J4221 Metallurgy

Chapter Five : Strengthening of Metals

Chapter 5 : Strengthening of Metals

5.0 Introduction
Metals are weaker than they should be theoretically because of dislocations and the ease with which these move under applied shear stresses. The primary principle for strengthening is to retard the movement of dislocations. Strengthening mechanisms are those methods which are employed to increase the strength of metals and alloys. Some of the strengthening mechanisms are solid solution hardening, age hardening, phase transformation hardening and strain hardening.

5.1 Solid Solution Hardening

Solid solution hardening, also called as alloying, is a method to increase the hardness, yield strength and its strain hardening rate of metal by solid solution alloying. It distorts the lattice, offers resistance to dislocation movement.
This is a schematic illustrating how the lattice is strained by the addition of substitutional and interstitial solute. The interstitial solute could be carbon in iron for example. The carbon atoms in the interstitial sites of the lattice create a stress field that impedes dislocation movement.
(Figure is taken from webpage Wikipedia strengthening mechanisms of materials)

Mechanism Every element has got a distinct atomic diameter, different from other element. When forming a solid solution, the solute atom will be either larger or smaller as compared to the solvent atom. For example, steel contains iron as solvent and carbon a s solute atoms, having large difference in their diameter. Since solvent and solute atoms have different sizes, when solute atom is added to solvent, distortion in lattice takes place. If the solute atom is larger than solvent atoms, compressive stain fields are set up, and if it is smaller, tensile fields are set up. In both the cases, the stress field of moving dislocation interacts with the stress field of the solute atom, thereby increasing the stress required to move the dislocation through the crystal.

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J4221 Metallurgy Factors affecting solid solution hardening

Chapter Five : Strengthening of Metals

1. The more the difference between atomic sizes of solvent and solute atoms, the higher is the stress field around solute atoms. This provides more resistance to the motion of dislocation and hence increases the tensile strength and hardness of the material. 2. If the amount of solute is greater, it will increase the resistance to the moving dislocations. Hence increase the hardness and strength of the material. 3. Solute atoms (such as carbon and nitrogen) forming interstitial solid solutions with iron produce tetragonal distortion in the lattice and effectively increase the yield strength of iron. Solute atoms (such as silicon, manganese, molybdenum) forming substitutional solid solutions with iron produce spherical distortion in the lattice and are much less effective in increasing the yield strength of iron.

5.2 Age Hardening / Precipitation Hardening

Age hardening is the strengthening of an alloy resulting from the precipitation of a fine dispersed second phase from a supersaturated solid solution. The finely dispersed second phase precipitates with the passage of time. Age hardening requires the following steps: a) Heating : The alloy is first solutionzed by heating into a single phase region, held

there long enough to dissolve all existing soluble precipitate particles b) Quenching : after solutionizing, the alloy is rapidly quenched into two-phase region. The rapidity of the quench prevents the formation of equilibrium precipitates and thus produces a supersaturated solid solution. The quenching medium is usually water. c) Aging : On aging at or above room temperature, fine-scale transition structures as

small as 100 Angstrom is formed.

Temperature

Solid solution Age hardened, precipitation starts

LCT Room Temperature

Quenched, solid solution retained

Time

Age hardening process (Al-4.5% Cu alloy)

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J4221 Metallurgy Mechanism

Chapter Five : Strengthening of Metals

The essential requirement for precipitation to occur in solid solution is the decreasing solubility of a solute with decreasing temperature. This result in a supersaturated solid solution that being unstable and tends to decompose according to the relation. Supersaturated solid solution Saturated solid solution + precipitation

5.3 Phase Transformation Hardening

Phase transformation is a change in the number and character of the phase that constitute the microstructure of an alloy. Phase transformation hardening take place because high carbon martensite being tetragonal has fewer availability slip planes than the steel with BCC lattice.

Mechanism Martensite is formed when austenitized iron carbon alloys are rapidly cooled or quenched to a relatively low temperature. Martensite is a non-equilibrium single phase structure that results from a diffusionless transformation of austenite. The martensite transformation occurs when the quenching rate is rapid enough to prevent carbon diffusion.

5.4 Strain Hardening

Strain hardening is a method which results in an increase in hardness and strength of a metal subjected to plastic deformation (cold working) at temperatures lower than the recrystallization range.

Mechanism
, resolved shear stress III

II

I , resolved shear strain

Stress strain curve showing three stages of strain hardening

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J4221 Metallurgy

Chapter Five : Strengthening of Metals

Stage I : The easy glide region, immediately follows the yield point and is characterized by little strain hardening undergone by the crystal. During easy glide, the dislocations are able to move over relatively large distances without encountering barriers. During easy glide, slip always occurs on only one slip system.

Stage II : This region marks a rapid increase in work hardening. The slope of which is approximately independent of applied stress, temperature, orientation or alloy content. Slip occurs on more than one set of planes. As a result, several new lattice irregularities may be formed.

Stage III : It is a region of decreasing rate of strain hardening. At the sufficiently high stress value or temperature in region III, the dislocations held up in stage II are able to move by a process that had been suppressed at lower stresses and temperature.

The characteristics of strain hardening process 1. Strain hardening is very commonly employed both on pure metals and allys to improve the strength and hardness 2. It reduces ductility and plasticity

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