual

awakes to the conscious perception of

his relation,
is

not merely to the society with which he

closely

most

associated
;

by

birth

and community of

interests

not merely to the outward and material

world of nature of which he forms a part, but to

that Being

Who,

as Self-conscious Thought,
Life,

is

the

Author of Nature, the Well of

Being the whole Universe
Self-manifestation.
is

and of Whose

only the glorious

Count Leo Tolstoy on Divine Personality.

The
being

writings

of Count

Leo Tolstoy

are

now

much

read in this country.

In his booklet,

Thoughts on God, he touches on the subject of

Divine
Personality.
It

will

not

therefore

be

irrelevant,

and may be

interesting,

to

ascertain

what

his views are.

The
"

following

is

Tolstoy's definition of

God

God
is

am me

is that All, that infinite All, of which I conscious of being a part, and, therefore, all in

encompassed by God, and

"

feel

Him

in

everything

(pp. 7, 8),

i6o

A AT ESSAY ON PERSONALITY.
God
is

Again, he says, "

love,"

and " Love

is

God "(pp.
"

9, II).

Somehow, while praying

to

God,

it

became

clear to

Love
I

me

that

God

is,

indeed, in real Being,

just touch,
"

is

that All which

and which

experience in the form of Love

(p. 8).

But does not

savour too

this last

dictum, " Love

is

God,"

much
for

of other abstract conceptions of

"

God

as,

example, the " Pure Thought

of

Hegel, the " Supreme Will " of Schopenhauer, the

" Deified

Humanity "
?

of Comte, the " Persistent

Force

"

of Spencer
is

There
partial

truth in

them

all.

But they are

all

all

and imperfect, and they

the

take their hue

the

and complexion from

individual conceiver.

idiosyncrasy of

And

is it

possible to enter-

tain these concepts, save as attributes or qualities

of Personality

Can we

entertain

the idea

of

thought without a Thinker of some kind?

will

Of
to
will,

without a Wilier, and so on

Are we

conclude, that only in

man do
assume

thought, and

and

force,

and
?

love

self-conscious
is

personal form

If so, then, there

really

no

God but man.

I

believe

Count Tolstoy calls himself a

it is

Christian,

and, therefore,

the

more surprising that he


COUNT LEO TOLSTOY.
should deny the Personality of God.

i6i

Yet
is

this

he

distinctly

and emphatically does, as

:

evident

from the following passages

" It
is

said that

God
is

should be conceived

as

a personality.
personality
is

This

a great misunderstanding

Man feels himself a because he is in contact with other personalities. If he were alone, he would not be a person.^ But how can we say of God that He is a person ? Herein lies the root of anthropomorphism." ^
limitation.

personality only

And
we

yet, while

denying the personality of God,

find Tolstoy over

in

and over again speaking of

God

terms which necessarily imply His per-

sonality,

and which
except
One."

are,

to

my

mind

at

least,
it.

unintelligible,

on the supposition of

Thus,

"

He

is

He

is

" the living

God,"

in

contrast to the pantheistic God.

" He is One, in the sense that He exists as a Being who can be addressed that is, that there is a relation between me, a limited personality, and ^ God, unfathomable, but existing."
;

' This seems to me a gratuitous assumption, which is neither proved nor capable of proof. Take the imaginary case of Robinson Crusoe. Because he was cast on a desert island, and cut off from all intercourse with his fellow-man, did he cease to be a person, or

to think himself one

^

Thoughts on God,
II.

p. 34.

"

Ibid.

VOL.

i62

AN ESSAY ON
concepts
of the
?

PERSONALITY.

Is not

Tolstoy here struggling to reconcile ideas

or

Divine

Being
this

which

are
is

essentially
still

opposed

And
in

opposition

further

emphasized

his

statement

on

Prayer.

addressed to a personal God, not a person (I even know with certainty that He is not a person, because personality is limitation, and God is unlimited), but because I am a personal being."
is

"Prayer

because

He

is

-^

Tolstoy has just admitted that

God

is

a Being,
therefore

Who may

be addressed

in

prayer

and

a Person, seeing

we cannot

address an abstract

quality or even a bundle of such,

but

now we

are told, that

we

only address

God

as a person,

because
that

we

are personal beings.

In other words,

God

has no objective personal existence, and

cannot be addressed as a person except by a

formal act of self-deception.
of prayer after this
chical illusion
;
.'

And what becomes

is it

What

more than a psy!

a poor piece of spiritual idolatry

is

But

Tolstoy

better than
raises

his

creed.

His

religious

instinct
his

an

indignant

protest
after soul,

against

philosophy.

The yearning
own inmost

a
is

personal God, realized in his

'

Thoughts on God, p. 33.

COUNT LEO TOLSTOY.

too
in

163

much

for

him

and we

find

him breaking out

impassioned utterance to the very Being whose

personality he had just denied.

"But, Lord,
ceased.

named Thee, and my

has
passed.
I

sufferings
feel

My

despair

Thy

walk in Thy ways, and Thy pardon, when I stray from them. Lord, pardon the errors of my youth, and help me to bear Thy yoke as joyfully as I accept it."
nearness, feel

Thy

help

when

So
"

said the Psalmist three thousand years ago.

My

soul

is

athirst for

God.

Yea, even for the

Living God."
nos ad Te, Domine, et inquietum est cor nostrum donee requiescat in Te." " O Lord, Thou hast made us for Thyself, and our heart is restless until it reposes in Thee." (St. Aug.)
" Fecisti

SECTION

V.

MATERIALISTIC MONISM AND PERSONALITY.

Monism and
toplasm
Personality "Matter moving" Vital Force? Pro Professor Dolbear's definitionThe problem be solved Subject and Object Two observations Professor Wundt and human progress Phenomena and Noumena Paul Professor Bain's Hypothesis incompatible with Monism.
to
St.

The
is

contention

of the Materialistic Monist, as

is

well

known,

that "everything that

is,

is

matter moving."
there
is

Which means,

of course,

that

no other or higher form of Being.

course,
is

Such

a theory, of

fatal

to

the

idea of a

Personal Prius.

It will

be

desirable, therefore, to

examine

this theory

and the arguments adduced

in its support.

And,

in the first place,

it

is

to be noted that

our scientists have not yet arrived at any general

consensus of opinion,
ledge of what matter
motion,

much
is.

less

any certain knowatoms

?

It consists of

in

we

are told.

But what are atoms

is

The

latest hypothesis

concerning them

that they are

VITAL FORCE.

165

vortex rings, "a particular form of motion of the

ether in the ether."
^

In the second place, ether

is

very necessary,

even to the Materialistic Monist.

But

am

not

aware that ether has yet been proved, or even

claimed to be, matter, but only "the primal substance out of which matter
is is

formed."

Yet ether

something, and,

if it

be not matter, then what

becomes of the Monist's contention that everything

that
his
is, is

matter moving ?

Has he not destroyed

his first proposition
?

own

Prius,

and disproved

Vital Force.
It

used to be thought that the difference between

vital force

and other physical

But our

forces

was

qualita-

tive

and

essential.

scientists tell us
;

now
the

that no such distinction exists

and that

all

phenomena

of

life

are to

be explained by means of

physical and chemical forces.

'

The term

"vital

Dolbear, Matter, Ether, and Motion, p. 351 manner one may understand that what constitutes an atom is not so much the substance it is composed of, as the motion involved in it. Such an atom is a particular form of motion of the ether in the ether, in the same sense as what is called light is a
Professor
like

"In

form of motion of the ether in the

tion,

ether.

The one
after

is

an undulathe

the other a vortex.

Thus one

another of

properties of matter are found to be resolvable into ether motions,

ether being the primal substance,

manifestations."
^

and matter only one of

its

Professor Dolbear, Matter, Ether

and Motion,

pp. 297 and 351.

i66

AN ESSAY ON
is

PERSONALITY.

force"

only to be regarded as a convenient form

of expression for " the

sum

total of the physical

^

and chemical

activities of

organisms."

Our

Biologists,

not so long ago, used to be

all

content with tracing

egg.

animal

life

back to the
the cell^ was
tell

Omne vivum

ah ovo.

Then
and

substituted for the egg; but

now they
protoplasm

us

we
one
life.

must go further back

chemical
substance

still,

find in a

complex
the

called
all

fount and origin of

animal and vegetable

.'

And what
'

is

protoplasm

Professor E. L. Mark, Harvard University. " That vital See also Professor Dolbear, Matter, etc., p. 279 force as an entity has no existence, and that all physiological phenomena whatever can be accounted for, without going beyond
:

the bounds of physical and chemical science, has to-day

become
;

the

general conclusion of
force as an entity has
biologists."

all

students of vital
in

phenomena

and

vital

no advocates

the present generation of

^ Professor Dolbear's hypothesis respecting cell formation and growth is at least interesting and ingenious. I quote his own words: "In the organic world of living things the phenomenon of growth is manifested by what are called cells, which .ire symmetrical

groups of molecules, as crystals

are,

only

much more complex.

Each
different part
. . .

