Psihologia Resurselor Umane is the official journal of the Industrial and Organizational Psychology Association (APIO).

Founder: Horia D. Pitariu, Babe Bolyai University, Cluj - Napoca Editor in Chief: Horia D. Pitariu, Babe Bolyai University, Cluj - Napoca Managing Editor: Andrea Budean, Babe Bolyai University, Cluj - Napoca
Editorial Staff: Rbert Balzsi, Babe Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca Smaranda Boro, Babe Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca Andrea Budean, Babe Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca Roxana Capotescu, Babe Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca Ctlina Ciuce, Babe Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca Dorina Coldea, Serviciul Romn de Informa ii, Bucureti Doru Dima, Dima Consulting Group, Braov Anca Dobrean, Babe Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca Drago Iliescu, D&D Research, Bucureti Daniela Onac, Babe Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca Filaret Sntion, Ovidius University, Constan a

Editorial Board:
Natalie J. Allen University of Western Ontario, Canada Adalgisa Battistelli Universit degli Studii di Verona, Italy Zoltn Bogthy West University, Timioara, Romania Jean-Luc Bernaud Universit de Rouen, France Dana H. Born United States Air Force Academy, USA Paula Caligiuri Rutgers University, USA Jeffrey M. Conte San Diego State University, USA Cary Cooper Lancaster University Management School, UK Petru Cureu Babe Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania Mark Griffin The University of Sheffield, UK Remus Ilie Michigan State University, USA Rick Jacobs Penn State University, USA Timothy A. Judge University of Florida, USA Nicolae Jurcu Technical University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania Laura L. Koppes University of West Florida, USA Rmi Kouabenan Universit Pierre Mends, Grenoble, France Frank J. Landy Landy Litigation Support Group, USA Janice H. Laurence Office of the Under Secretary of Defense, Personnel and Readiness, USA Claude Lemoine Universit Charles de Gaule Lille 3 Jacques Leplat Directeur Honoraire LEcole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, Paris, France Thomas Li-Ping Tang Middle Tennessee State University, USA Nicolae Mitrofan University of Bucharest, Romania Adrian Neculau Al. I. Cuza University, Iai, Romania Michael P. ODriscoll University of Waikato, New Zeeland Deniz S. Ones University of Minnesota, USA Adrian H. Pitariu - University of Toronto, Joseph L. Rotman School of Management, Canada Ioan Radu Babe Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania Ivan Robertson Leeds University Bussiness School & Manchester Business School, UK Andr Savoie University of Montreal, Canada Philippe Sarnin Universit Lyon 2, France Paul E Spector - University of South Florida, USA Charles D. Spielberger University of South Florida, USA Anne Marie Vonthron Universit Victor Segalen-Bordeaux II, France Zissu Weintraub Department of Defence, Israel

Psihologia Resurselor Umane is published twice a year, in April and October by the Romanian Cognitive Sciences Association Press (ASCR), Cluj-Napoca INDEXING: This journal is indexed in PsychINFO and National Council of Research (CNCSIS) Psihologia Resurselor Umane: ISSN: 1583-7327
COPYRIGHT: All rights reserved to Psihologia Resurselor Umane, Industrial and Organizational Psychology Association (APIO). The publisher assures the protection of authorship according to the current legislation. Except as permitted under copyright legislation, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any form or by any means without the prior permission of the publisher.

PSIHOLOGIA RESURSELOR UMANE

HUMAN RESOURCES PSYCHOLOGY PSYCHOLOGIE DES RESSOURCES HUMAINES Asociaia de Psihologie Industrial i Organizaional Centrul de Monitorizare Profesional n Psihologia Muncii Organizaional Universitatea "Babe-Bolyai", Cluj-Napoca

Volumul 6, nr. 1/2008

Asociaia de tiine Cognitive din Romnia Cluj-Napoca

Asociaia de Psihologie Industrial i Organizaional Facultatea de Psihologie i tiinele Educaiei, Secia Psihologie Cluj-Napoca, Str. Republicii 37 Tel./ fax: 0264-598751 Adresa web: www.apio.ro E-mail: office@apio.ro

Copyright 2008 Asociaia de Psihologie Industrial i Organizaional

Publicarea de articole n Revista ,,Psihologia Resurselor Umane e avizat de doi recenzori.

Abonamente: Pentru membrii APIO abonamentul este inclus n cotizaia anual. Pentru nonmembri, abonamentul anual (2 numere) cost 35 lei (taxe potale incluse) Pentru abonamente, v rugm s ne contactai la adresa: office@apio.ro CONT IBAN: RO38 BTRL 0130 1205 9213 60xx

Director tehnic: Daniel Paul

Editura: Asociaia de tiine Cognitive din Romnia Str. Republicii, nr. 37, Cluj-Napoca Email: ascr@psychology.ro
Tiprit n Romnia

Psihologia Resurselor Umane Volumul 6, nr. 1, 2008

CUPRINS

Editorial Horia D. Pitariu, Ioan Radu Psihologia ca profesie i deontologia interveniilor psihologice n managementul resurselor umane Studii i Cercetri Dan Ispas, Walter, C. Borman Dincolo de performana n sarcin: conceptul de comportament cetenesc organizaional Adrian H. Pitariu ncrederea i coordonarea echipei n situaii critice Roxana I. Capotescu Managementul stresului n organizaii Horia D. Pitariu, Coralia Sulea, Ctlina Zboril, Laureniu Maricuoiu Justiia organizaional i afectivitatea negativ: o metaanaliz a relaiei acestora cu comportamentele contraproductive Drago Iliescu, Rare Mocanu, Felicia Beldean MLQ (Chestionarul Multifactorial de Leadership). Date preliminare pentru Romnia Elisabeth Doutre Angajamentul fa de organizaie n contextul schimbrii: care sunt perspectivele ntlnite n cadrul unui spital public? Rlea Veronica Efecte ale stilului de leadership asupra performanei n mediul organizaional Mihai Aniei, Cornel L. Mincu, Mihaela Popa Chraif Aspecte ale relaiei dintre procesarea stimulilor n cmpul perceptiv periferic i central MRU n practic Barbara Nett, Angie Rosenbaum Consultana industrial/organizaional n Statele Unite: cteva provocri

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Despre metod Florin A. Sava, Laureniu P. Maricuoiu PowerStaTim 1.0 un nou program statistic de calcul a mrimii efectului i a puterii statistice Rbert Balzsi Corelaii, corelaii, corelaii... perspectiva SEM asupra msurrii n psihologie Legislaie Interviul psihologilor practicieni sub supervizare pentru trecerea la stadiul de psiholog practician autonom Figuri de psihologi Bernard M. Bass (1925-2007) Recenzii i Note Bibliografice MR, L. (2007). Logica (i)raionalitii: teoria jocurilor i psihologia deciziilor umane. Cluj Napoca: Editura RTS (Renata Heilman) SNTION, F. (2007). Introducere n psihologia social. Constana: Editura Ovidius University Press (Ioana Vasiu) AVRAM, E. (Coord.) (2007). Psihologie organizaional-managerial perspective aplicative. Bucureti: Editura Universitar (Claudia Rus) STOICA, M. (2007). Elemente de psihologie managerial. Cluj Napoca: Editura Risoprint (Claudia Rus) Informaii

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Human Resources Psychology Volume 6, nr. 1, 2008

SUMMARY

Editorial Horia D. Pitariu, Ioan Radu Psychology as a profession and the deontology of psychological interventions in the human resources management Studies and Research Dan Ispas, Walter, C. Borman Beyond task performance: the concept of organizational citizenship performance Adrian Pitariu Trust and team coordination in critical situations Roxana I. Capotescu Stress Management in Organization Horia D. Pitariu, Coralia Sulea, Ctlina Zboril, Laureniu Maricuoiu Organizational justice and negative affectivity: a meta-analysis of their relationship with the counterproductive work behaviors. Drago Iliescu, Rare Mocanu, Felicia Beldean MLQ (Multifactorial Leadership Questionnaire). Preliminary data for Romania Elisabeth Doutre Organizational commitment during organizational change: what are the perspectives in a public hospital? Rlea Veronica The effects of the leadership style on performance in the organizational environment Mihai Aniei, Cornel L. Mincu, Mihaela Popa Chraif Aspects of the relationship between the processing of stimuli in the peripheral field and in the perceptual central field

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HRM in practice Barbara Nett, Angie Rosenbaum Industrial/Organizational Consultancy in the United States: A Few of the Challenges

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About Methods Florin A. Sava, Laureniu P. Maricuoiu PowerStaTim 1.0 a new statistical software for computing effect size and statistical power indicators Rbert Balzsi Correlations, correlations, correlations...the SEM perspective on measurement in psychology Legislation in Psychological Field The content of the interview the practitioner of psychology under supervision needs to pass to advance to the rank of an autonomous practitioner of psychology. Psychologists Figures Bernard M. Bass (1925-2007) Book Reviews and Bibliographical Notes MR, L. (2007). The Logic of (I)rationality: Game Theory and the Psychology of Human Decisions. Cluj Napoca: RTS (Renata Heilman) SNTION, F. (2007). Introduction to Social Psychology. Constana: Ovidius University Press (Ioana Vasiu) STOICA, M. (2007). Elements of Managerial Psychology. Cluj Napoca: Risoprint (Claudia Rus) AVRAM, E. (Coord.) (2007). Organizational-managerial psychology applied perspectives. Bucureti: Editura Universitar (Claudia Rus) Informations

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La Psychologie de Ressources Humaines Volume 6, 1er numro, 2008

SOMMAIRE
Editoriale Horia D. Pitariu, Ioan Radu La psychologie comme profession et la dontologie des interventions psychologiques dans la gestion des ressources humaines. Etudes et recherches Dan Ispas, Walter, C. Borman Au-del des rsultats lis la tche: le concept de la rentabilit de la citoyennet organisationnelle. Adrian Pitariu La confiance et la coordination des quipes dans les situations critiques. Roxana I. Capotescu Le management du stress dans les organisations. Horia D. Pitariu, Coralia Sulea, Ctlina Zboril, Laureniu Maricuoiu Justice organisationnelle et affectivit ngative: une mta-analyse de leur relation avec les comportements contreproductifs dans le travail. Drago Iliescu, Rare Mocanu, Felicia Beldean MLQ (Questionnaire Multifactoriel du Leadership). Donnes prliminaires sur la population roumaine. Elisabeth Doutre Engagement organisationnel en situation de changement: quelles perspectives dans un hospital public? Revue de question Rlea Veronica Les effets du style de leadership sur le climat organisationnel Mihai Aniei, Cornel L. Mincu, Mihaela Popa Chraif Quelques aspects de la relation entre le traitement des stimuli dans le champ perceptuel priphrique et le champ perceptuel central MRU en practique Barbara Nett, Angie Rosenbaum Consultation industrielle et organisationnelle aux Etats-Unis: quelques dfis. Mthodologie Florin A. Sava, Laureniu P. Maricuoiu PowerStaTim 1.0 une nouvelle statistique pour valuer la taille des effets et les indicateurs statstistiques de puissance. Rbert Balzsi Des corrlations, des corrlations, des corrlationsla perspective SEM dans lestimation en psychologie. Lgislation Lentretien de promotion comme patriciens autonomes des psychologues praticiens en supervision Personnalits de la Psychologie Bernard M. Bass (1925-2007) Recensions et notes bibliographiques MR, L. (2007). La logique de lirrationalit (la rationalit): la thorie des jeux et la psychologie de la dcision humaine. Cluj Napoca: Editura RTS (Renata Heilman) SNTION, F. (2007). Introduction la psychologie sociale. Constana: Editura Ovidius University Press. (Ioana Vasiu) STOICA, M. (2007). Des lments de psychologie managriale. Cluj-Napoca: Editura Risoprint (Claudia Rus) AVRAM, E. (Coord.) (2007). La psychologie organisationnelle managriale des perspectives applicatives. Bucureti: Editura Universitar (Claudia Rus) Renseignements 122

