An image defined in the "real world" is considered to be a function of two

real variables say x,y.

Before going to processing an image, it is converted into a digital form.
Digitization includes sampling of image and quantization of sampled values.
After converting the image into bit information, processing is performed.
This processing technique may be,
• Image enhancement
 • Image reconstruction
• Image compression
Image enhancement refers to accentuation, or sharpening, of image
features such as boundaries.
Image restoration is concerned with filtering the observed image to
minimize the effect of degradations.
Image compression is concerned with minimizing the no of bits required
to represent an image.
Text compression – CCITT GROUP3 & GROUP4
Still image compression – JPEG
Video image compression -MPEG
Modern digital technology has made it possible to manipulate multi-dimensional signals
with systems that range from simple digital circuits to advanced parallel computers. The
goal of this manipulation can be divided into three categories:
* Image Processing image in -> image out
* Image Analysis image in -> measurements out
* Image Understanding image in -> high-level description out
Image processing is referred to processing of a 2D picture by a computer.
Basic definitions:
An image defined in the "real world" is considered to be a function of two real
variables, for example, a(x,y) with a as the amplitude (e.g. brightness) of the image at the
real coordinate position (x,y).
An image may be considered to contain sub-images sometimes referred to as
regions-of-interest, ROIs, or simply regions. This concept reflects the fact that images
frequently contain collections of objects each of which can be the basis for a region. In a
sophisticated image processing system it should be possible to apply specific image
processing operations to selected regions. Thus one part of an image (region) might be
processed to suppress motion blur while another part might be processed to improve
color rendition.
Sequence of image processing:

Image

output

Computer
Sample Digital
Outline
and Storage
Buffer
Digitize (Disk) Record

The most requirements for image processing of images is that the images be
available in digitized form, that is, arrays of finite length binary words. For digitization,
the given Image is sampled on a discrete grid and each sample or pixel is quantized using
a finite number of bits. The digitized image is processed by a computer. To display a
digital image, it is first converted into analog signal, which is scanned onto a display.
Sampling theorem:
A bandlimited image is sampled uniformly on a rectangular grid with spacing dx,
dy can be recovered without error from the sample values f (mdx,ndy) provided the
sampling rate is greater than nyquist rate, that is
1 > 2
dx xs x0 ,

1 > 2
dy ys y0
Image quantization:
The step subsequent to sampling in image digitization is quantization. A quantizer
maps a continuous variable u into a discrete variable u1, which takes values from a finite
set {r1, r2… rn} of numbers. This mapping is generally a staircase function &
quantization rule is as follows:
Define {tk, k=1,…,L+1} as a set of increasing transition or decision levels with t1
and tL+1 as minimum and maximum values,respectively,of u. if u lies in intervals
[tk,tL+1], then it is mapped to rk, the kth reconstruction level.
The following quantizers are useful in image coding techniques such as pulse code
modulation (PCM), differential PCM, transform coding, etc., they are operate on one
input sample at a time, output value depends only on that input.
they are,
i. LLOYD-MAX QUANTIZER
ii. OPTIMUM MEAN SQUARE UNIFORM QUANTIZER

• Image enhancement
• Image restoration
• Image compression etc.
Image enhancement:
It refers to accentuation, or sharpening, of image features such as boundaries, or
contrast to make a graphic display more useful for display & analysis. This process does
not increase the inherent information content in data.
It includes gray level & contrast manipulation, noise reduction, edge crispening
and sharpening, filtering, interpolation and magnification, pseudocoloring, and so on.
Image restoration:
It is concerned with filtering the observed image to minimize the effect of
degradations. Effectiveness of image restoration depends on the extent and accuracy of
the knowledge of degradation process as well as on filter design. Image restoration differs
from image enhancement in that the latter is concerned with more extraction or
accentuation of image features.

U(x,y)
V(m,n) U(m,n)

Imaging
A to D Digital D to A
system
conversion filter conversion

Display or record

Image restoration

Image compression:
It is concerned with minimizing the no of bits required to represent an
image.
Application of compression are in broadcast TV, remote sensing via
satellite, military communication via aircraft, radar, teleconferencing, facsimile
transmission, for educational & business documents , medical images that arise in
computer tomography, magnetic resonance imaging and digital radiology, motion ,
pictures ,satellite images, weather maps, geological surveys and so on.