Growth

consists in the formation of similar cells out of suitable

molecular constituents in the neighbourhood.

formation

of a plant or animal has a different cell structure.

is

Such

called

growth

but the similarity in form and function,

when appearing among plants or animals, has been considered as due to heredity, a term which has a definite enough meaning, but which has not been supposed to be due to mechanical, but to some
super-physical agency not amenable to purely physical laws and
conditions."

Matter, Ether,

and Motion,

p. 250.

PROTOPLASM.
Protoplasm.

167

The

question

is

an important one, and

it

will

be

well to hear

what Professor Dolbear, as represent-

ing the most recent scientific view, has to say

about
"

it.

Protoplasm

is

a particularly complex chemical

all living things,

substance, out of which

animals

and plants are formed. homogeneous, and as

as
is

It is entirely structureless,

indifferentiated as to parts

a solution of starch, or the albumen of an

egg.

Minute portions of
all

this

elementary

life-stuff

possess

the distinctive fundamental properties

It

that are to be seen in the largest and most complicated living structures.
assimilation

that

has the power of

is,

of organizing dead food into

matter

like

itself

and,

consequently,

called growth.

It possesses contractility

that

what

is
is,

the ability to

move

in a visible,

and

it

possesses sensitivity

that
:

mechanical
is,

way
to

ability

respond to external conditions

reproduction."

and the power of

substance,
like

"A
minute

small

particle

of this

without any parts or organs, possesses its various attributes in equal degree in every part. Any particular portion can lay hold on assimilable material, or digest it, or be used as so that what are called a means of locomotion tissues of animals and plants represent the fundamental properties of the protoplasm out of which
bit of jelly,
;

they have been built

thrown

into

prominence by

i68

AN ESSAY ON

PERSONALITY.

a kind of division of labour. The protoplasm organizes itself into cells and tissues in the same sense as atoms organize themselves into molecules,

and molecules
atoms,
their
^

into crystals of various sorts, having

different properties, that

depend upon the kind of number and arrangement in the

molecule."

Such
Dolbear.

is

protoplasm,

according

to

Professor

And
it

the difficulty which occurred to

was, not so
it

me

in

reading

much

that of believing

his description of

to

be

true, as

of believing
it,

that such qualities as he attributes to

tion,contractility, sensitivity, reproduction

assimila-

can possibly

be due merely to the chemical and mechanical

forces of matter,
tion.
I

however complex

its

composi-

confess that at present the draft

is

upon

my

credulity

greater than I

am

prepared to honour

and

should prefer to hold in suspense a while

as to whether there
is,

my opinion,
'

or

is

not, such a

Matter, Ether
Biitochli

and

and Motion, pp. 280, 281. Professors Quincke have even been attempting the manufacture of an
like

artificial

protoplasm, which, they say, exhibits changes in shape,

those of an amoeba.

and streaming movements

Liebig, the great scientist,
leaf or

But

it

is

entirely void of vital qualities.

Ibid,, 368.
if

was once asked,

he believed that a

grow by chemical forces. His answer was significant. "I would more readily believe that a book on chemistry or botany could grow out of dead matter by chemical processes." No discovery has since been made
a flower could be formed, or could
to alter that opinion.

THE PROBLEM TO BE SOLVED.

may be

169

thing as vital force, distinct from chemical and

mechanical

force.^

It

that the cardinal

doctrine of the Materialistic Monist, " Everything that

it
is, is

matter moving," though

we do not admit

to be true,

may

yet help us to explain

many

of
in-

the

phenomena which have

hitherto proved

soluble.

And

the

result

of

the

careful

and

elaborate investigations of Sir William Crookes in

this field of

inquiry point to the conclusion that

we have touched
force,

the borderland where matter and

into one

and consequently motion, merge

another, and

become

one.^
be, I can hardly

But, however this

may

imagine

that even the most thorough-going Monist will

contend that the chemical and mechanical forces

alone are able to produce thought, and
all

that

is

comprehended under the heading of mental activity.

And
and

yet these also are realities which do exist,

for

whose existence allowance and

in

room

must be made

any scheme of Philosophy or

' If there be no such thing as vital force apart from the chemical and mechanical forces, what is it in the animal organism that is able to control and countervail those forces for its own special purposes ; forces which, so soon as life departs, become active in

destroying the organism

-

See the Lecture delivered by Sir Society, February 6, 1902, on "The

^

W.

Crookes before the Royal

Stratification of

Hydrogen."

I70

AN ESSAY ON
commend

PERSONALITY.
its

Metaphysic which can hope to hold

the future, and
itself to

own

in

the reason of

unbiassed thinkers.
It

must be remembered, that we have not only

protoplasm, amoebas, hydras, and such-like things

to

account

for,

but what

we may
theory
it

call

Nature's
all
it

chef-d' ceuvre,

the Personality of man, with

connotes.

And

whatever

be

adopted,

whether Monist or Dualist,

must be adequate

to explain the existence, not only of the lowest,

but also of the highest, forms of

life

of which

we

have any experience. Let

me borrow

an illustration from the art of

as well.

painting, though

any other might do

Let

us take two specimens of the art a higher one

lower and
beautifully

painted

box and a

executed

portrait.

description
suffice, if

of the art of

painting which would

of the

only the painting

box were

considered, would manifestly be

quite inadequate as a description of the art which

.produced the portrait.

The

first

would require

nothing more than the presence of material and

mechanical agencies.

You want
force
;

a surface, like

that of a box, pigment

and a brush, together

as

with

such

mechanical

can wield the

is

brush and

apply the paint

and the thing

AN
done.
result

ILLUSTRATION.

171

But can the portrait be explained as the

of nothing

but
?

the

same

material

and

mechanical agencies

Evidently not.

You may

supply the canvas, the paint, the brushes, and the

mechanical

force,

but

all

these are insufficient to

produce the finished portrait.

For

this

you require

in addition the skill, the feeling,

and insight of the

accomplished
of the
art,

artist.

It

is

the highest product

artist,

the finished work of the

outline,

and not

merely the rough

nor

the

elementary

daubs of a house-painter's apprentice, that have

to be accounted
It is not the
for.

And
cells

is it

not so with Nature

manufacture of atoms into molecules

and protoplasm and

we have

to account for,

but the most finished work of which we have any

actual knowledge and experience, the self-conscious,

reasoning soul of man.

The former we

might,

perhaps, conceive to be the product of chemical

and mechanical
be
so,

forces, but, that the latter

should

passes the bounds of reason and probability.

fact
is,

The

that in the problem of

life

in

its

highest form

we have not only phenomena, but

consider.^

noum'ena to
'

And

hope the

two

" The conception of

it

the phenomenal, of course, has brought

with

the conception of a further so-called noumenal reality

beyond."
p. 166.

Professor

Ward's Naturalism and Agnosticistn,

vol.

ii.


172

AN ESSAY ON

PERSONALITY.

following observations will not be thought irrelevant

to the subject before us.

Life and Experience.

Subject
is

and

Object.

My

first

observation
first

this.

Whatever may
life,

be the origin and

beginnings of
it

as

we

know and experience

gradations,
it
is

in

all

its

forms and

the product of two factors, the

one subjective and capable of receiving impressions,

responding to stimuli, and generally adapting

surroundings
;

itself to its

the other objective, able

to

make

impressions, impart stimuli, and generally

to

modify and influence

every
it.

vital
is

organism

brought into contact with

of
life,

There

no form
is
is

from the amoeba to the man, which

not
not
if

the product of these two factors, which

evoked by
it is

its

environment, and which does not,

it.

to continue, correspond to

And

the interis

action
for

between the subjective and objective

life

each individual form of

its

represented and
Life,

expressed by
I

experience.

This view of

am

glad to

find, is

supported by Professor

Ward

in his

book

on.

Naturalism and Agnosticism, These

are his words

"

To enounce that
a

experience
that

is
it

a whole,
consists

or,

more
the

precisely,

continuity,

in


EXPERIENCE.

SUBJECT AND OBJECT.

and object as
its

173

correlation of subject
factors, is a

universal

statement that seems to tamper with

^

no

facts

and to involve no hypotheses."

And

again

" Experience as a process may be further defined as a process of self-conservation, and so far justifies

us in describing

it

as

life (j3(og)."

Let

me borrow

another illustration of our argu-

ment
of

at this point from a pastime with

which some

my
I

readers doubtless have been familiar in

their boyhood's days, that of

making a snow-man.
is

Need
lawn.

describe

it ?

A handful of snow
it

pressed

into a ball,

and then

rolled along a snow-covered

As
it,

the ball rolls

accumulates the snow

beneath

growing at each revolution bigger and

it

bigger, until

reaches the size required.

We

see

there are three things necessary for the production

of our snow-man.

First,

the
;

initial

snow-ball
the power

second, the snow-covered lawn

'

third,

Naturalism and Agnosticism,

Ibid., p.
ii.

vol.

ii.

p. 130.
is

'

136.

The
:

following passage, also,

If,

much

to the

point (vol.

p. 255)

"

as

Kant

does,

we

regard experience
its

as starting with such an indefinite manifold as

objective

com-

plement,
this

we must
it

hasten to add, that the start

is

is

only

made when
is

matter of experience

shaped and informed by the subject

it.
.

conscious of

and

interested in

My

contention

that to

the subject belongs the lead and initiative throughout, and that, as

experience develops, this subject shows an ever-increasing

activity

and supremacy."