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Psihologia ca profesie i deontologia interveniilor psihologice n managementul resurselor umane

Horia D. Pitariu Ioan Radu Universitatea Babe-Bolyai, Cluj Napoca

Psihologia ca tiin i profesia de psiholog Profesia de psiholog, la fel ca oricare alta, presupune respectarea unor norme deontologice, aceasta cu att mai mult cu ct obiectul principal al interveniilor psihologilor l formeaz fiina uman. Or, psihologii, prin natura profesiei lor, trebuie s se implice activ n respectarea intimitii i a integritii psihice a fiecrei persoane, s promoveze i s protejeze drepturile fundamentale ale omului. Psihologii, prin profesia pe care o practic, sunt preocupai de mbogirea cunotinelor despre comportamentul uman, de nelegerea propriilor manifestri i ale altora, de utilizarea cunotinelor tiinifice de psihologie pentru promovarea unei integrri optime socioprofesionale. Dei psihologia este considerat o tiina relativ tnr, ea a realizat, in cei peste 100 de ani de existen progrese remarcabile, dovedindu-i utilitatea oriunde este prezent omul: la locul de munc, n coal, n clinic, n viaa politic, n armat etc. De-a lungul timpului s-au conturat numeroase fundamentri teoretice cu consecine aplicative sau structuri interpretative care au revoluionat societatea. Psihologia stucturalist, freudismul, behaviorismul, i mai recent psihologia cognitiv s-au dovedit a fi modaliti de abordare a psihicului i a comportamentului uman cu repercusiuni benefice asupra calitii vieii psihice a oamenilor. Dar, poate ceea ce este demn de subliniat este faptul c psihologii prin aplicaiile practice n care s-au implicat, ntotdeauna i-au fixat ca obiectiv fundamental optimizarea aciunilor factorului uman, sprijinirea nemijlocit a oamenilor, indiferent n ce postur ar fi ei: elev, muncitor, militar, manager sau client. O intervenie de natur psihologic, oricare ar fi natura ei, de orientare profesional, consiliere psihologic, selecie profesional, evaluarea profesional etc. rmne imprimat in mintea beneficiarului muli ani dup epuizarea evenimentului respectiv. Campbell (1974) a artat c o aciune de consiliere de orientare profesional, nu numai c marcheaz viaa profesional a unui tnr, dar constituie un eveniment pe care acesta i-l amintete i dup 20 de ani cu o fidelitate destul de mare. Autorii acestui studiu s-au confruntat adesea cu situaii n care persoanele cu care au interacionat au povestit despre iniiativele Oficiilor de Orientare Profesional din anii 1940, la distan de 30 de ani. Se sublinia att profesionalismul cu care

Editorial au fost conduse interveniile psihologice, ct i obiectivitatea psihologului n luarea unor decizii legate de rezultatele examenului de orientare i selecie profesional sau de optimizri de natur ergonomic. Pericole prezente cu care ne confruntm n ultima perioad de timp, practicile de psihologie aplicat din ara noastr au cunoscut o expansiune foarte mare. Acest lucru a fost determinat, n mare msur, de procesul tranziiei socio-economice prin care trecem, de cerinele obiective de schimbare a mentalitilor i structurilor social-economice depite, precum i de expansiunea industrial, penetrarea pe piaa romneasc a capitalului strin i integrarea noastr n procesul de internaionalizare economic i implicit a forei de munc. Anii receni ne-au confruntat cu numeroase probleme de natur social cum ar fi creterea masiv a prezenei companiilor multinaionale, o migraie masiv a forei de munc n contextul n care a crescut impactul cu tehnologiile noi i a companiilor dotate cu o infrastructur modern. Deci, condiiile unei solicitri n sfera psihologiei aplicate sunt prezente, dar specialitii sunt puini i profesionalismul lor este adesea lacunar, chiar submediocru. Desigur, aici o contribuie semnificativ o are sistemul de nvmnt universitar care este incapabil s asigure o pregtire eterogen, de calitate absolvenilor din domeniul psihologiei. Acest aspect a fost relevat de ctre Colegiul Psihologilor care face eforturi s suplineasc lipsa de profesionalism a psihologilor practicieni instituind o serie de trepte de acreditare i de formare profesional prin sisteme de supervizare. Au fost organizate n acest sens cursuri de perfecionare postuniversitar, un sistem de supervizare a debutanilor n psihologia muncii i organizaional, s-a stimulat participarea la conferine i workshop-uri etc. n intervenia de fa ne vom restrnge atenia numai la aplicaiile psihologiei n aria industrial/organizaional, sau a resurselor umane, domeniu care a fost supus n ultimul timp unor deformri conceptuale i metodologice flagrante. Fenomenul nu este nou. Pecaud (1959) meniona c n Frana postbelic, firmele de consultan i psihologii de ocazie au aprut ca ciupercile dup ploaie. Paterson (1930), la timpul su, meniona c n lupta cu arlatanii care profit de fisurile psihologiei tiinifice i promoveaz practici psihologice de estrad, lipsite de fundamentare tiinific (frenologia, morfopsihologia, psihobioritmurile, astrologia, horoscopul etc.), este important s se lupte cu armele pe care psihologia tiinific le pune la dispoziie. Despre aceti pseudopsihologi discut i Anastasi (1979), care atrage atenia ntr-o manier foarte serioas asupra pericolului pe care acetia l reprezint pentru societate. La noi n ar s-a luat nc de mult atitudine fa de imixtiunile nespecialitilor n psihologie i fa de practicile diletante (Pitariu, Botenaru, Lucaciu, Oachi, 1982; Podin, 1992). Firete, Asociaia Psihologilor din Romnia, prin statutul su i Colegiul Psihologilor, promoveaz o psihologie tiinific, astfel au fost elaborate o serie de norme deontologice care reglementau modalitile de practicare a psihologiei i exigenele de utilizare a instrumentarului psihodiagnostic (Herseni, 1969; Radu, 1976, vezi i colecia Psihologia Resurselor Umane). Din nefericire, multe din aceste realizri au fost date uitrii sau pur i simplu neglijate cu bun tiin, aplicaiile psihologice fiind invadate de pseudopsihologi. (Este regretabil c mijloacele mass-media, n special televiziunea, acord, de pild, astrologiei un spaiu prea mare care nu are nimic de-a face cu unul din obiectivele majore ale acesteia, educarea maselor. n aceeai msur, popularizarea unor practici netiinifice de genul paranormalului sau calitilor unor ghicitoare considerm c reprezint o limit serioas i o abatere flagrant de la principiile normelor tiinifice despre lume i via). Acetia, din nefericire, nu pot fi stopai prin nici un act juridic. Erorile care se fac n prezent pe aceast linie sunt grave, iar repercusiunile n timp vor fi dezastruoase. O meniune n ce privete practicarea psihologiei de ctre psihologi. Profesia de psiholog este protejat de Legea psihologului. Dar acest lucru oblig psihologul i la o justificare tiinific a aciunilor pe care le ntreprinde. De pild, selecia profesional, examenul psihologic, n general, indiferent c se face pe baza unui interviu sau teste psihologice, trebuie fundamentat tiinific. Orice persoan care a fost supus unui examen psihologic are dreptul s cunoasc rezultatul deciziei psihologului. O decizie pe baz de teste sau alte instrumente de predicie psihologice, poate fi atacat n instan, psihologul fiind dator s justifice validitatea instrumentelor utilizate. Auzim deseori c la un examen psihologic de selecie a managerilor sa utilizat ca prob desenul unui copac i testul
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culorilor al lui Lscher (ierarhizarea a opt culori n ordinea preferinei), prob contestat datorit absenei unor studii serioase de validare, dar i a unor probe nerelevante cu funcia de manager sau alta (mai recent, la interviuri li se cere candidailor s relateze cum se vor vedea peste cinci ani ne ntrebm ce predictivitate are un rspuns la aceast ntrebare?). Indiferent de proba psihologic utilizat, psihologul trebuie s cunoasc i s-i bazeze decizia pe calitile predictive ale acesteia, adic s demonstreze c ntre rezultatele la proba/testul utilizat i performana profesional exist o relaie corelaional. Simpla utilizare a unor probe psihologice selecionate pe baz de etichet este o eroare grav. Flerul psihologului este un mit. Managementul Resurselor Umane o abordare multidisciplinar Psihologia aplicat la nivel organizaional este adesea considerat ca o parte a managementului resurselor umane (MRU). Este necesar aceast subliniere deoarece la noi n ar se consider greit c MRU este o problem aferent exclusiv tiinelor economice, treptat universitile politehnice ncep s dezvolte i ele seciile lor de MRU. n acest sens au fost editate o serie de cri care analizeaz problema MRU de pe poziii adesea strict teoretice, din care reiese diletantismul autorilor n problemele de selecie profesional, evaluarea personalului sau instruirea profesional. Realitatea este c MRU este o disciplin cu conotaii multidisciplinare; problemele salarizrii, ale planificrii forei de munc sau de structur a companiilor este firesc s le discute economitii. Orientarea i reorientarea profesional, selecia, evaluarea sau instruirea profesional, motivaia i satisfacia cu munca aparin psihologiei personalului. Aici pot fi incluse i problemele de psihologie organizaional, de fapt, departamentul de resurse umane al unei organizaii trebuie s includ un personal mixt, economiti, psihologi i persoane de alte specialiti, n funcie de specificul organizaiei respective. Acest personal poate acoperi fiecare segment de activitate n care este pregtit. Situaii contestate de psihologie si psihologi Literatura de specialitate din domeniul MRU este vast, o dovad a interesului pe care un domeniu l solicit ntr-o economie de

pia i un cadru capitalist n care se pune problema gestionrii personalului. Puinele lucrri de care dispunem n momentul de fa n acest domeniu consider necesar apelarea la traduceri. Din nefericire, unele traduceri de cri cu coninut MRU sunt de neneles din cauza terminologiei psihologice deformate. Astfel, lucrarea prestigioas a lui Johns (1998) utilizeaz un limbaj psihologic inedit, de neptruns pentru psihologi i specialitii din resurse umane, periculos pentru cititori (feedback = consolidare, validitate = valabilitate, fidelitate=reliabilitate etc.). Recomandarea acestei traduceri ca material bibliografic va duce la formarea unui specialist al crui limbaj tiinific pentru a fi neles va solicita o adevrat munc de decriptare. Desigur, o mare vin aparine n acest caz editorului care a renunat la prerile unor refereni. Cazul citat nu este unic. Firmele de consultan pe probleme de resurse umane sunt o necesitate i o practic rspndit pe plan internaional. Printre activitile pe care aceste firme le promoveaz, exist pachete de oferte cu coninut specific psihologic. Faptul c personalul acestor firme este adesea colarizat n strintate, urmnd cursuri intensive, este un aspect important, dar cnd acest personal (ingineri, economiti .a.) se crede apt s fac o selecie profesional cu o metodologie specific universal valabil, este un abuz sau, simplu spus, o impostur. Un psiholog este colarizat n prezent timp de trei ani i poate s-i continue studiile n cadrul unui program de master sau alte cursuri speciale postuniversitare sau doctorale. Cu toate acestea, adevraii psihologi care sunt angajai ntr-o astfel de firm, sunt adesea tratai ca neexperimentai sau lipsii de experien i sunt pui n situaia s suporte o serie de sugestii i ndrumri care exceleaz prin incompeten (nesupunerea are ca i consecin renunarea la serviciile lor). n mod obinuit oferta firmelor de consultan se rezum la urmtoarele activiti: Recrutarea i selecia profesional ; Cursuri de instruire pe diferite teme ; Diagnoze organizaionale ; Proiectarea de sisteme de evaluare a personalului. Cele mai acute probleme se ridic n legtur cu recrutarea i selecia profesional unde asistm la un abuz de teste psihologice i practici netiinifice. Muli dintre

