Faculty of Manufacturing Engineering and Technology Management

BFM1113 ENGINEERING MATERIALS

P. C. SEE 2009 FKPPT UMP

Lecture 06
Tensile Properties of Materials
Many materials, when in service, are subjected to forces or loads; examples include the aluminum alloy from which an airplane wing is constructed and the steel in an automobile axle. In such situations it is necessary to know the characteristics of the material and to design the member from which it is made so that any resulting deformation will not be excessive and fracture will not occur. The mechanical behavior of material reflects the relationship between its response or deformation to an applied load or force. Important mechanical properties are strength, hardness, ductility and stiffness. The mechanical properties of materials are ascertained by performing carefully designed laboratory experiments that replicate as nearly as possible the service conditions.
Callister and Rethwisch (2008)

Where are we now??

The structure of metals

The properties of materials

Metal alloys

Composite materials

Ceramic materials

Polymer materials

Learning Outcome (LO6)

Tension Compression Torsion Bending Hardness Fatigue Creep Impact Failure and Fracture of Materials In Manufacturing and Service Residual Stresses Work, Heat and Temperature

Learning Outcome (LO6)

At the end of this session you should be able to
Understand the purpose of learning the mechanical properties of of materials Understand the tensile properties of materials Determine the ductility of materials Construct and analyze the stress-strain curves Understand the effect of external parameters on the tensile behaviour of materials

Adapted from Wikipedia

LO6 - Part 1
Understand the purpose of learning the mechanical properties of of materials

Mechanical Properties of Materials

Manufacturing operations
Parts and components are formed into various shapes By applying forces to the workpiece Through various tools and dies

Why study mechanical properties?

Design and development a.) Determine stresses and stress distribution within members that are subjected to well defined loads Materials characterization a.) To predict materials performance through stress analysis b.) To understand mechanism of fractures and ways to prevent it

Parts and components are formed into various shapes in manufacturing operations

Mechanical Properties of Materials

In a finite element analysis, the real structure is represented by a finite number of interconnected elements. The behaviour of the finite elements under an applied load represents the overall behaviour of the real structure. See http://bit.ly/18USR9 for more information.

Mechanical Properties of Materials

High Temperature
Temperature

CTE PCB >

CTE Substrate >

CTE Si Die

Time

Mechanical Properties of Materials

Warpage contours of FC-PBGA package documented at (a) 150C, (b) 100C and (c) room temperature, where the contour interval is 5.3 mm per fringe order. A 3-D warpage map at room temperature obtained by digital image processing is shown in (d). See http://bit.ly/z6Fw0 for more information.

Mechanical Properties of Materials

x, y = (0, 0)

Von Mises stress distribution in critical solder ball

Location of critical solder ball Strain distribution in critical solder ball

Mechanical Properties of Materials

An oil tanker that fractured in a brittle manner by crack propagation around its girth

LO6 - Part 2
Understand the tensile properties of materials

Tensile Properties of Materials

Tensile test determines the following mechanical properties of materials Strength Ductility Toughness Elastic modulus, and Strain hardening ability

Instron 5560 Universal Materials Tensile Testing Machine (see http://bit.ly/e7VD7 for more information)

Tensile Properties of Materials

A typical stress-strain curve obtained from a tension test, showing various features

Tensile Properties of Materials

Proportional limit The point up to which the stress and strain are
linearly related

Ultimate stress
The largest stress in the stress strain curve

Rupture stress
The stress at the point of rupture

Elastic region
The region of the stress-strain curve in which the material returns to the undeformed state when applied forces are removed

A closer view on tensile test using Instron http://bit.ly/18UibN

Tensile Properties of Materials

Plastic region
The region in which the material deforms permanently

Yield point
The point demarcating the elastic from the plastic region

Yield stress
The stress at yield point

Plastic strain
The permanent strain when stresses are zero

Off-set yield stress

Stresses that would produce a plastic strain corresponding to the specified off-set strain
Tensile test of an Al-Mg-Si alloy. This is a ductile fracture type, as seen by the local necking and the cup and cone fracture surfaces

Tensile Properties of Materials

Ductile material
A material that can undergo large plastic deformation before fracture

Brittle material
A material that exhibits little or no plastic deformation at failure

Hardness
Resistance to indentation

Strain hardening
The raising of the yield point with increasing strain (see beyond proportional limit)

Necking
The sudden decrease in the area of cross-section after ultimate stress
Picture showing the failure of brittle material. See http://bit.ly/3AoWon for more information

Tensile Properties of Materials

(a) A standard tensile-test specimen before and after pulling, showing original and final gage lengths. (b) A tensile-test sequence showing different stages in the elongation of the specimen

Tensile Properties of Materials

Typical engineering stress-strain behavior to fracture point F. The tensile strength TS is indicated at point M. The circular insets represent the geometry of the deformed specimen at various points along the curve.