174

AN ESSAY ON
snow-man
will

PERSONALITY.
Without eath and
all

to roll the ball along.

of

these no

be forthcoming.

And now
ball

for the analogy.

The

initial

snowlife,

stands for
all its

the

subjective element of
call it

with

potency

what you

will

the

snow-covered lawn represents the objective en-

vironment of the Universe

and the revolving

power denotes the energy which brings subject

and object together, with that interaction between
the two which
constitutes

experience,

and out

of which by accumulation the vital and psychical

involute of the subject
is

continuously augmented.^
is

Of course,

the above illustration

;

only a rough-

and-ready one

but

it

may

help to give a clearer

conception of an hypothesis, which seems to the

writer best to harmonize the claims of science and

physics on the one hand, and of religion and meta-

physics on the other.

It is to

be noted,

too, that

this hypothesis of Life, as the

product of the sub-

jective

and objective

factors realized in experience,

provides

indefinitely for the future progress

and

perfection of mankind.
'

"

We

both subjective and objective

as separable

have found that our primary experience invariably implies factors, and seems to involve these not

operant members of one whole."

ticism, vol,
ii,

and independent elements, but as organically coWard's Naturalism and Agnos-

p. 253.

THE PROGRESS OF HUMANITY.

According to Professor Wundt, the
progress
is

175

line of

human
is

sociological.

Man's

final

moral end

the moral end of humanity, not of the family or

state,

but of the

race.

We

are to seek satisfaction

and supplement the

actual
life

finitude

and limitations of

in the

form of (by) higher objective

intellectual values.

And so we find that our ultimate ends can be nothing but the production of psychical creations whose final object is not the individual himself, but the universal spirit of humanity " ^
''
. .

But Professor Wundt

is

silent as to the

means
to be

whereby
secured.

this progress of the

human

race

is

And, whatever we may think of the

from

worth and adequacy of the moral end proposed,

we cannot

are the " materials out of which these " psychical creations
intellectual values" to

refrain

asking where

and "higher objective

constructed?

be

Are they

to

be found elsewhere
self-

than in an ever-increasing experience by the

conscious
subject

of

those

activities,

whether
objective

physical or spiritual, contained

in

its

environment

And what
that fiUeth
'

is

that environment but

the Self-manifestation of the Personal Prius, " the

fulness of

Him

all in all "

.?

Ethics, p, 85.

176

AN ESSAY ON

PERSONALITY.
is

Only because the snow-ball

snow-covered lawn does
it

rolled along the

become the snow-man.

which

So, only because the objective environment,

forms the raw material out of which experience

is

accumulated, contains

all

the elements requisite

for vital

and psychical development

higher

psy-

chical values

is

progress in this direction possible.

Surely

it

is

in this

enlarged and

ever-increasing

experience, which has the limitless plenum of the

Infinite to

draw upon, where we see the promise

and the power of an endless advance towards

perfection.

And

as,

on the one hand, we are

in

no position to place

limits

on the degree or method

of Self-manifestation which the Prius

fit

may

think

to adopt, so neither, limit to

on the other, can we see

is

any

the

progress which

ultimately
is

attainable for mankind.

That progress

not of

the nature of a quantity which cannot be exceeded,

or a standard which cannot be excelled
is it
;

rather

like a series of geometrical progression

which

goes on increasing

ad infinitum.

Such

is

the view of

human

life

and human

progress propounded by the great Christian Meta-

physician St. Paul.^

'

The phenomena
all

declare the

Cp. 2 Cor.

iii.

i8

" But we

with open face beholding as

in a glass (mirror) the glory of the

Lord, are changed into the same

THE PROGRESS OF HUMANITY.

noumena of the Almighty.
All

177

down

the ages

has the Eternal Prius been manifesting Himself,

now
this

in

one way, now

in another.

And
its

if

at last

Self-manifestation has reached

climax in

the cardinal

phenomenon of the
?

Incarnation, should

this surprise us

And, because we cannot fathom

the mystery, shall

ever

we say

"

Impossible

" ?

How-

much men may

it

object to

the Incarnation

because
to

transcends Nature, and their

it,

own power
life

comprehend

they cannot deny, that the

of Jesus has done far

more than that of any other

It

man

to raise the moral concepts of mankind.

has not, indeed, driven sin and wickedness out

of the
will not

world, for

the

simple reason that

its

men
and

submit themselves to

restraining

constraining influence.
as

But
so,

in exact proportion

they have done

and
their

tried

honestly to
lives,
it

embody

that influence in
lives

own

has

raised those

to

a standard of purity and

seen.

goodness higher than the world has ever

That love

is

the secret of that influence,

need

not stop to point out.

Not

in Sociology, then, as

it

seems to me, are

iv.

image from glory

to glory."

And
.

Ephes.

13

"

Till

we

all

come unto a

perfect

man

unto the measure of the stature of

the fulness {vKrip^/j-aros) of Christ."

VOL.

II.

178

AN ESSAY ON
to find the highest

PERSONALITY.
line of

we

and truest

human

progress, but in that experience which brings us

into ever closer union and

communion with

the
is

Being

Who

through phenomena and noumena

ever manifesting Himself in fuller measure as the

only Source of love and truth and beauty.

Phenomena and Noumena.

My

second observation
is

is

this.

The problem
who

before us

one which involves more than physical

phenomena.'^

Were

it

not

so,

the Monist,

thinks to find in "matter

solution,

moving" the

universal

might not consider his task a hopeless

one.
It
is

not

so,

however.

Noumena,
into account

as
;

well as

phenomena, must be taken

where by
the

noumena we mean those

by reason and

things which are

objects of our understanding, and are dealt with

intellect.

They

are

mental and

spiritual concepts,

which form the subject-matter

distinguished

of

Metaphysic

as

from

Physics,

which professes to deal only with phenomena.

" It
follows naturally from the notion of a

'

phenomenon
not
itself

of any

sort that

something must correspond to

is,

it

that

is

phenome-

non"

that

without a percipient nothing can be perceived.

Kant's Kritik der reinen Yertiuft, p. 233.


PHENOMENA AND NOUMENA.
Perhaps there
is

179

no passage which

will better

serve to illustrate the distinction between the two

than that of the great Doctor of Christian Metaphysic, St. Paul, in his letter to the

Romans,^ and

which,

trust,

may

be pardoned for quoting.

:

The passage

in the

Revised Version runs thus

" For the invisible things {aorata) of Him since the creation of the world are clearly seen, being

understood

made

{poiemasi),

{nooumena) by the things that are even His Eternal Power and

Godhead."
Here,
it

will

be observed,

we have

allusion

made

to

phenomena and noumena.

The former
the latter are

are the poiemata, the things

made

the aorata, the invisible things, which are in reality

the Eternal

Power and Godhead, and

become

noumena to us by means of the phenomena of the

created Universe.
Clearly,
St.

Paul was

no Monist.

In

other

words, he recognized the fact that the world of

Metaphysic

is

as real as that of Physics

and that

the noumena of
the
'

the former, though distinct from the

latter,

phenomena of
Rom.
i.

refuse

equally to

20.
:

Some
T^

of

my

readers would like to be reminded

of the

original

7cfcp

S^Spara

avTov

wirh

icriffeus

ic6(rfxov

ro'is

KOi-iifxaffL

voov^^va KaSoparai, ^ Tf otBiOs aitTOv d^yafits Kal

BeiSrijs.


i8o

PERSONALITY.
all.

AN ESSAY ON
Nor
is

be ignored.

this

He

enunciates the
that

cardinal doctrine of Christian

Metaphysic,

phenomena and noumena, though

essential

distinct in their

nature,

are

still

intimately,
;

and

as

it

were organically, connected

are the expression of

and that phenomena

at the

noumena, and
the

same

time the vehicle and

sacraments

through

which they are apprehended by the mind of man.

And
fails

here, as

it

seems to me,

is

the point where

It

Monism

utterly

and hopelessly breaks down.

in the

presence of

noumena

it

fails

before

the fact of the Personality of man.

Professor Bairns Hypothesis.

Professor Bain,
in

his

book

on "Mind and

Body,"

after reviewing the

arguments of Monism

and Dualism
conclusion
:

respectively, arrives at the following

" The arguments for the two substances (Material and Immaterial) have, we believe, now entirely lost their validity they are no longer compatible with ascertained science and clear thinking. The one substance, with two sets of properties, two sides, the physical and the mental a double-faced Unity would appear to comply with all the
;

exigencies of the case."

'

Mind and Body,

p. 196.


PROFESSOR BAIN'S HYPOTHESIS.
I

i8i

venture to submit
:

the following observa-

tions
1.

That Professor Bain's hypothesis

is

incom-

patible with

Monism

proper.

do not see how

a Monist can
sets

postulate a

Substance with two

simple

of properties as his Prius, for the

it

reason that

is

compounded
far

of two elements,
are

or categories, which, so

as I know,

by

universal consent regarded as essentially different

and

distinct.

take

it,

therefore, that Professor

Bain regards Monism pure and simple as untenable

;

because,

while

it

might be

able

to
it

explain and account for physical phenomena,

fails

in

the

presence

of

mental

and

spiritual

noumena.
2.