Editorial pseudopsihologii de care vorbeam, dac au reuit s achiziioneze unul sau mai multe teste psihologice ori chestionare de personalitate, au impresia ca acestea sunt suficiente, c au dreptul s le utilizeze (uneori intr-o manier strict personal), fr s ia n considerare problemele de validitate, fidelitate sau de normare. Din nefericire chiar muli psihologi au fcut rabat de la utilizarea tiinific a instrumentarului psihodiagnostic. Anastasi (1979), autor al unor lucrri de referin de psihodiagnostic, observa: testele psihologice nu pot fi aplicate corect n afara contextului psihologic. Instrumentul uneori uitat al cunoaterii psihologice este psihologul nsui. Testul aduce informaii despre subiect ntr-o form codificat. Cotele sau indiciile calitative obinute in cadrul unei examinri nu explic un nivel de performan, un fapt de conduita. Psihologul urmeaz s desprind din datele brute informaiile relevante. Esenial este s nu se desprind nici mai multe, nici mai puine informaii dect cele reale, cuprinse n datele obinute. Utilizarea de probe psihologice i, cu att mai mult, elaborarea unor noi teste presupune o competen precis, care mbin o anumit tehnicitate cu fineea observaiei. Ne vom atepta ca n viitor s ne confruntm cu o adevrat revolt antitest (este ceva similar cu ceea ce s-a ntmplat n prin anii 50 n unele ri occidentale. Interviul de selecie a ajuns instrumentul preferat al diletanilor n MRU. Soarta unui candidat oarecare rmne la latitudinea dispoziiilor i subiectivismului unui selecioner obscur, lipsit adesea de cele mai elementare cunotine psihologice i de tehnica de derulare a unui interviu. Interviul de selecie este considerat n literatura psihologic drept un mijloc de selecie care n anumite cazuri are o validitate mai redus. El posed ns calitatea de a fi utilizat n prezent cu frecvena de cea mai mare. Valoarea interviului de selecie este apreciabil numai in situaii bine determinate i alturi de alte mijloace de psihodiagnoz. Dar, fenomenul cel mai condamnabil apare n situaia n care firmele de consultan i unii psihologi utilizeaz instrumentarul psihologic pentru a disponibiliza personalul unei organizaii. Astfel, se ncalc unul din principiile cele mai elementare ale codului deontologic al psihologilor. Psihologul are ca principal obiectiv sprijinirea oamenilor n a se integra ntr-un anumit loc de munc, optimizarea participrii la munc, medierea conflictelor dintre patronat i ceilali salariai etc. De-a lungul timpului, psihologii i-au bazat interveniile de optimizare a serviciilor i de sprijin al angajailor pe date tiinifice. Printre primii care au srit n ajutorul celor care lucrau la banda rulant sau pe care se experimentau metode tayloriene de munc, mrirea arbitrar a zilei de munc etc., au fost psihologii care prin studiile pe care le-au efectuat au demonstrat aportul incontestabil al umanizrii muncii. Despre cursurile de instruire oferite de ctre firmele de consultan putem afirma, desigur fr a generaliza, faptul c de cele mai multe ori acestea ofer teme de curs de genul Cum motivm angajaii, Cheia succesului n afaceri, Tehnici de evaluare a personalului etc. Rareori oferta are la baz o analiz a trebuinelor de instruire, neinteresnd nici maniera de receptare (evaluare) a cursului i a efectelor acestuia. Frecvent, la astfel de cursuri ntlnim prezentarea unei teme al crei suport de curs a fost tradus mai mult sau mai puin corect i care este prezentat sumar, lectorul confundnd suportul de curs cu cursul propriu-zis. Indicaia preioas este pentru a fi mai avizai n problem, citii suportul de curs. Alteori, dup cteva exerciii puerile, crora li se mai spune joc de rol (jocul de rol este o tehnica de instruire, dar care se desfoar dup anumite reguli), se consider c s-au format deprinderi manageriale, de vnzare etc. (uneori termenul de deprindere nu este cunoscut, formatorii susinnd c formeaz skilluri!). Schimbarea organizaional, fenomen specific dinamicii oricrei organizaii presupune realizarea unei diagnoze organizaionale. Aceasta nseamn o abordare sistemic a organizaiei, realizat de o echip multidisciplinar de specialiti. Diagnoza organizaional include, ca parte component a analizei, segmentul uman al organizaiei, acesta fiind privit ca unul dintre cele mai importante. Exist n acest context o metodologie de analiz complex bazat pe modele, teorii i realizat prin interviuri i chestionare consacrate. Dar, evaluarea resurselor umane este cu totul impropriu, de-a dreptul revolttor, s se fac pe baza unor puncte sau note, aa cum pretind unele metodologii. Nu putem nota nivelul de motivaie al angajailor cu un calificativ de 6 sau sistemul de conducere cu nota 3, acesta cu att mai mult cu ct nu exist nici un cadru de referin. Este bine s se neleag c astfel de investigaii presupun existena unei metodologii de lucru care poate varia de la o

organizaie la alta i se face cu un instrumentar specializat. Despre aprecierile de personal, evaluarea performanelor profesionale ale salariailor, se pot spune multe. Aceasta este o practica mai veche, astzi peste 90% din companiile occidentale au n aplicare unul din sistemele de apreciere propuse de ctre psihologi. Acest lucru este specific i rii noastre, multe companii utiliznd un anumit sistem de apreciere anual sau bianual a salariailor. La noi in tara a existat o lege in acest sens si mai recent o serie de hotrri guvernamentale (HG) care ncearc sa revigoreze aceast practic att de util conducerii eficiente a unei companii. Trecnd peste erorile coninute de HG-urile respective i care le fac adesea neoperaionale, aceasta pentru c psihologii specializai pe problematica evalurilor nu au fost consultai, s-a ajuns la soluii de-a dreptul hilare. O idee bun i necesar s-a transformat ntr-o aciune de un formalism acut. Un sistem de apreciere a personalului este o investiie serioas, implementarea sa fiind dependent de specificul companiei, a locului de munc ocupat si nu o msur cu aplicabilitate universal. Iat, se prevede n normativele n circulaie s se noteze cantitatea i calitatea muncii. Acestea sunt dou dimensiuni care trebuie evaluate separat. Apoi, se pretinde notarea creativitii- dimensiune profesional care nu se poate nota ntr-un loc de munc n care se cere respectarea cu strictee a unor instruciuni de execuie (ce ar fi dac un pilot al unui avion de pasageri s-ar abate de la traseul de zbor pentru c este o zi cu soare si privelitea din avion ar ncnta pasagerii? Pasagerii ar aprecia pozitiv ideea pilotului, dar acesta s-ar alege cu o sanciune sever pentru aciunea sa creativ). Odat cu msura de a evalua performanele angajailor, numeroase firme de consultan au obinut subvenii de pe proiecte finanate din exterior pentru a-i nva pe alii cum s-i construiasc sistemul de evaluare respectiv. Eroarea aparine n primul rnd celor care au evaluat aceste proiecte, apoi celor care le-au obinut i care nu tiu cum se realizeaz un astfel de proiect. A dezvolta un proiect de evaluare a personalului nseamn a declana o aciune de investigare dup o metodologie bine pus la punct. Psihologul este chemat s fac investigaiile necesare pe teren, sistemul de evaluare fiind concluzia unor intervenii succesive. In niciun caz sistemul de evaluare nu trebuie s fie doar creaia unui director de departament de

resurse umane sau a unui inginer economist. Acetia vor fi eventual instruii evaluatori i vor fii invitai ca experi construirea sistemului de evaluare personalului. Experiena altor ri

ori ca n a

Abuzurile pseudopsihologilor, a diletanilor n managementul resurselor umane i chiar a unor psihologi incompeteni sunt o realitate recunoscut de numeroase ri. Acesta este motivul pentru care n ultimul timp asociaiile naionale ale psihologilor, organismele internaionale care au fost create, psihologii nii, acord o importan din ce in ce mai mare implementrii unui cadru absolut legal aciunilor pe care le ntreprind. Discuii ample au fost purtate de ctre Asociaia Psihologilor Americani in reviste ca American Psychologist i Asociaia Psihologilor din Frana (1996). Codurile deontologice ale acestor asociaii ne pot servi ca punct de plecare n ntregirea a ceea ce a fost realizat i la noi in ar ntr-un timp nu prea ndeprtat (Herseni, 1969; Radu, 1976). Asociaia Psihologilor Americani a adoptat n anul 1992 ceea ce a devenit Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (1992). Altfel, psihologii americani au subscris la respectarea unor principii profesionale grupate in urmtoarele domenii: Responsabilitate, Competen, Moralitate i standarde legale, Declaraii publice, Confidenialitate, Mulumirea beneficiarilor, Relaiile profesionale, Tehnici de evaluare, Cercetarea cu subieci umani, Precauii i Utilizarea animalelor n cercetri. Aceste teme de interes surprind drepturile i ndatoririle psihologilor, principiile dup care acetia trebuie s-i deruleze activitatea lor profesional. Abaterile de la aceste norme sunt pedepsite att de asociaiile profesionale ct i pe cale juridic instituionalizat. Asociaia Psihologilor Francezi are un cod deontologic propriu i specificaii pentru fiecare ramur mare a psihologiei: Psihologia muncii, Psihologia educaional, Psihologia clinic i Psihologia social aplicat. Leplat (1971) a sintetizat codul etic a psihologilor industriali. Cteva recomandri: n exercitarea profesiei sale psihologul i interzice orice act sau cuvnt care aduce atingerea demnitii persoanei umane. El trebuie s fie contient de necesitatea de a fi