Tensile Properties of Materials

Engineering stress
Specimen elongates when the load is first applied Known as linear elastic Engineering stress (or nominal stress) is defined as the ratio of the applied load, P, to the original cross-sectional area Ao, of the specimen

P Engineering stress, = A0
Simulation of a Tensile Test With Necking Localization. See http://bit.ly/MCGPm for more information

Tensile Properties of Materials

Engineering strain Also known as nominal strain Tensile strain calculated by taking into account the linear size of the non-deformed sample. Engineering strain, e =

(l l 0 ) l0

where l is the instantaneous length of the specimen

Picture showing a sample before and after tensile test. See http://bit.ly/93FEI for more information

Tensile Properties of Materials

Yield strength
As the load is increased --> plastic deformation Characterized by yield stress, y Yield point --> strain offset of 0.002, or 0.2% elongation Area decrease permanently and uniformly During unloading, the curve follows a path parallel to the original elastic slope
Schematic illustration of the loading and unloading of a tensile-test specimen. Note that, during unloading, the curve follows a path parallel to the original elastic slope.

Tensile Properties of Materials

Ultimate tensile strength
Max. engineering stress --> tensile strength/Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) Loaded beyond its ultimate tensile strength --> begins to neck (neck down) Engineering stress drops further, finally --> fracture at necked region Engineering stress at fracture --> breaking/fracture stress

A typical stress-strain curve obtained from a tension test, showing various features

Tensile Properties of Materials

Modulus of Elasticity, E
Ratio of stress to strain in elastic region Also known as Youngs Modulus Modulus of elasticity, E =

Measure the slope of the elastic portion --> stiffness of material

A typical stress-strain curve obtained from a tension test, showing various features

Tensile Properties of Materials

The Poissons effect A positive (tensile) strain contributes a negative (compressive) strain in the other direction This is called Poisson effect

lateral Poissons ratio, = longitudinal

The Poissons effect

Tensile Properties of Materials

True stress and true strain
Engineering stress --> based on original cross sectional area Ao of the specimen True stress --> ratio of the load, P, to the actual (instantaneous) cross-sectional area, A, of the specimen True stress, =

P A

True strain is calculated as

l True strain, e = ln l0

A comparison of typical tensile engineering stress-strain and true stress-strain behaviours. Necking begins at point M on the engineering curve, which corresponds to M on the true curve. The corrected true stress-strain curve takes into account the complex stress state within the neck region.

Tensile Properties of Materials

Toughness
Resistance to fracture of a material when stressed Area under the true stress-strain curve --> energy per volume dissipate by material during deformation Also known as the specific energy Total area up to fracture --> toughness Depends on the height and width of the curve, while on the other hand, Strength depends on height Ductility depends on width

Toughness of material is equal to the area under the stress-strain curve up to fracture

LO6 - Part 3
Determine the ductility of materials

Ductility of Materials
Definition and concepts
The extend to which materials can be plastically deformed without fracture Also --> materials ability to deform under tensile stress For deformation under compressive stress --> malleability Important in metalworking
Schematic appearance of round metal bars after tensile testing. (a) Brittle fracture. (b) Ductile fracture. (c) Completely ductile fracture. See http://bit.ly/16zyEg for more information.

Ductility of Materials
Ductility measurement
Two common measurement Total elongation Total elongation,

(l Elongation =

l0 l0

) x 100

lo and lf are original and final (fracture) length measured in test Reduction of area Reduction of area, RA =

(A

Af Af

) x 100
Tensile test of a nodular cast iron with very low ductility (http://bit.ly/16zyEg).

where A0 and Af are the original and final (fracture) cross-sectional area

Ductility of Materials

Approximate relationship between elongation and tensile reduction of area for various groups of metals

Ductility of Materials
Brittle materials
No yield point and no strain hardening Ultimate strength same with breaking strength Brittle materials do not show plastic deformation but fail within elastic region (linear stress-strain curve) Characteristic --> broken parts can be reassembled as original shape (no necking is observed)
Stress Strain Curve for Brittle materials. Point 1 indicates the ultimate strength and point 2 indicates the yield strength. See http://bit.ly/pEbS2 for more information.