Professor Bain

is

in

favour of "one

Subsides,

stance

with two sets of properties,

two

the

physical

and

the

mental
"

a
i.e.

double-faced

Unity,"
all

which he

thinks

would comply with

be able to

the exigencies of the case,"

all

explain and account both for

phenomena and
"

noumena. Let us examine

stance."
this

hypothesis

One Sub-

What

is

substance?
it

Evidently, from the

etymology of the word,

stands under
{sub-stat),

denotes

that which that which

or underlies

82

AN ESSAY ON

PERSONALITY.
Substance
It
is

is

evident to the senses.

therefore

the substrate of phenomena.

represents the

inner reality or essence of things.

is

As such

it

synonymous both
the

in

derivation
(vtto

and meaning
^^^d
it

with
is

Greek hypostasis
needless,
I

(rr)/xi)j

almost

suppose, to
in

remind

my
in

reader,

that

not

only

Philosophy but

Christian

Theology both substance and

hypostasis

have acquired a well-recognized meaning.^

in

Thus,

the

Nicene
his

Creed,
belief
in

so

called, the

Christian

expresses
Christ, as

the

Divinity of

Jesus

"being

of
in

one

Substance

with the

Father

"

and again

the Athanasian Creed, or

the
Persons,

Exposition,

"Neither confounding
the

nor

dividing
it

Substance

"

in

both which
is

passages

is

evident that "Substance"

used
or,

to denote the Essence (Greek Ousia) of Deity, as

'

it is

otherwise termed,

"

the Godhead."

Substance as a theological term denotes that which forms the

It is used in this sense in the first of the " And in the Unity of this Thirty -nine Articles of Religion Godhead there be Three Persons of one substance [essentia),

Divine essence, or being.

power, and eternity." Hypostasis has not in

all
first

ages of the Church had precisely the

three centuries
it

same meaning.

In the

was commonly used

as the equivalent of the Latin Persona,

though not universally.

it was used in the same sense as Substantia, which the Divine attributes inhere. These differences were reconciled at the Council of Alexandria (A.D. 362), and chiefly through the influence and arguments of St. Athanasius.

By many, however,

that in

PROFESSOR BAIN'S HYPOTHESIS.

Does Professor Bain,
then, use the

183
"

word

Subit

stance" in a sense analogous to that in which

was used by the Christian Fathers?

almost
remark,

We

might

suppose

he does, from
to deal with

his
this

subsequent
(substance,

"We

are

this double-faced unity) as in the

language of the

Athanasian Creed, 'not confounding the Persons,

nor dividing the Substance.'
"

But

if so,

might

venture to remind him, that

"

mind and

"

mental properties

are, so

far

as

we

know and experience them,

butes
of Personality
? *

the inseparable attrisubstance,

therefore,
it

endowed with mental

properties cannot,
;

would

seem, be other than personal

nor "a double-faced

the exigencies of

unity" which " complies with

the case," less than Divine.
'

all

See Sir G. G. Stokes' Gifford Lectures,

p. 196.

SECTION

VI.

PERSONALITY AND THE MECHANICAL THEORY

OF NATURALISM.
Psycho-physical Parallelism and Epi-phenomena

Consequences of

the Mechanical Theory in regard to Personality, Morality, and

Religion.

Closely

allied to Materialistic
all

Monism comes

the

theory that

Nature

is

but one vast mechanism,

and which regards mental and psychical activities

as

mere Epi-phenomena

manifestations,
exists.

that

is,

which accompany the working of the machine,

but between which and the physical phenomena

no

causal

connection
is

Psycho-physical
to this

Parallelism

the

name

given

strange

concept

mere name, which explains nothing,

and

is

nothing, but the last refuge of Agnosticism.

so

The whole theory has been

examined, and

exhaustively

its fallacy so convincingly

exposed

by Professor Ward, that

shall

simply refer

my

THE MECHANICAL THEORY.

185

reader to his Treatise,^ and content myself with

offering a few observations to
fares at the

show how Personality

hands of Naturalism.
Nature and the whole Universe were

Even
in

if

nothing more than one vast piece of machinery,

which

all

the

parts
for

work

smoothly

and

harmoniously together
infinite
still
it

the production of an
useful

number of
is

results

and

beautiful,

contrary

to

all

our

experience

of
to

machines, that they

maintain, that
offer

make

themselves.

And

by

calling

Nature a machine we
its

any adequate account of

would
be

principles

and

processes,

much

the same as

being

taken into a room where spinning and weaving

was going
secret of
at one
it

on,

and told that machinery was the

all.

The wool
flowery

or

the flax goes in

end as raw
" Yes,

material,

and comes out

or

at

the other the

tapestry.

damask
is

the pictured
sure

here

the

machinery,
is

enough,"
machinist,

we should

reply,

"but where

the

machine
the
is

who designed and constructed the Where is the power that started
it

machine and keeps

artist

going?

And where
damask

the

who drew

the designs and pictures

so beautifully and accurately reproduced in

'

Naturalism and Agnosticism,

vol.

i.

pt.

i.

i86

AN ESSAY ON
If so,
I
it

PERSONALITY.
machine
different

and tapestry?
too?

Did the
is

make them
order to any

of a
with."

machine
It
is

ever

met

almost

needless to point out, that

is

in

Naturalism and the Mechanical Theory there

no

place for any higher form of Personality than that

of man, even

if

there be

room

for that.

It is
;

the

naturalist's boast that

he has no need of God

but

he does not seem to

nate

see, that in his effort to elimi-

God

as

mind and

intelligence from Nature,

he also expunges
scious

man as

anything more than a conwill

automaton bereft of

and spontaneity.^

"We must say," says Professor Ward, "and the Naturalists have had the courage to say it
'

Professor Huxley,

who was

the

first to

broach the doctrine of

conscious automatism as the logical outcome of Naturalism and

the Mechanical Theory, thus wrote

"Any

one who
its

is

acquainted

with the history of science will admit that

ages, meant,

pi'Ogress has, in all

and now more than ever means, the extension of the we call matter and causation, and the concomitant gradual banishment from all regions of human thought of what we
province of what
call sjiirit

and spontaneity."

Collected Essays,

i.

159.

" If these positions are well based, it follows that the feeling we call volition is not the catise of a vohmtary act, but the symbol of that state of the brain which is the immediate cause

And

again,

of that act."

Ibid.,

i.

244.
result of the

In these two passages we have the

Mechanical

Theory in its bearing on the Personality of man put before us in its naked simplicity. A creature devoid of spontaneity can in no true sense of the word be called a Person. And if, as Laplace boasted, there is no need for God in the Universe, there is also no room for man.

NATURALISM,

1S7

The physical world is a complete whole in itself, and goes along altogether by itself. We must say The very same laws fundamentally, that
:

determine the varying motion of the solar system, bring together from the four corners of the earth the molecules that from time to time join in the dance we know as the brain of a Dante, creating

immortal

verse, or as the brain of a Borgia, teeming with unheard-of crimes." ^

In Psycho-physical Parallelism

we recognize our

old friend Physiological Psychology in a slightly

altered

guise

but to use the term as throwing

any
is

new

light

on the

psychological problems

to darken counsel

by words without knowledge.

between

That subject and

the two in

object, and the interaction

is

the field of experience,

the cause
is

of psychical activity, and development

at least

an

intelligible

view to take

of

human

nature.

But to substitute phenomena and epi-phenomena

for

object

and subject
It
is

is

neither logical nor in-

telligible.

not logical, for

to

phenomena
i.e.

are

not phenomena except

a subject,
it is

to

the

person perceiving them.

for to explain

And

not

intelligible,

mental and psychical

spontaneity, as

activities,

such

as thought

and

examples of psychothat
ii.

physical
'

parallelism

by-products,
vol.

is,

which

Naturalism and Agnosticism,

p, 59.


AN ESSAY ON
cause

i88

PERSONALITY.
in

accompany molecular changes

neither

the brain, but

nor

are

caused

by them

is

process which conveys no idea to the mind.^ Results of the Mechanical Theory.
It will

be well we should take account of what

the triumph of Naturalism and the Mechanical

Theory would
If,

entail.

indeed. Nature, which here

is

means the

entire

Universe,

only a machine, then the naturalists

is

are right in saying there

(in

no such thing
in

as will

spite of

Schopenhauer)
itself

Nature.

Nature

must go along of
all.

by

necessity, or not at

And
it.

so there can be no

Mind

to guide or

control

In short, there
also,

is

no personal God.
If

Similarly,

with man.
will.

he

is

only a

machine, he, too, has no free

that
is,

But

free will

the power to decide on our line of action

after reason

and deliberation

is

inseparable from

our notion of Personality.

Thus the Mechanical

is

Theory pushed

to

its

logical issue

fatal

to all

Personality, whether

human

or Divine.

Nor

is

this

all.

If there

be no such thing as

' "Invariable concomitancy means causal connection somewhere, and a fundamental unity of substance at bottom. Naturalism is

driven to assign the causality to matter, and to treat mental epi-

phenomena

as its collateral product."