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Editorial obiectiv i circumspect cnd aciunea sa opereaz cu noiuni ca normal-anormal, adaptat-dezadaptat etc., care afecteaz persoane i relaii interpersonale. Psihologul este supus regulii secretului profesional; aceast regul privete concluziile, rapoartele, documentele redactate n codul deontologic al profesiei sale. Toate demersurile sale se fac cu respectul demnitii persoanei care face obiectul interveniei sale. Munca psihologului practician se face in spiritul datelor cercetrilor din domeniu; el trebuie s caute i s aplice criterii i metode controlabile din punct de vedere tiinific. De asemenea, psihologul trebuie s refuze orice angajament pe care starea prezent a tehnicilor de lucru nu i-ar permite s i-o asume. Practic, psihologul opereaz ntr-un mediu tehnic n care trebuie s posede orientarea necesar. Aciunea sa vizeaz adaptarea angajatului la mediul su, artndu-i limitele personale care l-ar expune la riscuri de accident, dar i capacitile sale care-i asigur promovarea, succesul. Psihologul trebuie s ajute pe cel examinat s-i dea seama de propriile sale obiective i s le realizeze n timp. Clasificnd mpreun cu subiectul datele situaiei noteaz Leplat (1971) l va ajuta s-i adapteze deciziile i s le compatibilizeze cu obiectivele urmrite. Se nelege c psihologul garanteaz calitatea metodelor i tehnicilor utilizate i cunoate limitele acestora. n ultimul timp se discut tot mai frecvent despre o simbioz practic-tiin sub formula scientist-practitioner. tiina lumineaz practica, iar aceasta produce tiin. Practicianul nu este doar deintorul unei colecii de reete sau rutine pe care doar deintorul le aplic indefinit. Aceasta rmne o imagine de istorie.
Bibliografie Anastasi , A. (1979). Fields of Applied Psychology. NY: McGraw-Hill. Campbell, D.P. (1974). Give me one of those interest tests so I can see what I should be. In: Measurement for Self Understanding and Personal Development (9-13). Proceedings of the 1973 Invitational Conference on Testing Problems. Educational Testing Service, Princeton, New Jersey. *** Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct. (1992). American Psychologist, 47, 12, 1597-1611. Herseni, T. (1969). Laboratorul uzinal de psihologie, sociologie si pedagogie. Editura tiinific, Bucureti. Johns, G. (1998). Comportament organizaional. nelegerea i conducerea oamenilor n procesul muncii. Bucureti: Editura Economic. Leplat, J. (1971). Deontologie de la psychologie du travail. In: M. Reuchlin (coord.), Traite de psychologie appliqu (183-194). Paris: Boulevard Saint-Germain. Pacaud, S. (1959). La selection Professionnelle. Paris: P.U.F. Paterson, D.G. (1930). Psysique and intellect. NY: The Century Co. Pitariu, H., Botenaru, N., Lucaciu, L., & Oachi, A. (1982). The theory and practice of biorhythms are not confirm. Revue Roumaine des Sciences Sociales. Serie de Psychologie. 26, 2, 149-154. Podina, V. (1992). Justific horoscopul ncrederea ce i se acord? Psihologia, 21-23. Radu, I. (1976). Principii metodologice n elaborarea i utilizarea probelor psihologice. Revista de psihologie, 22, 1-33

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Beyond task performance: the concept of organizational citizenship performance

1

Dan Ispas Walter C. Borman University of South Florida

Abstract In this paper, we describe the construct of citizenship performance and briefly review some of the industrial and organizational psychology research on organizational citizenship. We discuss the history, the dimensionality, the antecedents, consequences and implications for practice, and also provide a critical analysis. The conclusions of this review are that citizenship performance is important for contemporary organizations and contemporary trends suggest it will continue to be important in the future. We encourage further research in the area of citizenship performance in other cultures beyond the US. Key words: citizenship performance, organizational citizenship behaviors, job performance, industrialorganizational psychology. Rezumat n cadrul acestei lucrri ne propunem s realizm o descriere a constructului de performan contextual i s trecem n revist pe scurt cteva dintre cercetrile din psihologia industrial i organizaional asupra comportamentului cetenesc organizaional. Vom aborda istoria, dimensionalitatea, antecedentele, consecinele i implicaiile pentru practic ale conceptului de performan contextual, prin prisma unei analize critice a literaturii de specialitate. Concluziile acestei treceri n revist susin nsemntatea comportamentului cetenesc pentru organizaiile contemporane, iar tendinele actuale susin c importana acestuia va crete n viitor. ncurajm cercettorii ca n studiile viitoare asupra performanei contextuale s abordeze problematica i n alte culturi dect Statele Unite. Cuvinte cheie: performana contextual, comportament cetenesc organizaional, performana n munc, psihologie industrial-organizaional.

Introduction

Job performance is probably the most important variable in industrial and organizational psychology and is sometimes referred to as the criterion or as the the ultimate dependent variable (Organ & Paine, 1999). Early research on job performance has focused on task performance (e.g., identifying the tasks and their importance and frequency). Task performance can be defined as the proficiency with which the tasks are performed. However, in the past 20 years or so, considerable research has been devoted to another class of job performance that falls outside the domain of task performance: contextual or citizenship performance. In this
1

paper, well present the concept of citizenship performance, a short history of the concept, well briefly review some of the research findings (antecedents and consequences), and provide a critical analysis with a focus on future research directions. Definition of citizenship performance Citizenship performance is defined as activities (that) support the organizational, social, and psychological environment in which the technical core must function (Borman & Motowidlo, 1993, p. 73). Citizenship performance differs from task performance in three ways (Borman & Motowidlo, 1993): task behaviors vary across jobs, whereas contextual behaviors are similar across jobs;

Adresa de coresponden: dispas@gmail.com

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task behaviors are more likely to be formally expected as a job requirement than contextual behaviors (which usually go above and beyond the call of duty); and the antecedents of task performance are more likely to involve cognitive ability, whereas the antecedents of citizenship performance are more likely to be dispositional or personality related. A brief history and the dimensionality of citizenship performance Trying to explain the relatively low correlation between satisfaction and performance, Organ (1977) suggested that the reason might be that performance had been defined too narrowly. Based on early work by Barnard (1938) and Katz & Kahn (1966), Organ and colleagues (Bateman & Organ, 1983; Smith, Organ, & Near, 1983) proposed a construct called organizational citizenship behavior initially defined as discretionary behavior that goes beyond ones official role and is intended to help other people in the organization or to show support and conscientiousness toward the organization. Building on an earlier model of soldier effectiveness (Borman, Motowidlo, Rose, & Hanser, 1985), early literature on organizational citizenship behavior (OCB; Organ, 1988) and prosocial organizational behavior (Brief & Motowidlo, 1986), Borman & Motowidlo (1993) proposed a theory of work performance and made the distinction between task and contextual performance. In their review of the organizational citizenship literature, Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Paine, and Bachrach (2000) identified 30 potential kinds of citizenship performance but they note that there is a great deal of overlap between many of these constructs. Organ & Paine (1999) describe the distinction between citizenship performance directed at individuals and citizenship performance directed at the organization as the most consistent and interpretable distinction in the citizenship literature. In an effort to summarize and parsimoniously integrate all the concepts proposed in the literature, Coleman & Borman (2000) generated a set of 27 unique performance

dimensions and asked a group of industrial and organizational psychologists to sort them into categories based on conceptual similarity. Using exploratory factor analysis and multidimensional scaling they found three broad dimensions, each with several subdimensions (Borman, 2004, Borman et al., 2001, Coleman & Borman, 2000). Their findings are presented in Table 1. They note however, that the model lacks more assertive, challenging elements of citizenship participation such as Civic Virtue (Graham, 2000) also called Advocacy Participation (Van Dyne et al., 1994). They also note that there probably is no best configuration for the citizenship domain, and the models should be chosen based on purposes and applications. An in-depth review of the history of the concept is beyond the scope of this article, the interested reader should refer to Borman & Motowidlo (1993), Organ, Podsakoff, &MacKenzie (2006) and Podsakoff et al. (2000). Antecedents of citizenship performance Most of the research conducted on citizenship performance has been aimed at identifying its antecedents. We can divide the antecedents of citizenship performance into four separate categories: situational, attitudinal / affective, dispositional, and motivational. The situational antecedents can be divided into organizational factors and job characteristics. Some of the situational factors are: organizational justice (the perceived fairness of interactions between individuals and the organization), leader behavior (the quality of the relationship), and organizational culture (e.g., organizational politics). The characteristics of the jobs themselves may inhibit or encourage citizenship performance. Although only a few studies have examined the relationship between citizenship performance and job characteristics, the results of reviews (e.g., Podsakoff et al., 1996) suggest that jobs providing greater autonomy, feedback, and task variety may encourage more employee citizenship performance.

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Table 1. Dimensions and subdimensions of citizenship performance

(1) Personal support: Helping helping others by offering suggestions, showing them how to do the work and how to accomplish different tasks, providing emotional support. Cooperating accepting suggestions, informing them of events they should know about, putting team objectives above personal interests. Courtesy showing consideration, courtesy, and tact in relations with others. Motivating motivating others by applauding their achievement and success, showing confidence in their abilities. Representing representing the organization favorably to outsiders by defending it when its criticized and by promoting its positive attributes. Loyalty showing loyalty by staying with the organization despite temporary hardships and by tolerating occasional difficulties, supporting the organizations mission and objectives. Compliance complying with reasonable organizational rules and procedures, and suggesting improvements. Persistence persisting with extra effort despite difficult conditions Initiative taking the initiative to do all that is necessary to accomplish objectives even if not normally part of own duties and finding additional productive work to perform when own duties are completed Self development developing own knowledge and skills by taking advantage of opportunities within the organization and outside the organization, using own time and resources, when necessary.

(2) Organizational support:

(3) Conscientious initiative

Job satisfaction and organizational commitment have also been considered as potential antecedents of citizenship performance. Results of meta-analyses (Organ & Ryan, 1995, LePine et al., 2002) suggest a positive correlation between satisfaction and citizenship performance and also between commitment and citizenship performance (population correlations corrected for unreliability of .24 and .20). The dispositional antecedents of citizenship performance have been widely investigated (Borman et al., 2001). The personality constructs that show the strongest correlations with citizenship performance are conscientiousness (one of the big five traits) and two constructs that measure the prosocial personality orientation (Penner et al., 1995): other-orientated empathy and helpfulness (Borman et al., 2001). More recently, researchers tried to predict citizenship performance by understanding and identifying the role of individuals motives for engaging in this behavior. A promising line of research by Penner and his colleagues (e.g., Penner et al., 1997; Rioux & Penner, 2001) tries to identify the motives for citizenship performance using

a functionalist approach (Snyder, 1993). Rioux & Penner (2001) developed a scale to measure peoples motives for engaging in citizenship performance, and found three distinct factors: organizational concern (e.g., I care what happens to this company), prosocial values (e.g., It is easy for me to be helpful), and impression management (e.g., I try to avoid looking bad in front of others). Two of the three motives showed differential relationships with dimensions of the predictors and the criteria: the organizational concern motive was most highly correlated with conscientiousness and the prosocial values motive was most strongly correlated with altruism. Also, concern for the organization was associated with citizenship performance toward the organization, and concern for other people was associated with citizenship performance directed at individual. Since very little research has been conducted in this area, we encourage future investigations, for example to understand how individual motives operate to influence behavior. Also, most of the studies have been correlational and cross-sectional; using experience sampling methodology or qualitative methods (participant-observation studies or in-depth interviews) can help us

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better understand the role of motives in citizenship performance. Examining the motives for citizenship performance may also provide an explanation for the inconsistent relationships between personality traits and citizenship performance dimensions: different personality traits may be relevant in different situations, depending on the functions of citizenship behaviors and on the motives for engaging in citizenship behaviors. Critical analysis of citizenship performance research An area of research that has received little attention from researchers is the negative consequences of citizenship performance. Bolino, Turnley, & Niehoff (2004) theorized that citizenship performance can lead to more role ambiguity (the employees may have a hard time distinguishing between in-role and extrarole behaviors), less accurate performance appraisals, higher levels of stress, overload, work-family conflict and conflict among employees. Bolino & Turnley (2005) found in a sample of 98 couples that higher levels of individual initiative (a form of citizenship performance) were associated with higher levels of role overload, job stress, and workfamily conflict. As they mention, this is a crosssectional study and we dont know whether individual initiative causes employee stress and strain or the other way around. A longitudinal study or a study using experience sampling methodology could be more helpful in examining causality. In a recent meta-analytic study, Chang, Johnson, and Yang (2007) examined the relationship between emotional strain and OCB. They found a population correlation of .16. Although they consider emotional strain an antecedent of citizenship performance, they acknowledge that the design of most of the studies included does not allow drawing causal conclusions. It is also possible that performing citizenship behaviors can lead to experiencing more strain. This would also be consistent with the conservation of resources theory (Hobfoll, 1988, 1989). According to the conservation of resources theory, individuals seek to acquire and maintain resources (such as objects, personal characteristics, conditions and energies). Hobfoll and Freedy (1993) proposed that job demands threaten ones resources, and continued exposure to demands will result in strain in the form of emotional exhaustion. This could be a useful framework to examine

the relationship between citizenship performance and strain. Most of the research on contextual performance has used a social exchange framework (Zellars & Tepper, 2003). Based on the norm of reciprocity (Gouldner, 1960), social exchange theory posits that the employees and the organizations engage in relationships (social exchanges) outside the formal contracts that exist between them. Zellars and Tepper (2003) criticize this overreliance on social exchange theory. They argue that by focusing on social exchange theory the amount of variance explained has remained constant, i.e. there is little improvement in the amount of variance by the various proposed predictors of citizenship performance. They outline several new possible antecedents of citizenship performance: self-efficacy, the opportunity to perform, egoistic motivations (impression management and coping with work stress) and identity management. Researchers have begun to empirically examine the proposed predictors. For example, Bolino et al. (2006) found that supervisor focused impression management tactics (self-reported by the employee) are associated with citizenship performance (supervisor ratings). Their finding has important implications for the choice of the rating source for citizenship performance: it appears that supervisor reports may not be the best source due to the likelihood of being impacted by the employees impression management. We encourage more research on the proposed antecedents, especially using longitudinal and experimental designs. Another are in need of more research is the measurement of citizenship performance. A variety of measures have been proposed and used in the literature (Podsakoff et al., 2000). A more careful inspection of some of the items suggests that for some measures, items that are supposed to measure citizenship performance are in fact items measuring the employees not engaging in counterproductive work behaviors (CWB), called antithetical items (Dalal, 2005). This may have implications for the relationship between citizenship performance and other variables. For example, Dalal (2005) found that the relationship between citizenship performance and CWB is strong only when the measures include antithetical items. Very little research has examined actual interventions designed to increase citizenship performance among employees.