 Lossless compression
 Lossy compression

Lossless compression:
In this, data is not altered in process of compression or decompression.
Decompression generates an exact replica of an original image. “Text compression” is a
good example .spreadsheets, processor files usually contain repeated sequence of
characters. By reducing repeated characters to count, we can reduce requirement of bits.
Grayscale&images contain repetitive information .this repetitive graphic
images and sound allows replacement of bits by codes. In color images , adjacent pixels
can have different color values. These images do not have sufficient repetitiveness to be
compressed. In these cases, this technique is not applicable.
Lossless compression techniques have been able to achieve reduction in
size in the range from 1/10 to1/50 of original uncompressed size.

Standards for lossless compression:

⇒ Packbit encoding (run-length encoding)
⇒ CCITT group 3 1D
⇒ CCITT group 3 2D
⇒ CCITT group 4 2D
⇒ Lempel-Ziv and Welch algorithm.

Lossy compression:
It is used for compressing audio, grayscale or color images, and video
objects. In this, compressing results in loss of information. When a video image is
decompressed, loss of data in one frame will not perceived by the eye. If several bits are
missing, information is still perceived in an acceptable manner as eye fills in gaps in
shading gradient.
Standards for lossy compression:
 Joint photographic experts Group (JPEG)
 Moving picture experts Group (MPEG)
 Intel DVI
 P*64 video coding algorithm.

A binary image containing black & white pixels. A scanner scans a

document as sequential scanlines. During scanning, the CCD array sensors of scanner
capture black & white pixels along a scanline. This process is repeated for next scanline
and so on.
Packbit encoding:
In this, a consecutive repeated string of characters is replaced by two
bytes.
First byte=no of times the character is repeated.
Second byte=character itself.
For e.g., 0000001111110000 is represented as
Byte1, byte2, byte3… byteN.0x06, 1x06, 0x04.
In some cases, one byte is used to represent both value of character & also no of times.
In this, one bit out of 8 used for representing pixel value, 7 bits are for runlength. Typical
compression efficiency is from ½ t0 1/5.
CCITT Group 3 1D:
Huffman coding is used.

Algorithm for Huffman coding:

1. Arrange the symbols probabilities pi in decreasing order& consider them as leaf
nodes of a tree.
2. while there is more than one node;
2.1. Merge the two nodes with smallest probability to form a new node whose
probability is the sum of two merged nodes.
2.2. Arbitrarily assign 1 & 0 each pair of branches merging into a node.
3. Read sequentially from root to leaf node where symbol is located.
Probability of occurrence of a bit stream of length Rn is P (n). As a result, shorter
codes were developed for less frequent runlength.
For e.g., from below table , runlength code for 16 white pixels is 101010, while
runlength code for 16 black pixels is 0000010111,since occurrence of 16 white pixels
is more than that of 16 black pixels.
Codes greater than 1792 runlength is same for both pixels.
White runlength Codeword Black runlength Code word

1 000111 1 010
2 0111 2 11
... ..... ..... ......
16 101010 16 0000010111
............ ............ .......... .....

1792 000000000001 1792 0000001100101

CCITT Group 3 1D utilizes Huffman coding to generate a set of terminating codes &
make-up codes for given bit stream. E.g., runlength of 132 where pixels are encoded
by using,
Make-up code for 128 white pixels-10010.
Terminating code for 4white pixels-1011

Generating coding tree:

Coding tree for 16 white pixels.

CCITT Group 3 2D compression:
It uses a “k-factor” where image is divided into a several groups of k-
lines. First line of every group of k-lines is encoded using CCITT Group 3 1D
compression. A 2D scheme is used with1D scheme to encode rest of the lines.
Data format for 2D scheme:
2D-scheme uses a combination of pass code, vertical code, and
horizontal code. Pass code is 0001.horizotal code is 001.

Diff b/w pixel position in reference line Vertical

And coding line code
3 0000010
2 000010
1 010
0 1
-1 011
-2 000011
-3 0000011

Steps to code the coding line:

o Parse the coding line and for change in pixel value. The pixel value change if
found at the location.
o Parse the reference line and look for change in pixel value. The change is found at
the b1-location.
o Find the difference in locations b1 & a1: Delta=b1-a1.
If delta is in b/w -3 to +3, apply vertical codes.
CCITT Group 4 2D compression:
In this, first reference line is an imaginary all white line above the top of
image. The new line becomes reference for next scan line.