LOGICAL ISSUES.
spontaneity and free
will,

189

but

all

our so-called

acts of choice are only the necessary consequence

of circumstances, which
or
resist,

we

are powerless to alter

all

then

it

goes without saying, that

the

conditions needful for moral conduct are destroyed.

Morality

is

only possible in the case of free agents.

there be no free will

Again,

if

by which
itself

mean

the power to choose and shape our conduct in

accordance with reason

a cruel mockery.

then reason

becomes
that,
it

Nay, we must conclude

though we think we are guided by reason,

not really
so.

is

Our

reason, like our will,

is

only

an epi-phenomenon accompanying some molecular

movement
nection.
is

of the brain between which and our

is

actual course of conduct there

It

no causal con-

has

generally been held that will

;

the executor of reason

but

if

there be no
It is
it,

free will, then reason has

no executor.

a
is

useless gift

for

however much we use

it

powerless to influence our conduct.

With

religion

gone,

and

morality gone, and

man
it

himself but a machine driven

difficult to

by

necessity,

would be

imagine a more gloomy

outlook for humanity

Of

course, the consequences of a theory afford

it.

no valid argument against the truth of

But,


AN ESSAY ON

igo

PERSONALITY.

if

they are such as they appear to be in this case,

is

they constitute a high probability that there

a serious flaw in the reasoning somewhere, which

should

make

us

exceedingly cautious

how we

accept the theory as true.

Supplementary Note on the Mechanical Theory.

The moral and
Theory
is

psychological tendency of the Mechanical

clearly set forth

by Mr.

I.

F. Nisbet in his book,

The

Human

Machine.
;

call

my

reader's attention to the

following extracts
Free-will.

" Free-will

a figment of the imagination

like morality, is a habit of mind,

only"

(p. 41).

Conscience.

" Conscience,
It is

created by the circumstances of a people or a race, and varying, therefore,

Altruism.

"

according to circumstances

" (p. 237).

rail-

the product of the steamboat, the

way, and, above all, the newspaper" (p. 324). Thought. "After all, sensation nay, thought itself^s only a question of molecular action " (p. 169).

Religion.
'after

" God does not make man, but man makes God
own image and
is

his

likeness.'

The

reason

why
p.

Christianity

the dominant form of religious belief in

England
227).

is

to

be found

in

atmospheric influence" (see

SECTION

VII.

BEAUTY IN RELATION TO PERSONALITY.

What
is

beauty

Quantitative

of the ^Esthetic Faculty

of beauty

Christian Ideal

The functions Beauty

is in

The

and qualitative analysis Origin evidential value and witness

of beauty

Ideals

of beauty

The
for

teleologic.

That

there

Nature a power which makes

beauty, and that there are in Nature

many

forms

and kinds of beauty,

puted.

imagine, will not be disin

But there

is

more

these statements
fact

than meets the eye

they

and as statements of

demand

careful consideration.
I

Of
in

course, the great question

have to keep

before me, and the only one which can justify

me

touching on this subject at

is

all
:

in
"

connection

with our present inquiry,

this

Does beauty
what
is

bear any witness to Personality?

it.'

If so,

What
functions

is

its

evidential value,

and what are

"
?

-its


192

AN ESSAY ON
are, indeed,

PERSONALITY.
inquiries prior even
is

There
to

two other
"

these,

namely,

What

beauty

"

And
all

secondly, "

Whence comes

the faculty to perceive,

admire, and love the beautiful, without which

objective

forms of beauty would be lost

upon

us?"
But these are questions of a somewhat recondite and metaphysical nature, into which neither the
time nor space at
enter fully.

my

disposal will allow

I

me

to

On

these points, therefore,

shall

content myself with laying

tions,

down a few
I

proposi-

the truth and proof of which

reader's

must leave

to

my

judgment and

investigation.

What

is

Beauty f
elapsed
since

hundred years have

his
;

Burke
and
in

published
Beautiful

Treatise

on "The

Sublime
discoveries

"

and,

science and art

many have been made

though
light
difficulties

since then, not

much

additional

has been thrown on the

to

subject.
for the

What were
most part

him remain

difficulties to us.

And we

are

struck with the truth of his observation that

"The
one
to

great chain of causes which links them another, even to the throne of God

WHAT
of ours."^

IS

BEAUTY?

193

Himself, can never be unravelled by any industry

And
that
I

again, as to the efficient cause of sublimity

to say
^

and beauty, "I would not be understood

can come to the ultimate cause."

And,

indeed, the forms

and kinds of beauty are so

varied and numerous, according as they are fitted

to give pleasure to the bodily or mental faculties,

that

it

seems improbable there should be any

all.

one essential element common to them

But

what does seem probable

is,

that

all

forms of

beauty are divisible into two general

first

classes, the

of which

we may

call quantitative

and the

second qualitative.
Analysis of Beauty
In the
first

Quantitative and Qualitative.

be comprised
to, all

class will

those

forms of beauty which appeal

and are perceived

by the

senses.

These are material, formal, and

to a large extent numerical, because matter, form,

and number ^ are more or

'

less

involved in them.
p. 255.

Burke on The Sublime and Beautiful,

255.

Ibid., p.
'

Thus, musical strings of equal thickness and tension

will pro-

duce harmonious sounds when struck together, if their lengths be in harmonic progression, i.e, if their reciprocals are in arithmetical progression. Hence number would seem to lie at the root of
beauty in sound.
Similarly also with regard to beauty in colour.

VOL.

II.

194

AN ESSAY ON

PERSONALITY.
all

In the second division will be comprised

those forms and kinds of beauty which
to the
intellectual, moral,

appeal

and
to

spiritual faculties.

And
class

in

contradistinction

those in

the

first

they are ideal and

spiritual.

But we are

not to suppose from this analysis that the two

classes of beauty
tative

the quantitative and the

distinct.

quali-

are

always separate and

are

On

the
or

contrary,

they

frequently

found

united

intermingled.

They seem

to act

and react on

each other, and the material form has frequently

the power to call forth a corresponding form of
ideal beauty, of which the former
Still,
is

the symbol.

apart from these concessions, the two kinds

differ

of beauty appear to
character, just as the

essentially
differs

in

their

phenomenal

from the

noumenal, and the senses of the body from the

Difference in colour
is

well

known

to

depend on the

lengtli
is

of the

ether waves producing that colour, which, again,

a matter of

number. Thus, red light has the longest wave-length, about 55535'^ of an inch, and violet the shortest, about sith ; so that both in sight and sound number may be the ultimate and determining element of beauty. And even those forms of beauty of which the other senses are cognisant such as touch, taste, and smell may eventually be found to depend on the number and arrangement of

the molecules which excite the corresponding sensory nerves.

this point,

On

however, our present knowledge of molecular physics

does not enable us to speak with certainty. Harmony, proportion, and symmetry, it will be generally admitted, are important elements
in beauty of form,

and

these, again, are essentially numerical.

THE ESTHETIC FACULTY.

faculties of the

195

mind and

soul.

Thus, for example,

we may take up a book,

illustrated,

beautifully
life

bound and
and sayings
the eye

and containing the

of

some good and great man.

With

we

admire the beauty of the binding and

illustrations,

and with the mind and moral perceptions the

beauty of the character portrayed and the senti-

ments expressed.

But no

one, I suppose,

would

regard these two forms of beauty as identical,

or imagine that the one could be expressed in

terms of the other.

Whether the charm of

beauty
quality
is

qualitative

forms

of

due to any one essential element or

to

common
to
justice,

them

all,

it

is

at

present
of
the

impossible

say.

We

are

conscious
;

beauty of

truth,

and love

but as they
of sentior

give us pleasure through the exercise

ments so
respect,

different

as

admiration, reverence,
it

and

affection,
is,

would seem that the

beauty of each

at least, equally distinct.

Origin and Development of the Esthetic Faculty.

As
call

to the origin

and growth of what we may

the aesthetic faculty

that
it

is,

the power to
in
its

perceive and

appreciate

beauty

various
in

forms

do not see that

can be explained

"

196

AN ESSAY ON

PERSONALITY.

in

any other or more consistent manner than that which I have ventured to suggest the other

components of our psychical equipment should

be accounted
for,

namely, through the experience

of the vital organism

when brought

into contact

with the Prius, immanent in Nature, and manifested

through

its

environment.

If this

be

so,

the aesthetic faculty, and what

for the beautiful, will

we

call

the taste

be the

result of experience
in ever-

accumulated and transmitted by heredity

increasing

volume from parent

all

to offspring, from

generation to generation,
time.

down

the course of

According to

this view, the subjective sense,

or instinct, of the beautiful,

and beauty

in

the

objective environment, constitute the

two necesare counter;

sary factors in the problem.

parts of one united

They

and consistent whole

another
corre-

example

of " the

power of adjustment and

spondence," which forms the irreducible minimum,

as
it
is,

perhaps, the nearest approach to a true

definition of Life.

The Evidential Value and Witness of Beauty.

Having
"

said thus

much
of

in

answer to our two

is

preliminary

inquiries,

"What

beauty?" and
?