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The only attempts we are aware of have been made by Skarlicki and Latham (1996, 1997). They trained managers in the principles of organizational justice and found that improving fairness perceptions leads to increased levels of citizenship performance. More research is needed, and other organizational interventions should be examined (e.g., increasing participation in decision making). Consequences and implications for practice Citizenship performance also has important consequences and implications for practice. For example, research has shown that managers do consider citizenship performance when rating employee performance (Johnson, 2001; Werner, 1994). There is also empirical evidence that citizenship performance is related to the effectiveness of the organization (for a review see chapter 7 of Organ, Podsakoff, & MacKenzie, 2006).` Some of the reasons that citizenship performance might influence organizational effectiveness are (Borman, 2004; Organ, Podsakoff, & MacKenzie, 2006): it may enhance coworker and managerial productivity, it may help coordinate activities, it may help the organizations ability to attract and retain employees and it may increase the stability of organizational performance. However, there is a need for further research in this area in order to clarify the direction of causality, to identify potential moderators, and to better understand the mechanism through which citizenship performance influences organizational performance. Citizenship performance also has implications for personnel selection: if citizenship performance is related to organizational effectiveness than we might select job candidates based on their predisposition to engage in citizenship performance. Research shows that, for the most part, personality tends to predict citizenship performance better than task performance, and thus using personality measures to select people may have some merit. The relationship between citizenship performance and overall performance and between personality and citizenship performance may also have an impact on the interpretation of the Barrick and Mount (1991) meta-analysis (Borman, 2004). They found a moderate correlation between conscientiousness and job performance (mostly ratings of overall performance) which

may reflect primarily a relation between conscientiousness and citizenship performance. Conclusions The empirical evidence suggests that citizenship performance is important for contemporary organizations. Most of the research on citizenship performance has occurred in the past 15 years or so. Four contemporary trends suggest that the three dimensions of citizenship performance are likely to be important in the future: 1. organizational support and conscientious initiative will become more important as global competition continues to raise the effort level required by organizational members, 2. the personal support component will be needed as the number of team based organizations increases. 3. conscientious initiative will be needed to make adaptability and willingness to exhibit extra effort more critical as downsizing continues. 4. all three dimensions will be more important as customer service and client satisfaction are increasingly emphasized. Also, as is the case with most areas of industrial and organizational psychology, we need more research done in cultures beyond the US. There have been some studies that suggest that citizenship performance may have different structure and meaning in other cultures. For example, Turnipseed & Murkison (2000) found different factor structures of an OCB scale in Romania and US. Work by Farh and colleagues (Farh, Early, & Lin, 1997; Farh, Zhong, & Organ, 2004) in China has uncovered two dimensions of citizenship performance not found in US studies: interpersonal harmony and social welfare participation. Paine & Organ (2000) proposed that two of Hofstedes (1980) dimensions of culture are linked to citizenship performance: individualism-collectivism and power distance. Another possible cultural framework for examining differences in citizenship performance is the nine dimensions of culture found by researchers form the GLOBE project (House et al., 2004). We encourage more research using non-US samples and going beyond simply examining the dimensionality of citizenship performance to identify possible culture specific antecedents and moderators.

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Studii i Cercetri Further readings Borman, W.C., & Motowidlo, S.J. (1993). Expending the criterion domain to include elements of contextual performance. In N. Schmitt & W. C. Borman (Eds.), Personnel selection (pp. 7198). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Hanson, M.A., & Borman, W.C. (2006). Citizenship performance: An integrative review and motivational analysis. In W. Benett, Jr., C. E. Lance, & D. J. Woehr (Eds.), Performance measurement (pp. 141173). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. LePine, J.A., Erez, A., & Johnson, D.E. (2002). The nature and dimensionality of organizational citizenship behavior: A critical review and meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 5265. Organ, D.W., Podsakoff, P.M., & MacKenzie, S.B. (2006). Organizational citizenship behavior: Its nature, antecedents, and consequences. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. Penney, L.M. & Borman, W.C. (2005). The prediction of contextual performance. In A. Evers, O. Voskuijl, & N. Anderson (Eds.), Blackwell handbook of personnel selection (pp. 376398). Blackwell Publishers References Barnard, C.I. (1938). The functions of the executive. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Bateman, T.S., & Organ, D.W. (1983). Job satisfaction and the good soldier: the relationship between affect and employee citizenship. Academy of Management Journal, 26, 587595. Bolino, M.C., & Turnley, W.H. (2005). The personal costs of citizenship behavior: The relationship between individual initiative and role overload, job stress, and work-family conflict. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90, 740748. Bolino, M.C., Turnley, W.H., & Niehoff, B.P. (2004). The other side of the story: Reexamining prevailing assumptions about organizational citizenship behavior. Human Resource Management Review, 14, 229246. Bolino, M.C., Varela, J.A., Bande, B., & Turnley, W.H. (2006). The impact of impression management tactics on supervisor ratings of organizational citizenship behaviors. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 27, 281-297. Borman, W.C. (2004). The concept of organizational citizenship. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 13, 238241. Borman, W.C., Motowidlo, S.J., Rose, S.R., & Hanser, L.M. (1985). Development of a model of soldier effectiveness. Institute Report nr. 95. PDRI: Minneapolis. Borman, W.C., Penner, L.A., Allen, T.D., & Motowidlo, S.J. (2001). Personality predictors of citizenship performance. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 9, 52 69. Brief, A.P., & Motowidlo, S.J. (1986). Prosocial organizational behaviors. Academy of Management Review, 11, 711725. Chang, C.-H., Johnson, R.E., & Yang, L. (2007). Emotional strain and organizational citizenship behaviors: A meta-analytic review. Work & Stress, 21, 312-332. Coleman, V.I., & Borman, W.C. (2000). Investigating the underlying structure of the citizenship performance domain. Human Resource Management Review, 10, 2544. Dalal, R.S. (2005). A meta-analysis of the relationship between organizational citizenship behavior and counterproductive work behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90, 1241-1255. Farh, J.L., Early, P.C., & Lin, S.C. (1997). Impetus for action: A cultural analysis of justice and organizational citizenship behavior in Chinese society. Administrative Science Quarterly, 42, 421 444. Farh, J.L., Zhong, C.B., & Organ, D.W. (2004). Organizational citizenship behavior in the Peoples Republic of China. Organization Science, 15, 241 253. Graham, J.W. (2000). Promoting civic virtue organizational citizenship behavior: Contemporary questions rooted in classical quandaries from political philosophy. Human Resource Management Review, 10, 6177. Hobfoll, S.E. (1988). The ecology of stress. Washington, DC: Hemisphere. Hobfoll, S.E. (1989). Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress. American Psychologist, 44, 513-524. Hobfoll, S.E., & Freedy, J. (1993). Conservation of resources: A general stress theory applied to burnout. In W.B. Schaufeli, C. Maslach, & T. Marek (Eds.), Professional burnout: Recent developments in theory and research (pp. 115-129). Washington, DC: Taylor & Francis. Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture's consequences: International differences in work-related values. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. House, R.J., Hanges, P.J., Javidan, M., Dorfman, P.W.,& Gupta, V. (Eds.). (2004). Culture, leadership, and organizations: The GLOBE

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study of 62 societies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Johnson, J.W. (2001). The relative importance of task and contextual performance dimensions to supervisor judgments of overall performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 984996. Katz, D., & Kahn, R.L. (1966). The social psychology of organizations. New York: Wiley. Organ, D.W. (1977). A reappraisal and reinterpretation of the satisfaction-causesperformance hypothesis. Academy of Management Review, 2, 4653. Organ, D.W. (1988). Organizational citizenship behavior: The good soldier syndrome. Lenxington, MA: Lenxington. Organ, D.W. (1997). Organizational citizenship behavior: Its construct clean-up time. Human Performance ,10 , 8597. Organ, D., & McFall, J. (2004). Personality and Citizenship Behavior in Organizations. In B. Schneider and D.B. Smith (Eds.), Personality and organizations (pp. 291-314). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Organ, D.W., & Paine, J.B. (1999). A new kind of performance for industrial and organizational psychology: Recent contributions to the study of organizational citizenship behavior. International Review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 14, 337368. Organ, D.W., & Ryan, K. (1995). A meta-analytic review of attitudinal and dispositional predictors of organizational citizenship behavior. Personnel Psychology, 48, 775 802. Penner, L.A., Fritzsche, B.A., Craiger, J.P., & Freifeld, T.R. (1995). Measuring the prosocial personality. In J. Butcher & C. D. Spielberger (Eds.), Advances in personality assessment (Vol. 10, pp. 147163). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Penner, L.A., Midili, A.R., & Kegelmeyer, J. (1997). Beyond job attitudes: A personality and social psychology perspective on the causes of organizational citizenship performance. Human Performance, 10, 111131. Podsakoff, P.M., MacKenzie, S.B., & Bommer, W.H. (1996). Meta-analysis of the relationship between Kerr and Jermiers substitutes for leadership and employee job attitudes, role perceptions, and performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81, 380399. Podsakoff, P.M., MacKenzie, S.B., Paine, J.B., & Bachrach, D.G. (2000). Organizational citizenship behavior: A critical review of the

theoretical and empirical literature and suggestions for future research. Journal of Management, 26, 513563. Rioux, S.M., & Penner, L.A. (2001). The causes of organizational citizenship behavior: A motivational analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86, 13061314. Skarlicki, D.P., & Latham, G.P. (1996). Increasing citizenship behavior within a public sector union: A test of organizational justice theory. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81, 161-169. Skarlicki, D.P., & Latham, G.P. (1997). Leadership training in organizational justice to increase citizenship behavior within a labor union: A replication. Personnel Psychology, 50, 617634. Smith, C.A., Organ, D.W., & Near, J.P. (1983). Organizational citizenship behavior: Its nature and antecedents. Journal of Applied Psychology, 68, 653663. Snyder, M. (1993). Basic research and practice problems: The promise of a functional personality and social psychology. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 19, 251264. Turnipseed, D.L., & Murkison, E. (2000). A bicultural comparison of organizational citizenship behavior: Does the OCB phenomenon transcend national culture? The International Journal of Organizational Analysis, 8, 200 222. Van Dyne, L.V., Graham, J.M., & Dienesch, R.M. (1994). Organizational citizenship behavior: Construct redefinition, measurement and validation. Academy of Management Journal, 37, 765802. Werner, J.M. (1994). Dimensions that make a difference: Examining the impact of in-role and extra-role behaviors on supervisory ratings. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79, 98107. Zellars, K.L., & Tepper, B.J. (2003). Beyond social exchange: New directions for organizational citizenship theory and research. Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management, 22, 395424.