Joint photographic experts Group (JPEG):(LOSSY COMPRESSION)

Methodology:
8*8 block DPCM DC
Huffman

DCT Q

ZIGZAG AC
Huffman
DCT :( DISCRETE COSINE TRANSFORM)
In time domain, signal requires lots of data points to represent the time in x-axis &
amplitude in y-axis. Once the signal is converted into a frequency domain, only a few
data points are required to represent the same signal.
A color image is composed of pixels; these pixels have RGB values, each with its x & y
coordinates using 8*8 matrixes. To compress the gray scale in JPEG, each pixel is
translated to luminance. To compress color image, work is 3 times as much.
DCT-CALCULATIONS:

DCT(i,)=1*c(i)c(j) * pixel(x,y)cos((2x+1)*i*3.14)/2N)cos((2y+1)*i*3.14)/2N)

pixel(x,y)=1* c(i)c(j)DCT(i,j)cos((2x+1)*i*3.14/2N)cos((2y+1)*i*3.14)/2N)

2
DCT co efficient is generated by applying the dct on 8*8 block. Consider following
block,
132 136 138 140 144 145 147 155
136 140 140 147 140 148 155 156
140 143 144 148 150 152 154 155
144 144 146 145 149 150 153 160
150 152 155 156 150 145 144 140
144 145 146 148 143 158 150 140
150 156 157 156 140 146 156 145
148 145 146 148 156 160 140 145
Table1

Nos in the above table represent amplitude of pixel in 8*8 blocks. The tale2 shows
8*8 matrixes, after applying DCT. In table2, row0, column0 has DCT (i,j) as 172, it is
called as DC component, others are called as AC component & it has larger value than
others.
 Table2
172 -18 15 -8 23 -9 -14 19
21 -34 24 -8 -10 11 14 7
-9 -8 -4 6 -5 4 3 -1
-10 6 -5 4 -4 4 2 1
-8 -2 -3 5 -3 3 4 6
4 -2 -4 6 -4 4 2 -1
4 -3 -4 5 6 3 1 1
0 -8 -4 3 2 1 4 0

Quantization:
Baseline JPEG algorithm supports 4 quantization tables & 2 Huffman tables for
DCand AC DCT coefficients.
Quantizedcoeff (i, j) =DCT (i, j)/quantum (i, j);
DCTcoefficients after quantization:
43 3 2 0 0 0 0 0
3 3 2 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

After quantization, JPEG elected to compress 0 values by utilizing runlength scheme.

To find no of 0s, JPEG uses zigzag manner.

Moving picture experts Group (MPEG):

Architecture:
Macro Huffman
block input DCT Q coder

+ -1
Q MUX

IDCT

Huffman
coder
Past

Motion
compens
ation
frame

Future
+
frame
It provides two basic schemes:
• Discrete –transform-based compression for reduction of spatial redundancy.
• Block based motion compensation for reduction of temporal redundancy.
During initial stages of DCT compression, both MPEG & JPEG algorithms are
essentially same. For full motion video (MPEG1 &2), motion compensation is used.
Motion compensation:
It assumes current picture as the translation of some previous pictures. Motion
compensation attempts to compensate for movement of objects in compression phase.
To make it easier to compare frames, a frame is split into blocks, and blocks are
encoded.
For each block in the frame to be encoded, best matching block in the reference
frame is searched among the number of candidate blocks. For each block, motion
vector is generated. This vector is viewed as an analytical indication of new location
In the frame being encoded from an existing block in the reference frame. This is an
attempt to match up new location of a moved object. The process of matching up
based on prediction or interpolation.
Prediction:
Prediction requires current frame and reference frame. Based on motion vector values
generated, prediction attempts to find a new position of object & conform it by
Comparing some blocks.
Interpolation:
Motion vectors are generated in relation to two reference frames, one from past & the
predicted frame. The best matching blocks in both frames are searched, and average is
taken as position of block in current frame.
Advanced technologies:
  Intel’s indeo technology
 Apples quicktime
 Microsoft AVI
 Intel’s AVI

Using image processing techniques, we can sharpening the images, contrast to

make a graphic display more useful for display, reduce amount of memory requirement
for storing image information,etc., due to such techniques, image processing is applied in
“recognition of images” as in factory floor quality assurance systems; “image
enhancement”, as in satellite reconnaissance systems; “image synthesis” as in law
enforcement suspect identification systems, and “image construction” as in plastic
surgery design systems. Application of compression is in broadcast TV, remote sensing
via satellite, military communication via aircraft, radar, teleconferencing, facsimile
transmission etc.
1. www.google.com
2. Multimedia Systems design Andleigh P K and Thakrar K.
3. Digital image processing –Jain.