What

is

the origin

the aesthetic faculty

"

VALUE AND WITNESS OF BEAUTY.

let

197

us pass on to consider our two main questions,

(i)

"What

is

the significance of beauty,

its

its

evi-

dential value

and

witness

"

(2) "

What

are the
it

functions of beauty, and

what purpose does

serve

The
and

countless forms of beauty, both quantitative

qualitative,

by which we

are surrounded proconviction,

duce within us the

there
is

irresistible

that

in

Nature and the Universe a Power which

itself,

makes for beauty as an end in

utility.

apart from

What
is

is

this

Power

To

suppose that
is

beauty
absurd.

the result of chance or necessity

too

The mechanical theory

is

of Nature might

conceivably produce what

mechanically useful
utility in the

but to regard beauty, which has no

working of the machine, as amongst those products involves a draft on our credulity to which
few,
I

imagine, will be equal.

in his

Darwin,

Origin of Species, found the subject

of beauty too important to be entirely ignored.

But, as might be expected,
its

main

interest for

him

lay in the influence, which beauty might be

in the origin of species

supposed to exert

through

natural or sexual selection.

The

belief to

which

he refers, that organic beings have been created

beautiful for the delight of man, need not detain

198

AN ESSAY ON

PERSONALITY.

us, for

the simple reason that the earliest forms of

life,

animal and vegetable

which existed on the

earth long before the appearance of man, are often

remarkable

for

their

beauty

for

example, the

diatoms and volute and cone shells of the Eocene

epoch.^

And

the microscope reveals the

fact,

that

the most
detected

minute

organisms, which
sight, are

cannot
often

be

by the unaided

won-

drously beautiful.
"

Flowers,"

said

Darwin,

"

rank amongst

the

most beautiful productions of Nature."

could
see

But he
beauty

no

higher

object
attract

in

their

than

that

they might

insects,

and

so

become
insects

fertilized.

Hence he concludes

" that, if

had not been developed on the

face of

the earth, our plants would not have been decked

with beautiful flowers."

Let the reader

call to

mind the countless forms

amongst flowers
graceful

of beauty to be found

their matchless colouring, their

shapes,

their
it

exquisite

perfumes

and

then ask himself, " Is

conceivable that

all this

wealth of

beauty

should
the

have

been

massed

together merely for

insects on

purpose of

attracting
it

which the greater portion of

thrown
'

would

be

entirely

away

"

Surely
1 60,

only one

Ori^n of

Species, pp.

161.

DARWIN ON BEAUTY.
answer
is
is

199

possible to

all

persons whose judgment

of

not

biassed

in

favour

preconceived

theory.

Mr. Darwin was willing to admit, indeed, " that

a great number of male animals, and a host of
magnificently coloured butterflies have been ren-

dered beautiful for beauty's sake," yet

this,

he

contended, had been " effected only through sexual

selection
;

that

is,

by the more

beautiful

males

having been continually preferred by the females."

But Mr. Darwin seems to have overlooked the

fact that, before this could

happen, even on his

existed,
first,

theory, there

must have previously

on the part of the females a taste

ful,

for the beauti-

and secondly, on

the

part

of

the

males

different degrees of beauty, without

which there

would be no room

for preference to

show

itself

by
to

the females.

Mr. Darwin makes no attempt

difficulties,

explain these

though, strange to
in

say,

he afterwards makes the admission, that

order to account for the aesthetic faculty " there

must be some fundamental cause

tion

in the constitu-

of

the
!

nervous

system

in

each

species."

Exactly so

How

strange, then, that he should

trivial

have suggested such

for

and unsatisfying causes

as he

beauty

in the floral

and animal world


200

AN ESSAY ON
!

PERSONALITY.
is

has done

His argument about the flowers

veritable case of post hoc propter hoc.

Of course, we had no

right to expect Mr.

Darwin

to give us an exhaustive treatise on beauty, and

what he has said only touches the merest

of the subject.

fringe

The

fact remains,

and cannot be contested, that

there are countless forms and kinds of beauty,

quantitative and qualitative,

phenomenal and nouto.

is,

menal, besides those which Darwin refers

the question for us at present to consider
is

"

And What

their united significance

I

"

venture to submit that a thoughtful unpreju-

diced attempt to answer this question will bring

us to
1.

some such conclusions

as these

All forms and kinds of beauty proceed from

origin.

one common source or

2.

As

productions of the Power which

in the

makes

for

beauty

Universe they must bear witness

to the nature
3.

and attributes of that Power.

is

But beauty

intelligible.
it

Therefore the
itself intelligent.

Power that produces

must be

Many and
all

various as are the forms of beauty, they

in

unite

bearing

consonant

and

consistent

witness to the Being from

4.

Whom

they proceed.
the result of

And

lastly,

if

beauty be

not

FUNCTIONS OF BEAUTY.

201

Chance, or Necessity, or impersonal Will, or physical

Force of any kind,

to

is

there

any other conclusion

this,

come

to

more reasonable than

is

namely,

that beauty

mode

of manifestation whereby

the Personal Prius reveals Himself through Creation,

through Immanence, through Incarnation and

Inspiration, as the only Source of beauty

and the
loves

Creator of

all

things beautiful because

He

them

The Functions of Beauty.

We
its

now come
is all

to'

ask, in the

next place, to what

purpose

this

wealth of beauty, and what are

functions in this universe of

in

phenomena and
?

noumena
thing
is

which we

find ourselves placed

One
what
of

evident at the outset, that beauty possesses

great attractive power.

This

is

clearly so in

we
of

call the

quantitative

and

formal

kinds

beauty.

And

the higher
is,

we mount
more
our

in the scale

beauty

that

the

moral

and

spiritual faculties

become conscious of
justice, truth,

qualitative

forms of beauty, such as

and love

the
are
for

stronger does the attractive power become.

How

far

animals below the rank of

to

man

susceptible

the influence of beauty

as,

example,

in

the selection

of their habitats and


202

AN ESSAY ON

PERSONALITY.
But, at

companions

it

is

not possible to say.

species,

any

rate in our

own

we know

tiiat

beauty

counts for

much

in

both respects.

External
or face,
is

beauty in woman, whether of form

perhaps the quickest, though not the worthiest,

stimulant of the amatory passion.

From
I

this generally attractive

it is

power of beauty
correct idea of
state

think

possible to form

some
I

what

its

functions are.
:

And

would

them

briefly as follows
()

To give pleasure. To add charm to life, and make it worth the living. "A thing of beauty
is

a joy for ever."

(b)

To

civilize,

educate,

and perfect humanity.

perhaps nothing which
the

Next
gives

to nature, there

is

greater pleasure,

and at

same time
on mankind,
anything else
the beauty

exercises a

more

civilizing influence
is

than Art.

But what

Art

Is

it

than the effort to realize and

embody
?

of Nature in a permanent form

ture,

Painting, sculp-

and music, these are the commonest forms of

beauty, and

artistic

how

greatly do they contribute

to the enjoyment

and

civilization of

mankind

the

beauty

in

many

instances being not quantitative

or formal only, but calling up

by

association ideas

of moral or spiritual beauty

IDEALS OF BEAUTY.
But
it is

203

when we come

to those forms of quah"social, moral,

tative beauty,

which partake of a
that

or spiritual

character,

we

see the educa-

tional influence of beauty

most

clearly displayed.

Ideals of Beauty.

In

all

ages,

and

in

every country,

men have

formed

their ideals of beauty,

and through these

have sought to carry men onward to perfection.

Great ideals

that
and

is,

ideals beautiful in their social,

moral, or spiritual character, are the powers that

have

ruled,

will

continue to rule the world.

It is the

moral ideal which, according to Professor

is

Wundt,
and

to attract

result, to

use his

men onwards and upwards, own favourite expression, in

none, peris

ever-increasing "psychical values^

But of

all

ideals of beauty, there

I

is

haps, which has exercised, and,

truly believe,

destined to exercise, a more powerful influence for

good than the

"

Christian.

Speaking of
Christian

this Ideal," says Dr.

it

his

Ethics}

is is

one

"

of

fascinating kind.

...
W.

It

seen in

Davidson in the most the life and

Christian Ethics, by

L. Davidson, Professor of Logic and

p. 114.

Metaphysics in the University of Aberdeen,

; ;

204

AN ESSAY ON
Jesus,

PERSONALITY.
portrayed to us in the by the New Testament
realized under

character of
writers

as

Gospels, and interpreted

absolute
by

purity,

human

conditions

Him who was

the

Perfect

Man

fihal intercourse

and communion with the Father

intense and unremitting never-failing obedience,

and unqualified submission to the Divine Will ungrudging devotion to the highest interests of mankind. And this Ideal, manifested to us by Him, Who is the Head of Humanity, works in those who accept it, by transforming them into the likeness of Christ their Master, and therefore into the likeness of God for Christ is " the image of God and the revealer of His character."

And
is

again, "

Not only

is

the Ideal attainable,

it

all

on the

lines of righteousness,

and of man's

highest spiritual progress ...

in its highest form,

it is human nature appealing to imperfect human nature and drawing it to itself and, in drawing,

purifying

it."

Among

all

the

ideals

of beauty which have

ever captivated mankind, the world

may

safely be

challenged to produce one which in point of purity

and

loveliness

will

compare

with

this.