Authors note: This paper is based on material presented in Borman (2004), Hanson & Borman (2006), and Penney & Borman (2005).

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Studii i Cercetri

Trust and team coordination in critical situations

1

Adrian H. Pitariu University of Toronto, Canada

Abstract In this paper I explore the process of team coordination. I propose a model by which team coordination emerges as a function of team mental models and team trust. Furthermore, I introduce a hierarchical approach to team mental models, and propose a framework that provides a better understanding of team processes and opens new avenues of research in the area of team cognition. I conclude with implications for future research and practice. Key words: team processes, team mental models, trust, coordination.

Rezumat Acest studiu exploreaz procesul coordonrii echipelor. Se propune un model pe baza cruia coordonarea echipelor emerge ca o funcie a modelelor mentale ale echipei i ale ncrederii n echip. De asemenea, se introduce o abordare ierarhic a modelelor mentale ale echipei i se propune un cadru care furnizeaz o mai bun nelegere a proceselor din cadrul echipei i care deschide noi direcii de cercetare n domeniul cogniiei n echipe. n concluzie, articolul prezint implicaii pentru cercetrile viitoare i pentru practic. Cuvinte cheie: procese de echip, modele mentale ale echipei, ncredere, coordonare.

Introduction

Teams are in these days becoming a fundamental component of most organizations due to their increased flexibility, capacity to adapt under pressure, and ability to provide a quick and flexible response to external demands (Kozlowski & Bell, 2003). Consequently, over the past three decades researchers have dedicated increasingly more time and effort to understanding teams and developing models of team effectiveness (e.g. McGrath, 1964; Hackman, 1983; Guzzo, 1984; Gladstein, 1984). Most of these models have a common trait in relying on an input-processoutput (I-P-O) framework proposed by McGrath (1964). A particular type of team that plays a significant role in our lives is referred to by the literature as the action team (Sundstrom et al, 1990). Sundstrom and his colleagues describe
1

Adresa de coresponden: adrian.pitariu@utoronto.ca

action and performing teams as being composed of members with highly specialized roles, who cooperate for brief periods of time, in order to complete a task that requires a close synchronization of individual team members actions. Examples of such teams are flight crews, firefighters, emergency/rescue teams, military units and surgical teams. For these teams, working conditions such as task interdependence, time pressure and operating in a high risk environment make it imperative that team members interact and coordinate their actions effectively in order to avoid a potentially disastrous outcome. While most models of team effectiveness acknowledge, either directly or indirectly, team coordination as being a key process for team effectiveness, the literature, however, lacks in empirical data regarding coordination mechanisms and factors that affect this particular team process (Kozlowski & Bell, 2003). One concept that emerged from the cognitive psychology literature (Rouse & Morris, 1986) and that is often times linked to

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coordination, is the team mental model or shared mental model construct (Klimoski & Mohammed, 1994; Cannon-Bowers & Salas, 1992). Due to the equivalence of the two terms I will use in this paper team and shared mental models alternately. While current research findings do provide empirical evidence for the importance of shared mental models to team coordination (e.g. Marks et al, 2002), there is still much unexplained variance, leaving open the question regarding types of coordination mechanisms affected as well as conditions that facilitate or obstruct coordination behaviors and team performance. The way Simons and Peterson (2000) defined trust suggests that team trust could be a part of a team mental model, or even a team mental model per se, which will affect a teams processes and performance. Team or intragroup trust refers to trust among team members, which, at the group level, has been described by Simons and Peterson (2000) as a generalized expectation among group members with regard to their benevolence, honesty and competence. The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of team trust on coordination processes. By this means I seek to establish a stronger link between team mental models and team coordination and, thereby look at team level conditions that may increase a teams overall performance. Team coordination and Team Mental Models Coordination is a central concept to the functioning of any organization (Van de Ven, Delbecq & Koenig, 1976). Malone & Crowston (1991) define coordination as managing interdependencies between activities. While good coordination is said to almost never be noticed in day-to-day life, the contrary is true about poor coordination, which has notable and unwanted effects most of the time, state the same authors. Team coordination is critical to team effectiveness especially when the teams are engaged in interdependent tasks (Kozlowski & Bell, 2003). Task interdependence refers to the extent to which a team members performance is dependent upon anothers performance (van de Ven et al, 1976). With regard to coordination taxonomies there are two main streams. According to Zalesny et al (1995) coordination has four components: coordination of goals, activities/tasks, actors/team members, and of

interdependencies. Goal coordination refers to the process of selection between a number of possible goals through processes such as decision making and communication. Activities or task coordination is about mapping goals to activities/tasks, which is done through task analysis and strategy development. Team member coordination involves the process of mapping activities to actors or task assignment. Lastly, coordination of interdependencies refers to the management of all possible interdependencies in a team, such as resource allocation, sequencing and synchronizing. While the previous model takes a functional perspective on coordination, the literature also describes a more formal model which consists of two components: explicit coordination and implicit coordination (Entin & Serfaty, 1999). Explicit coordination is related to existing work organization/procedures and explicit communication. Implicit coordination is a form argued to rely on the existence of shared mental models among team members regarding task and team work (CannonBowers & Salas, 1992). For the purpose of the current investigation I will only look at implicit coordination processes. Although direct and indirect empirical evidence of the effect of team coordination on team effectiveness is abundant in the literature (e.g. Brannick et al, 1993; Dirks, 1999; Marks et al, 2002; Marks & Panzer, 2004), the effect sizes vary considerably. The differences in results may be due to differences in measures employed (e.g. expert raters assessing teams on behaviorally anchored rating scales versus self-administered questionnaires, or specific coordination processes vs. global measures). Another explanation for the differences in team effectiveness variance explained by coordination may be due to the fact that most studies do not clearly distinguish between implicit and explicit coordination. For example, Marks et al (2002) test a model in which shared mental models are an antecedent of coordination. However, when measuring coordination, they rely on expert raters assessing observable behavior, which is evidence of explicit coordination. Implicit coordination is a form of coordination without overt communication, and relying on shared mental models. Mental models are defined as knowledge organized in structured, meaningful patterns that are stored in memory and allow individuals to understand the environment, make inferences,

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predictions and take appropriate action (Rouse & Morris, 1986; Johnson-Laird, 1983). Shared mental models are characterized as structured information patterns that are stored in the memory and which provide a set of organized mutual expectations to team members (Klimoski & Mohammed, 1994). CannonBowers and colleagues (1993) describe in detail how mental models can relate to team processes such as communication, coordination and compensatory behavior, which in turn have an influence on team effectiveness. They also bring into discussion the issue of multiple mental models that can exist at the same time and they describe four distinct categories: equipment model, task model, team interaction model, and team model. Furthermore, these metal models can be envisaged as models relative to the task and models relative to the team (Mathieu et al, 2000). It is the latter category that is of interest for this paper. Team interaction models can be described in terms of knowledge content as models about roles/responsibilities, information sources, interaction patterns, communication channels and role interdependencies. While team interaction models are procedural in nature, team models contain knowledge about teammates knowledge, skills, abilities, preferences and tendencies (Cannon-Bowers et al, 1993). A clear distinction between the two types of models can be seen here in that team interaction models have unique object which is the team as a whole, whereas in team models each team member can be identified as a subunit of the team and thus the team models is a summation of those subunits. Empirical evidence of the differential effects of these different types of mental models on coordination is limited. For example, Stout et al (1999) found that the existence of a shared mental model about information sources and interaction strategies resulted in improved coordinated team performance. Another recent study (Mathieu et al, 2000), while relying on the mental model types proposed by Cannon-Bowers and her colleagues, argue that the operationalization of four different types of mental models becomes unwieldy in a single study and end up using a task versus team mental model paradigm. Their study however makes an important point in proving that team mental models are an important contributor to team coordination. Consistent with these findings I propose the following:

Proposition 1a: The presence of mental models about the team members will have a positive effect on implicit team coordination. Proposition 1b: The presence of mental models about team interaction will have a positive effect on implicit team coordination. Theoretical models about team/group effectiveness relying on the input-processoutput framework (McGrath, 1964; Hackman, 1983; Gladstein, 1984) consider team member characteristics, such as KSAs, attitudes, personality, and motivation, as input variables and communication, interaction, decision making and conflict resolution as group processes and task characteristics as moderators of the effect of processes on team effectiveness. Obviously, in this case, we can treat variables that are in the input category as antecedents of group processes. We could think in an analogous way about shared mental models. Since in this case I am only looking at mental models about the teamwork, let us consider the case of team models and team interaction models. As I mentioned earlier, according to Cannon-Bowers et al (1993) team interaction or teamwork models are models about roles/responsibilities, information sources, interaction patterns, communication channels and role interdependencies. These are the models that will enable teams to perceive, interpret and respond to dynamic environments in a synchronized, adaptive fashion (Salas et al 2004) based on a common/compatible framework about teamwork. Based on the I-P-O framework as well as previous empirical data there are a number of factors that will facilitate the development of teamwork models. Rentsch and Klimoski (2001) provide evidence for team member schema agreement being a mediator between team composition, membership acquisition mode and size, and team effectiveness. In another study Stout et al (1999) found evidence that activity planning facilitated the development of teamwork models. Furthermore, Marks et al (2002) showed that cross-training had a significant positive effect on shared mental models. In line with these arguments I propose that: Proposition 2: Teamwork mental models will mediate the relationship between team mental models and team effectiveness.

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Team Trust and Team Coordination Trust is a central concept in social life in general and organizational behavior in particular. The construct of trust has been widely researched thus far and its beneficial effect on individual behavior, interpersonal relations as well as team and organizational level outcomes has been established by a number of researchers (e.g. Dirks & Ferrin, 2001, 2002; Simons & Peterson, 2000). Trust develops through repeated social interaction. Trustworthiness of a trustee is the result of a trustors perceptions of the trustee as being competent, acting benevolently and possessing integrity (Meyer, Davis & Schoorman, 1995). Also, Deutsch (1958) included a motivational component in his definition of trust, and described trust as the expectation that the occurrence of an event will lead to behavior which the individual perceives to have greater negative motivational consequences if the expectation is not confirmed than positive motivational consequences if it is confirmed. The classic example in this case is that of the babysitter, i.e. parents trust a babysitter with their child while they are enjoying a movie, expecting that nothing bad will happen. In this case the positive outcomes (spending an enjoyable evening) are by far outweighed by the potential negative consequences of the babysitter betraying the parents trust and consequently something bad happening to the baby. At the team level, trust has been described as an attitude or generalized expectation towards the collective shared by the group members (Simons & Petersen, 2000; Korsgaard, Sapienza & Brodt, 2003). For example, in the case of firefighters, during the process of extinguishing a fire each individual trusts the rest of the team to act in a synchronized manner such that his life will not be endangered. While the confirmation of this expectation will lead to the positive outcome of the firefighter and his team successfully completing another mission, the potential downside, if this expectation is not confirmed, could be of catastrophic consequences. Based on the definitions of Deutsch (1958), Meyer, Davis and Schoorman (1995), and Simons and Petersen (2000), I define trust as ones willingness to rely on the teams actions in a situation involving high risk and vulnerability, based on a set of positive expectations with regard to the teams actions.