LO6 Part 4
Construct and analyze the stressstrain curves

Stress-Strain Curve
Procedure
Divide load data by A0, and the elongation by lo Calculate data for true stress-strain curve in plastic region using the following equation True stress,

= K n

K = strength coefficient n = strain-hardening coefficient

(a) Load-elongation curve in tension testing of a stainless steel specimen. (b) Engineering stress-strain curve. (c) True stress-strain curve. (d) True stress-strain curve based on the corrected curve in (c) plotted on a log-log paper.

Stress-Strain Curve

Stress-Strain Curve

True stress-strain curves in tension at room temperature for various metals. The curves start at a finite level of stress: The slope associated to the elastic regions are too steep to be shown in this figure, thus each curves starts at the yield stress of the material.

Stress-Strain Curve
Strain at necking in tension test
Necking onset corresponds to ultimate strength of material Specimen cannot support the load anymore Cross-sectional area reduction rate higher than the strain hardening rate True strain at the onset of necking equals to strain hardening coefficient, n Higher n --> longer uniform strain before necking (recall strain hardening)
Stress vs. Strain curve typical of structural steel. 1.) Ultimate Strength. 2.) Yield Strength. 3.) Rupture. 4.) Strain hardening region. 5.) Necking region. Point A: Engineering stress. Point B: True stress

LO6 Part 5
Understand the effect of external parameters on the tensile behaviour of materials

Temperature Effects on Tensile Behavior

Higher temperature generally
Raises the ductility and toughness Lowers the yield stress and the modulus of elasticity In most metals, the strainhardening exponent, n decreases with increasing temperature

Typical effects of temperature on stress-strain curves. Note that temperature affects the modulus of elasticity, the yield stress, the ultimate tensile strength, and the toughness of materials.

Rate of Deformation Effects on Tensile Behavior

Deformation rate --> the speed at which tension test is being carried out A function of specimen length Increasing the strain rate increases the strength of material (strainrate hardening) Slope of graph (see figure) is known as strain-rate sensitivity exponent, m Stress,

= C m
The effect of strain rate on the ultimate tensile strength for aluminium. Note that, as the temperature increases, the slopes of the curves increase; thus, strength becomes more and more sensitive to strain rate as temperature increases.

C is known as strength coefficient

Rate of Deformation Effects on Tensile Behavior

Materials stretch further at higher m value --> delays necking Higher strain rate increases strength, hence reduces necking and allows further deformation Superplasticity --> high ductility caused by high strain-rate sensitivity at higher temperature Observation at higher temperature Higher strain-rate sensitivity Lower strength compared to 300C

The effect of strain rate on the ultimate tensile strength for aluminium. Note that, as the temperature increases, the slopes of the curves increase; thus, strength becomes more and more sensitive to strain rate as temperature increases.

Rate of Deformation Effects on Tensile Behavior

Superplasticity
Ability to undergo large, uniform elongation prior to necking and fracture Elongation: range from 100% to 2000% Cause: high strain rate sensitivity at increased temperature A balance between dislocation multiplication and annihilation Dislocation density does not increase during deformation Used to manufacture complex structural components

Superplasticity is the ability of certain materials to undergo extreme elongation at the proper temperature and at a controlled strain rate. Under the certain conditions these materials can be stretched to several times their original length.

Hydrostatic Pressure Effects on Tensile Behavior

Effect of hydrostatic pressure
Increases the strain at fracture and ductility Happens in both ductile and brittle materials Explanation --> suppression of micro-void development Used in manufacturing process i.e., hydrostatic extrusion Brittle material can be extruded because the hydrostatic pressure increases its ductility
The appearance of the fractured tensile bars tested under applied pressure

Radiation Effects on Tensile Behavior

Important in nuclear applications Typical changes at high energy radiation: Increases yield stress, tensile strength and hardness Decreases ductility and toughness Plastic materials --> same effect

Nuclear power for the Astute will be provided by the Rolls-Royce PWR 2 pressurised water reactor.

Summary
Manufacturing processes involve shaping materials by plastic deformation. Hence the yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, modulus of elasticity, ductility, hardness, and the energy required for plastic deformation are important factors. The tensile test is the most commonly used test to determine such mechanical properties. Temperature, rate-of-deformation, hydrostatic pressure and radiation affects tensile behavior of materials

Whats Next?

Thank you

Reference
Callister, W. D., and Rethwisch, D. G. (2008) Fundamentals of Materials Science and Engineering, John Wiley & Sons. Kalpakjian, S., and Schmid, S. (2006) Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, Pearson Education.