The

beauties of Nature and Art add immeasurably to

the pleasure of

life,

and, besides

this,

conduce to

the civilization and refinement of mankind. the beauty of the Christian Ideal does far
'

But

more

Christian Ethics, pp.

H2,

ii6.

THE CHRISTIAN IDEAL.

than
this.

205

It is the

very finger of God, whereby

He

reforms the sin-stained soul of

perfection.

man

into the

image of His own

Surely, then,
in

men will do
its
it

well to cultivate beauty

one or other of

varied forms, and in as

is

many
Let

of

them

as they can, for

a thing Divine.

them surround themselves with the works of beauty

in

Nature and Art.

Let them make

their

homes

beautiful, their gardens beautiful, their places of

worship beautiful, and bring beauty, so

possible, into every

far

as

department of daily

life

the

beauty of form, of sound, of colour

painting, in sculpture

in

music and

and architecture.
to
life,

For every and help

one

will

add some new charm

to relieve that tedium and

monotony which has

But
the robe

brought
let

many
is

man

to a suicide's grave.
is

us not forget that, while beauty

as surely its

of God, sin

cankerworm.

And,

above

all,

let

us not neglect those far higher forms

of beauty which are disclosed to us through the

Christian Ideal.

All earthly and material forms

of beauty will pale on the sight and pall on the

taste.

But

this

is

the beauty of the God-like

character, "the highest thing conceivable

by

us,

and the highest thing desirable.

greater that the

There

is

nothing

mind can

picture,

nothing better

2o6

AN ESSAY ON
themselves to
Ideal will
its

PERSONALITY.
*

that the heart can wish."

yield

To
of

those

who

will

attractive

influence,

the

Christian

be one

ever-unfolding
life

splendour.

They
the

shall find that

even

on earth

may become
sweet

pathway to heaven.

And

as

they journey on they will gain, ever and

anon,

glimpses of the glories that await them

at their journey's end,

when they

" shall

see the
far

King

in

His beauty, and behold the land of

distances."

Note.
if

It is

almost needless to point out that,

as
I

the functions of beauty are such

have

ventured to describe them, then beauty

in the highest

itself is

degree teleologic and purposive.

'

Christian Ethics, p. 114.

SECTION

VIII.

PERSONALITY AND RESPONSIBILITY.

Hegel, Spencer, and Comte
Altruism The Incarnation, and the Fatherhood of God as the source of human responsibility The brotherhood of Man Conclusion.

The

bearing ol the foregoing discussion of Per-

sonality

on Responsibility

is,

think, sufficiently

obvious.

Of my own

personality I entertain
is

no
per-

doubt.

But the question

this

Is

my
it

sonality related to

and conditioned by any other

personality higher than

if

my own?

If

is

not,

there be no other or higher Personality than

my

own, then in no true sense of the word can

a responsible Agent.

be called

Responsibility
for

means
and
right

liability to

be called to account

myself
the

my

actions to another Person,

to

who has

and the power

tribunal,

and reward or

summon me before his punish me accordingly.

depend on

Thus,

not only does

responsibility

2o8

AN ESSAY ON PERSONALITY.
but our view
of responsibility will
its

Personality,

derive

scope and character from that conception

of Personality which our Religion and Metaphysic

are calculated to produce.

The metaphysical system

Prius of
"

of

Hegel, with

its

pure thought," reaching Personality only

in the self-conscious spirit of

man, does not present

the elements and conditions necessary for responsibility, for

the simple reason that a self-conscious

agent cannot

be responsible to an impersonal
" or

"pure thought
Neither
is

"philosophy."

there

room

for

responsibility

in

Mr. Spencer's system, which only postulates an

unknown and
Force.

unknowable Prius of Persistent

Such a Prius can never be the object of

Between
it

moral and religious regard.

self-conscious Personality of
tions,

and the
rela-

man no moral

such as are implied in a sense of responsibility,

exist.

can possibly

The same may be

ethical
It

said
is

of

Comtism and

the
it.

system which

legitimately bred from

to set

was Comte's avowed aim

up the Religion

'

Hegel's attempt to

make

his

" Logic " square with Christian

Metaphysic and Religion was a failure, posterity being judge. Much as he would have deprecated such a result, the only goal to

which his system legitimately led was a philosophical pantheism.

COMTE AND THE SOCIAL IDEAL.

of

209

Humanity

for that of Christ, to

put

man on
is

the throne of God, and substitute the Social for

the Theologic Idea.^

Here, again, then, there

no room
which

for

a Responsibility higher than that

individual
is

each

owes

to

that

deified

Humanity which
of worship.

proposed as the only object

Not

that even such a responsibility as this

is

to be despised

the responsibility of each

member

of society to produce "higher psychical values,"

as Professor

Wundt

expresses

it,

and so to work

for the progress

it

and perfection of Humanity.

But

is

of such a vague and shadowy nature that

its

influence

on the bulk of mankind, whether as

a deterrent or incentive, could never be great.

And
bility

at

any

rate this

is

not the kind of responsi-

we

are

now

discussing.

Doubtless

it

is

noble thing in theory to be striving for the realization of the " Social Ideal."

But where there

tentative

is

no moral Arbiter, higher than the

and

His third course of Lectures on the Positive Polity ended with

these remarkable words : "The servants of Humanity claim as their due the general

Their object is to constitute a real of this world. Providence in all departments moral, intellectual, and material. Consequently they exclude, once for all, from political supremacy,
direction

all

the different servants of

God

Catholic, Protestant, or Deist

P

as being at once behindhand,

and a cause of disturbance."

VOL. IL

2IO

AN ESSAY ON

PERSONALITY.

fluctuating

judgment of Society, no tribunal to

dispense justice, to punish the evil and reward the

good, there
is

practically

nothing to

call

forth

the sense of responsibility in the true sense of

the word.

And, again, even

like Altruism,

this
its

kind of responsibility^
real

finds

source,

as

also

its

abiding home, in Christianity.

well as

The

Christian, as

the Comtist,

is

responsible for the pro-

duction of "higher psychical values."

is

He,

too,

bound

to live

and work
*

for the

attainment of
is

a " Social Ideal,"

only in this case the Ideal

of

a higher and more transcendent character.

if

But

the doctrine of a Personal Prius, such as Christian

Metaphysic and Religion consistently teach, be that

which on the whole affords the best explanation

of the physical and psychical

phenomena compre-

hended
sibility

in

human

life

and

Personality, then respon-

follows as a matter of course.

And

the

nature and extent of the responsibility involved

must be gathered from the manifestations of Himself

and His Will which the Personal Prius has

been pleased to make.^

'

Cp. Ephes.

iv. 13.

"This knowledge "of the Will of God, says Count Tolstoy, "is not acquired by study, nor by the eiForts of individuals, but through the reception by them of the manifestation of the Infinite
2

THE INCARNATION AND RESPONSIBILITY.

21

That manifestation, we Christians contend, has

reached
its
is

climax, so

far,

in

the Incarnation.

And
from

it
it,

in the Incarnation, or in find the nature

what flowed

we

and extent of human

defined.

responsibility

most

clearly
fall

Christian

apologetics do not

within the scope of this

I
:

work, but one observation mitted to make.

may, perhaps, be perthat,

It is this

whatever be the
it

cogency of the arguments

has,

for the Incarnation,

as

a matter of

fact,

proved

the

greatest
factor
in

inspiration for good, the

most potent

the moral progress of mankind, which the world has ever seen.
of perfection
it

And why
sets

so

Because the Ideal

is

up

for our attainment

that

of unselfish love.

Herein we see the supreme

manifestation of the Personal Prius.

God

is

love,

and the Incarnation

His
love.

is

the actual

expression of

But

this love is not

merely an object

of aesthetic regard

something to be admired
itself

and
love,

wondered

at.

It is

an incitement of
soul,

an image of beauty to ravish the

reproduced
in

and to be

each of the followers of Jesus.

As
Each
must
and

He

was, so are

we

to be in this world.

"
I

one of you must

Mind, which
little

live

My

life

or, rather,

by

little

discloses itself to

man."

Religion

Morality, p. 20,

212
live

AN ESSAY ON
My
in
life

PERSONALITY.
;

again in each of you

stations

and each of

you

your several
abilities

and according to
living

your several

must be a
is

Christ."

And

herein, if I mistake not,

to be found the

secret of that inspiration

which the Incarnation

continues to exercise,

has ever exercised, and

in the hearts

still

and

lives of

men.
the Incarits

The Fatherhood of God, from which

nation takes
its rise,

reveals to us as

logical

outcome the brotherhood of man.

is

And
As
I

the result the per-

a double sense of responsibility.

sonal offspring of the Personal Prius, bearing His

image, and reflecting His attributes,

able to
it.

am
I

answerof

Him
do,

for

my

life,

and the use

is

make
His

I
if

may
I

not destroy that which

I I

gift

or,

must not cheat myself with the

shall not

delusion that

be held responsible.
of

And
after

the brotherhood
I

man shows me

that,

all,

am my

brother's keeper; that I

must

no longer regard myself as an isolated individual

at liberty to pursue

my own
am
a

interest, regardless

of that of others.
social

member
both

of the great
for

body of humanity, and whatever makes body

it

the welfare of that

is

my

duty and

my

privilege to strive for.