Dirks & Ferrin (2001) find that the direct effects of trust on workplace behaviors and performance outcomes are quite inconsistent throughout the literature and that just like other positive attitudes such as satisfaction and commitment the general thesis that a positive attitude will lead to greater performance is not supported by empirical data. Consequently they propose an alternative approach to trust research, where trust serves as a moderator for the effects of other work performance determinants. This approach relies on two assumptions: one is that trust affects an actors assessment of another partys behavior with whom the actor is in an interdependent relationship, and the second is that trust affects an actors interpretations of the other partys behaviors. If we put these statements in the context of mental models the moderation proposition of Dirks & Ferrin (2001) could be restated. Since teamwork or team interaction mental models deal with perception and interpretation of environmental and team specific cues (Salas et al 2004) a logical conclusion is that these mental models will be affected by trust. According to Cummings and Bromiley (1996) collective trust is "a common belief among a group of individuals that another individual or group a) makes good-faith efforts to behave in accordance with any commitments both explicit or implicit, (b) is honest in whatever negotiations preceded such commitments, and (c) does not take excessive advantage of another even when the opportunity is available." Along the same line of thinking Meyer, Davis and Schoorman (1995) specify trust as being a consequence of the trustors attributions of ability, benevolence and integrity towards the trustee. Thus, in order for an actor (team member) to trust another party (team/teammate), the actor must rely on a set of existing information patterns about that other party, such as knowledge about skills, abilities, preferences and tendencies. This information is exactly what Cannon-Bowers et al (1993) described as team models, which will vary as a function of the individuals who comprise the team. As I proposed earlier team models are an antecedent of team interaction mental models, being that different perceptions about individual team members will lead to specific expectations about team behavior that is appropriate or effective in certain situations and the amount of risk that one can assume in his own actions. However, since the

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knowledge/information encrypted in these team models has been identified as typical antecedent of trust (Meyer et al, 1995) the main effect of this information is trust development. Trust, in this case, is an attitude towards the team and will act as a driver for the generation/production of team interaction

models (see Figure 1). Considering these facts, I propose the following relationship: Proposition 3: Team trust will mediate the relationship between mental models regarding the members of the team and mental models about teamwork.

Team Mental Model

Team Coordination

Team Trust

Teamwork Mental Model

Figure 1. Overall model

Implications and Future Directions The main focus of this paper is to provide a better understanding of the process of team coordination and its antecedents. In explaining team coordination I take a shared mental model approach, which is not new, since mental models have been proven to be antecedents of team coordination (Marks et al, 2002). The novelty in this approach, however, is in looking at the possibility of the different types of mental models interacting with each other and further influencing team level processes. Because, up to this point, research involving shared mental models has focused on proving that shared mental models are an important antecedent of team processes, little attention has been given to differentiating between the different types of mental models as they were described by Cannon-Bowers, Salas and Converse (1993). One of the expressed reasons for doing so was the difficulty to operationalize different mental models in one study (Mathieu et al, 2000). Furthermore, even when empirical evidence for such distinction was found, the proposed theoretical models were tested under the assumption that the different mental models were independent from each other. By relaxing this assumption and entering trust as a mediating variable, I am introducing the possibility of dependence between shared

mental models. Thus I am providing an alternative way of thinking about the role of shared mental models and their interplay in team processes. From a practical perspective this approach suggests a prioritization in the team training sequence, such that training focusing on knowledge of team members strengths and weaknesses (e.g. team-building interventions) precedes training on procedures. Furthermore team member selection and placement must be made with a careful consideration of the balance of KSAs in the team in order to maximize team potential. In sum, by introducing a hierarchical approach to shared mental models within teams, the proposed framework provides a better understanding of team processes and opens new avenues of research in the area of team cognition. References
Brannick, M.T., Roach, R.M., & Salas, E. (1993). Understanding team performance: A multimethod study. Human Performance, 6, 287-308. Cannon-Bowers, J.A., Salas, E., & Converse, S.A. (1993). Shared mental models in expert team decision making. In N. J. Castellan Jr. (Ed.), Current issues in individual and group decision making (pp. 221246). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

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Cummings, L.L., & Bromiley, P. (1996). The Organizational Trust Inventory (OTI): Development and Validation. In R.N. Kramer and T.R. Tyler (Eds.), Trust in Organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Deutsch, M. (1958). Trust and suspicion. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 2, 265-297. Dirks, K.T. (1999). The effects of interpersonal trust on work group performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 84, 445-455. Dirks, K.T., & Ferrin, D.L. (2001). The role of trust in organizational settings. Organization Science, 12, 450-467. Dirks, K.T., & Ferrin, D.L. (2002). Trust in leadership: Meta-analytic findings and implications for research and practice. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 611-628. Entin, E.E., & Serfaty, D, (1999). Adaptive team coordination. Human factors, 41, 312-325. Gladstein, D. (1984). A model of task group effectiveness. Administrative Science Quarterly, 29, 499-517. Guzzo, R.A. (1986). Group decision making and group effectiveness in organizations. In P.S. Goodman (Ed.), Designing effective work groups. (pp.34-71). San Francisco: JosseyBass. Hackman, J.R. (1983). A normative model of work team effectiveness. (Technical Repost No. 2). Research program on group effectiveness. New Haven, CT: Yale School of Organization and Management. Johnson-Laird, P.N. (1983). Mental models: Towards a cognitive science of language, inference and consciousness. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Klimoski, R.J., & Mohammed, S. (1994). Team mental model: Construct or metaphor? Journal of Management, 20, 403-437. Korsgaard, M.A., Brodt. S.E., & Sapienza, H.J. (2003). Trust, identity and attachment: Promoting individuals cooperation in groups In M. West, D. Tjosvold, and K. Smith (Eds.). International handbook of organizational teamwork and cooperative working (pp. 113130). West Sussex, UK: John Wiley & Sons. Kozlowski, S.W.J., & Bell, B.S. (2003). Work groups and teams in organizations. In W.C. Borman, D.R. Ilgen, R.J. Klimoski (Eds.), Handbook of Psychology (vol.12): Industrial and Organizational Psychology (pp. 333-375). New York: Wiley. Malone, T., & Crowston, K. (1994). The interdisciplinary study of coordination. ACM Computing Surveys, 26, 87-119. Marks, M.A., & Panzer, F.J. (2004). The influence of team monitoring on team processes and

performance. Human Performance, 17, 2541. Marks, M.A., Sabella, M.J., Burke, C.S., & Zaccaro, S.J. (2002). The impact of cross-training on team effectiveness. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 3-13. Mathieu, J.E., Goodwin, G.F., Heffner, T.S., Salas, E., & Cannon-Bowers, J.A. (2000). The influence of shared mental models on team process and performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85, 273-283. Mayer, R.C., Davis, J.H., & Schoorman, F.D. (1995). An integrative model of organizational trust. Academy of Management Review, 20, 709-734. McGrath, J.E. (1964). Social psychology: A brief introduction. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston. Rentsch, J.R., & Klimoski, R.J. (2001). Why do 'great minds' think alike?: antecedents of team member schema agreement. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 22, 107-120. Rouse, W.B., & Morris, N.M. (1986). On looking into the black box: Prospects and limits in the search for mental models. Psychological Bulletin, 100, 349-363. Salas, E., Stagl, K.C., & Burke, C.S. (2004). 25 years of team effectiveness in organizations: Research themes and emerging needs. In C.L. Cooper, I.T. Robertson (Eds.), International Review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology (Vol.19, pp. 47-..). New York: John Wiley & Sons. Simons, T.L., & Peterson, R.S. (2000). Task conflict and relationship conflict in top management teams: The pivotal role of intragroup trust. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85, 102-111. Stout, R. J., Cannon-Bowers, J. A., Salas, E., & Milanovich, D. M. (1999). Planning, shared mental models, and coordinated performance: An empirical link is established. Human Factors, 41, 6171. Sundstrom, E., DeMeuse, K.P., & Futrell, D. (1990). Work teams: Applications and effectiveness. American Psychologist, 45, 120-133. Van De Ven, A.H., Delbecq, A/L., & Koenig, R. (1976). Determinants of coordination modes within organizations. American Sociological Review, 41, 32-338. Zalesny, M.D., Salas, E., & Prince, C. (1995). Conceptual and measurement issues in coordination: Implications for team behavior and performance. In G.R. Ferris (Ed.), Research in personnel and human resources management (Vol. 13, pp. 81-115). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.

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Stress Management in Organizations

1

Roxana Capotescu Babe-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca

Abstract Employee stress has increasingly become a concern for many organizations. Although it is not possible to eliminate stress entirely, people can learn to manage it. Many organizations have adopted occupational stress management programs to try and reduce the stress levels of their workforce. The high cost of work stress related problems highlights the need to spend more time evaluating work stress interventions and publishing the findings so that other organizations can gain insight into programs of merit. This article explore the three major approaches in stress management primary, secondary and tertiary prevention and outline the importance of an evidence-based approach to stress management interventions. It is argued that an evidencebased approach will lead to advances in intervention practices. We also outline recommendations regarding planning and interpreting occupational stress management research in order to improve stress management interventions. Key words: occupational stress, primary prevention, secondary prevention, tertiary prevention, evidence-based interventions.

Rezumat n prezent stresul ocupaional a devenit o preocupare pentru tot mai multe organizaii. Dei stresul nu poate fi eliminat n totalitate, oamenii pot nva s l gestioneze. Numeroase organizaii au adoptat programe viznd managementul stresului ocupaional, n ncercarea de a reduce nivelul de stres al angajailor. Costurile crescute generate de problemele relaionate cu stresul ocupaional evideniaz nevoia de a acorda o atenie crescut evalurii interveniilor de management al stresului n organizaii i publicrii rezultatelor pentru a oferi o imagine asupra meritului acestor programe. Acest articol exploreaz cele trei abordri majore n managementul stresului prevenia primar, secundar i teriar i susine importana unei abordri fundamentate empiric n domeniul managementului stresului. Sunt aduse argumente n sprijinul ideii c o abordare fundamentat empiric va conduce la mbuntirea practicii n domeniu. Sunt oferite de asemenea recomandri utile n planificarea i interpretarea cercetrilor din domeniul managementului stresului, n vederea mbuntirii interveniilor de management al stresului. Cuvinte cheie: stres ocupaional, prevenie primar, prevenie secundar, prevenie teriar, intervenii fundamentate empiric

Introduction

Organizations provide a major portion of the total stress experienced by a person as a result of the amount of time spent on the job, the demands for performance, and the interaction with others in the workplace. Stress at work is claimed to have increased in most of the developed and developing world. The drive toward manpower
Adresa de coresponden: capotescu_roxana@yahoo.com
1

cost-cutting has led to fewer people doing more work and feeling more insecure in their jobs. The rapid expansion of information technology through the Internet has meant the added burden of information overload, the accelerating pace of work, and demands for immediacy of response in 7 day24 hour work cultures (Kenny & Cooper, 2003). Hours of work have also increased in many countries, which has had adverse effects on the work-life balance of the employees. Stress and health have become important topics in modern society. According