And if we can teach men

and the
responsibility

the sanctity of

human

life,

PERSONALITY AND PROBLEM OF

which attaches to
feel that
it
;

LIFE.

213

if

we can

bring them to

inspiration of love which radiates from

the Incarnation,

we

shall perhaps

be doing the
their lives

best that can be

least endurable,
if

done to render

at

not useful and happy, and so

suicide.
It

removing some of the chief causes of

is

because

believe

the study of Personality in

its

manifold bearing on
all this,

human

life

and character

helps us to do

that I have gone into the

I

subject at the length

have done.

If to

some

of

my

readers the discussion has appeared too

academic, and not of

much
some

practical
is

utility,

would remind them, that the subject however transcendent

in

one which,

of

its

aspects,

comes
trivial

down

to,

and embraces,

in others

even the
life.

details, trials,

and duties of our daily

From
scholar,

the cultured gentleman, or the University

who

justifies

himself in his rash act by

Schopenhauer's plausible but indefensible postulate of " unassailable right,"

down

to the

unhappy

being

whom

sin,

or sorrow, or

shame has hounded

is

to a self-sought and dishonoured grave, there

not one with

whom
it

these arguments should not

have weight.

And,

indeed,

is

this

intimate bearing
life

of

Personality on the problem of

that imparts

214

AN ESSAY ON
chief importance.

PERSONALITY.
It is

to

it its

the golden chain

which unites the Eternal

of
all

Prius, the

Uncaused Cause
His creatures,

things, with the noblest of

the intelligent self-conscious soul of man.

With-

out

it

man

is

an inexplicable enigma to himself,

a mere waif and stray on the boundless ocean of

being.

He comes
it

he knows not whence

;

he exists

he knows not why

he goes he knows not whither.

the eternal past,
future,

Without
and cut

he

is

severed from

off

from the eternal

his

whole

existence bounded

by

the limits of a

few score

years of joy and sorrow, of hope and despair.

But Personality enables us

to co-ordinate

man

in the scale of being, and supplies, not only a

rational theory of his origin, but also an intelligible

reason and purpose for his existence.

If

on the

one hand

it

invests his

life

with a solemn respon-

sibility to himself, to his

neighbour and his God,

on the other,
opens out
for

it
it

sanctifies

and ennobles

it,

and

the hope of a future of unspeak-

able dignity and happiness.

Without
word,

it

Religion, in
I

the true sense of the

it,

at least as

understand

is

impossible.

The impersonal "Thought"

ply the
it,

of Hegel cannot sup-

nor

the "
"

Thelology
"

" of

Schopenhauer, nor

deified

Humanity

of

Comte,

nor

the

RELIGION

AND

RESPONSIBILITY.

215

" persistent Force " of Spencer. the Mechanical Theory, with

its

To Naturalism and
strange concepts of
"

psycho-physical

parallelism "

and

epiphenomena,"

we

shall look in vain, for

they present no founda-

tion on which a religion can be built up.

it

And

so

comes

to pass, that

man

is

left

to drift hither

and thither on the sea of uncertainty, the sport

of his

own ever-changing
in Personality, as

speculations.
it

But

emerges from Christian

feet.

Metaphysic and Religion, we seem to find our

Not only does

the Universe

it

provide a reasonable theory of

is,

that

of the

phenomena and nou-

mena

which form the objective element in

;

human
selfis

experience

but the subjective element, the

conscious Ego, the personal soul of man,

both

recognized and co-ordinated in the scale of being,

and the
" It

lines of its further progress indicated.

is

a noteworthy fact," says Professor

Wundt,

undoubted existence of reciprocal relations between religion, art, and science, one of the three, religion, should be regarded as gradually disappearing from the intellectual life.
It is

" that, despite the

which

held that the stage of intellectual interest, finds its satisfaction exclusively in the
is

religious activities of the mind,

dying

out.

Art

and

science,

it

is

thought, are
will,

filling

the vacancy

thus arising, and

of course, free themselves

2i6

AN ESSAY ON
life."
^

PERSONALITY.

from the manifold relations that now bind them

to the religious

would
if
it

fain

hope that such

fact,
it

is

not the case

sinister

for,

be a

is

one of

omen

for the

moral and

spiritual progress of

mankind,

and the production of those "higher psychical

values" in which Professor
progress consists.

Wundt

believes

that

Neither science nor art can

reach

down

to those

moral and

spiritual activities,

which form the very core of human Personality,

and of which character and conduct are the outcome.^

As

faith in the supra-sensible declines, the sense

of responsibility

grows proportionately weaker,

and the unseen world and a future beyond the

grave vanish, and cease to be restraining and
stimulating influences on

life

and conduct.

The

The Principles of Morality, p. 219. Professor Wundt both indicates the fallacy of the opinion he records, and deprecates the down-grade movement. "The fundamental error is the opinion that religion is a primitive mode of
^

thought destined

to

be supplanted
its

by science."

And

again

"Ethics, instead of limiting

attention to the merely individual

and outward phenomenal forms, must recognize that the most enduring of all moral springs of action, that which determines the direction of all individual and social efforts, is the striving after an ideal, towards which the reality created by moral actions approximates, but to which it can never attain." The Principles of Morality,

p. 220.

CONCLUSION.
life

217

of man, instead of being elevated into higher

regions of thought and motive and endeavour,

tends to sink
level,

down

to a lower moral

and

spiritual

and

finds its only sphere of action in a secular

and sensuous existence.

bespeak
time
fit

The very

faculties

which

his

Divine parentage, and at the same

for intercourse

him

and communion with

his Divine Parent,

become atrophied and paralyzed,

no
fitting field for their

for the simple reason that

exercise will remain.

Is this truth

" Corruptio optimi pessima."

its

destined to find

supreme and
If not,

tragic illustration in the case of

it is

man?

only the realization of the relation in which

the

human

Personality stands to the Divine that

issue.

can avert so disastrous an

INDEX
Abuse
of revolver, 42
^Esthetic faculty, 193

FiCHTE, Formula
con-

75,
I

80
I,

77

Altruism, 141, 210

Free-will, 126, 189

Amatory

passion,

causes

nected with, 41 Ancestor worship, 142

Hegel,
,

71,

Note

(80)

Bain, Professor, 80, 180-83

,

logic of, 74 and Christianity, 79

triadic

Beauty, 191
,

law

of,

129

Heredity, 102

analysis of, 193

, ,

on, 197 functions of, 201

ideals of, 203
teleologic,

Darwin

Higher Pantheism, 73

Homo speculum

Dei,

no

206 196 Betting and gambling, 7

, ,

Huss, Dr. Magnus, 20 Huxley, Professor, Note (186)

witness

of,

Birth of the soul, 105

ILLINGWORTH, ReV. Immanence, 83

in

J. R.,

82

in Nature, 108, II2

Child

46 Comte, 139, 209 Correspondence, 149 Criminal statistics, 38 Crookes, Sir W., 169

suicide,

Man,

no

Incarnation, 115
Instinct, religious, 109

Kant, 75
Life, 100-105
Living god of Urga, 116

Differences,
Dualism, 123

122, 132 Dolbear, Professor, 166, 167

Materialistic monism, 164

Ellicott, Bishop, Note (131)
Experience, 172, 173 Extraordinary cases, 48

Mechanical Theory, 185

,

results of, 188,

Note (190)

Mental hygiene, 44

220
Metaphysic, progress
of Aristotle, 69
in,

INDEX.
68

Reviews
Critic,

More, Sir Thomas, 15 Moore, Rev. Aubrey, 98 Morrison, Mr. W. D., 39

N.Y., 25 Daily Chronicle, 10 Lancet, 21

Liverpool Daily Post, 17

London

Quarterly, 5

Names

of God, 92, 93

Elohim

Medical Press, 23 New York Times, 12

El Shaddai
Yahveli
Naturalism, 186

Review of the Week,

Saturday Review, 13
Spectator, 3 St. James' Gazette,
1

Persistent
physics, 68
, ,

force,

144

Personality in Aristotle's Metain Hegel's Logic, 70

collective

Western Morning News, Romanes, G. J., 98

Saint John, 132

(Comte), 139
metaphysic, 88
,

Saint Paul, 130, 179

Schopenhauer, 136
thelology
of,

in Christian

Phenomena and noumena, 179

Progress of humanity, 159, 177,

138

Self-manifestation, 97-100
Sin, 125, 128

209
Protoplasm, 167 Psychology, 154
,

Social ideal, 209 Soul, birth of, 105

of

H. Spencer, 147

Spencer, Mr. H., 144 , psychology of, 148

Psycho-physical parallelism, 187

Tolstoy, Count Leo, 159

Reconciliation,
Revievirs

129, 134

Religion of humanity, 139

Transcendence, 78 Triadic Law, 129

American
view, 26

Ecclesiastical

Re-

Verdicts, Coroner's, 43
Vital Force, 165

British Medical Journal, 19

Christian Advocate, N.Y., 4

Ward,

Professor, 186

Church Review, 7 Church Quarterly, 34

Will, 126, 137 Wundt, Professor, 127, 153

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