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to research cited by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), 40% of employees believe their jobs are very or extremely stressful and at least 26% of employees feel burned out at work (Grawitch, Trares, & Kohler, 2007). The American Psychological Association (APA) reports that job stress costs U.S. companies about $300 billion a year in absenteeism, productivity loss, turnover, and health care costs (Grawitch, Trares, & Kohler, 2007). In light of such statistics, it is not surprising that companies have begun to focus more and more on developing workplace preventive programs that target the physical and mental health of their employees. Although stress is somewhat stigmatized, people find it easier to talk about stress than psychological issues or mental health. Employers and employees generally view stress as related in some way both to work and to non-work life. The question What stress do you experience? is meaningful and relevant for adults in every demographic and occupational category. Given an appropriate setting, many if not most adults are interested in considering whether their stress situation could be improved (Martin, 1992). Stress prevention in organizational context Although it is not possible to eliminate stress entirely, people can learn to manage it. Many organizations have adopted stress management training programs to try and reduce the stress levels of their workforce. Preventive stress management helps one convert stress from a threat into an opportunity for health and achievement. The knowledge and understanding of the physiological and psychological elements of stress have been advanced dramatically over the past 40 years. The field of stress is still an active and fertile one, and the concerns centered on preventive stress management in organizations are also active (Quick, Quick, Nelson, & Hurrell,1997). Therefore, the questions for those in the field are as follows: Where do we go from here? How do we turn a potential threat into an opportunity? We believe there is an active agenda for at least seven constituencies concerned with stress in organizations. These constituencies include: scientists and researchers, executives and leaders, educators and trainers, physicians,

psychologists, employees, and public health officials. Prevention is always the best public health strategy for any disease epidemic. Quick, Quick, Nelson, and Hurrell (1997) have translated and applied the public health notions of prevention to organizational stress, framing the theory of preventive stress management. If job stress has become an epidemic in America and other industrialized nations, then prevention holds the best hope for addressing this epidemic. Using the public health and preventive medicine model, Quick and colleagues (1997) classified prevention strategies into primary, secondary, and tertiary. Primary prevention aims to modify and manage the demands of the work environment. Secondary prevention aims to modify and manage the individual's response to these demands. Tertiary prevention aims to help and provide aid to those in frank distress. Scientific inquiry into stress has been inhibited by the lack of a clear, generally accepted definition of what we mean by stress. Fortunately, there is at least modest agreement that stress involves a combination of one or more of the following: an environmental stimulus, or stressor, often described as a force applied to the individual; an individual's psychological or physical response to such forces; or, the interaction between these two (Jex, Beehr & Roberts, & 1992; Schonfeld, Rhee, & Xia, 1995; Le Blanc, Jonge, & Schaufeli, 2000). The existing research on stress has focused on the physiological, psychological, or behavioral outcomes resulting from exposure to stressors that are appraised as aversive or unpleasant (Capotescu, 2006). Much of this research is, in turn, devoted to the ways in which individuals cope with these stressful experiences (Lazarus, DeLongis, Folkman, & Gruen, 1985). In addition, there has been an interest in preventive actions designed either to reduce the presence of stressors or neutralize their stress-producing potential (Ivancevich, Matteson, Freedman, & Philips, 1990). Our understanding of occupational stress has been shaped and changed by the powerful political, cultural, social, and economic forces in which work occurs and in which people respond to their work experiences. Our way of constructing occupational stress has a direct influence on how it is managed. The two competing constructions of occupational stress as either a personal trouble related to personality

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characteristics or a public concern related primarily to work characteristics and the epidemiology of occupational health underpin very different stress management interventions in occupational settings (Kenny & Cooper, 2003). These observations provide a strong mandate for conducting research into the factors that precipitate occupational stress and to identify effective interventions that can be implemented to treat, manage, and, we hope, prevent the occurrence of this phenomenon. Types of occupational stress management interventions Occupational stress management interventions have been defined as any activity, program, or opportunity initiated by an organization, which focuses on reducing the presence of work-related stressors or on assisting individuals to minimize the negative outcomes of exposure to these stressors (Briner, 1997). The general aims of occupational stress management interventions are: to reduce the presence of work-related stressors, to assist individuals to minimize the negative outcomes of exposure to these stressors, and, from an organizations point of view, to improve the levels of those phenomena which are assumed to be caused by stress, including absence, turnover and lowered performance and motivation. Before discussing in detail some of the ways in which stress management interventions can be made more valid, the characteristics of the three types of management interventions will be considered. Interventions in occupational stress management are typically classified into primary, secondary, or tertiary approaches. Primary approaches include strategies that aim to prevent the occurrence of work stress, secondary approaches are activities designed to change an individuals reaction to stressors (e.g., by means of relaxation training and team building), and tertiary approaches are those that are used to treat the symptoms of stress and strain after they have been identified (Caulfield, Chang, Dollard, and Elshaug, 2004). Preventive intervention is, in fact, an integrated set of three levels of action. Primary prevention is concerned with taking action to modify or eliminate sources of stress inherent in the work environment and thus reduce their negative impact on the individual. The "interactionist" approach to

stress depicts stress as the consequences of the "lack of fit" between the needs and demands of the individual and his/her environment (French, Caplan, & Harrison, 1982, in Le Blanc, de Jonge & Schaufeli, 2000). The focus of primary interventions is in adapting the environment to "fit" the individual. Elkin and Rosch (in Cooper & Cartwright, 2001) summarize a useful range of possible strategies to reduce workplace stressors: Redesign the task. Redesign the work environment. Establish flexible work schedules. Encourage participative management. Include the employee in career development. Analyze work roles and establish goals. Provide social support and feedback. Build cohesive teams. Establish fair employment policies. Share the rewards. It must be noted that primary prevention efforts at work, in the form of job or task redesign or modifications of organizational structure or function, can themselves create stress in workers. This can occur for two reasons: (a) change of any kind, even positive change, produces new demands that require adaptation on the part of the worker and (b) changes made at one level in the organization often have unintended and negative consequences at other levels (Quick, Murphy, Hurrell, & Orman, 1992). Primary prevention is the preferred point of action. Elimination or amelioration of the occupational mental health risk minimizes the need for using either secondary or tertiary prevention, although both must be available. In organizational settings, secondary prevention plays a role in easing the adjunctive stress effects of primary prevention efforts. There are individuals who will exhibit some early warning signs of distress as well as unique stress responses regardless of how aggressively primary prevention is pursued. Secondary prevention is essentially concerned with the prompt detection and management of experienced stress by increasing awareness and improving the stress management skills of the individual through training and educational activities (Cooper & Cartwright, 1997). It is particularly useful in helping individuals deal with stressors inherent in the work environment that cannot be changed and have to be "lived with" like, for

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example, job insecurity or non-work related aspects of life. Individual factors can alter or modify the way employees exposed to workplace stressors perceive and react to this environment. Some key factors or "moderator" variables that influence an individual's vulnerability to stress include their personality (Bruck & Allen, 2003; Contrada, 1989; Daniels & Guppy, 1997) , their coping strategies (Krajewski & Goffin, 2006), age (Gross, Carstensen, Tsai, Skorpen & Hsu, 1997), gender (Long, Kahn & Schultz, 1992 ; Long & Schultz, 1995 ; Shaffer, Bell, Joplin, Lau & Oguz, 2000 ; Portello & Long, 2001 ; Eddleston, Veiga & Powell, 2006), attitudes (Atella, 1999; Best, Stapleton & Downey, 2005; Cassidy & OConnor, 2004; Peake & Harris, 2002) and the degree of social support available from family, friends, and work colleagues (Aryee, Luk, Leung, & Lo, 1999; Hochwarter, Witt, Treadway & Ferris, 2006; Hudek-Knezevic & Kardum, 2000). Secondary prevention can focus on developing self-awareness and providing individuals with a number of basic relaxation techniques. Health promotion activities and lifestyle modification programs also fall into the category of secondary level interventions. Stress education and stress management training serve a useful function in helping individuals to recognize the symptoms of stress, and to overcome much of the negativity and stigma still associated with the stress label. Awareness activities and skills training programs designed to improve relaxation techniques, cognitive coping skills, and work/lifestyle modification skills (e.g., time management courses or assertiveness training) have an important part to play in extending the individual's physical and psychological resources (Cooper & Cartwright, 1997). Tertiary prevention is concerned with the treatment, rehabilitation, and recovery process of those individuals who have suffered or are suffering from serious health related problems as a result of stress. Even in circumstances in which the adverse effects of occupational mental health risks are minimized and individuals awareness levels as well as strengths are enhanced, unanticipated crises occur or peculiar individual vulnerabilities are exploited by environmental events. Hence, mental health practitioners and stress experts must be prepared to heal those in distress through a range of treatment and therapeutic

interventions. The implementation of comprehensive systems and procedures to facilitate and monitor the rehabilitation and return to work of employees who have suffered a stress-related illness is another aspect of tertiary prevention. Tertiary prevention programs, usually in the form of an employee assistance program (EAP), traditionally have offered counseling for alcohol related and personal problems, but in the 1980s they became broader and expanded their programs to include stress-management programs. However, these EAP-based stress management programs typically do not seek to identify organization-centered problems, in part because EAP counselors lack training in organizational behavior and occupational stress. Rather, EAP-based programs offer counseling techniques used in community programs that emphasize personal or individual solutions to stress reduction (Quick, Murphy, Hurrell, & Orman, 1992). In practice, tertiary prevention programs in the workplace are far more common than primary prevention programs, with secondary prevention programs intermediate in frequency (Reynolds, 1997; Cooper & Cartwright, 2001; Cartwright & Cooper, 1996). Organizations tend to prefer to introduce secondary and tertiary level interventions for several reasons: (i) There is relatively more published data available on the cost benefit analysis of such programs, particularly EAPs; (ii) Those traditionally responsible for initiating interventions, that is, the counselors, physicians, and clinicians responsible for health care, feel more comfortable with changing individuals than changing organizations; (iii) It is considered easier and less disruptive to business to change the individual than to embark on any extensive and potentially expensive organizational development program, the outcome of which may be uncertain; (iv) They present a high profile means by which organizations can "be seen to be doing something about stress" and taking reasonable precautions to safeguard employee health (Cooper & Cartwright, 2001). Towards an evidence based approach of occupational stress management interventions A number of theories have been developed to conceptualize the problem of occupational stress and to explain and predict

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when work stress will occur. Depending on the emphasis of the theory, different implications for interventions result. Some of these theories concentrate on the stressors within the work environment (e.g., the demandcontrol/support model; Theorell & Karasek, 1996), some focus on the mismatch between organizational requirements and rewards (e.g., the effort reward imbalance model; Siegrist, 1996), some have a greater focus on the resources available to employees to cope with demands (e.g., the conservation-of-resources model; Hobfoll, 1989; Hobfoll & Spielberger, 1992; Best, Stapleton & Downey, 2005; Hall, Royle, Brymer, Perrewe, Ferris, & Hochwarter, 2006), and others focus on appraisal and coping to explain individual differences in reactions to stress at work (e.g., cognitive theory; Lazarus, DeLongis, Folkman & Gruen, 1985; Folkman, Lazarus, Dunkel-Schetter, DeLongis, & Gruen, 1986). The above theories and conceptualizations provide a complex macroframework for delineating the phenomenon that is occupational stress. However, there is a considerable gap between postulating a descriptive theory and building a credible case for the allocation of resources to address stress in the workplace. As the type of action required by an organization will vary according to the kinds of stressors operating, any intervention needs to be guided by some prior diagnosis or stress audit or risk assessment to identify the organizational-, site-, or departmental-specific stressors responsible for employee stress (Capotescu, 2007). As the push for evidence-based practice becomes stronger, there is a need for research to converge on evidence-based solutions to the strain experienced in the world of work. To establish a clear mandate for action, there is a need to identify not only the factors that affect occupational stress but also the effectiveness of specific interventions through empirical research (Caulfield, Chang, Dollard, and Elshaug, 2004). According to Briner (1997), by evidence-based we mean that the nature of causal relationships between the phenomena of interest are first established. The central premise of work on organizational stress is that there are causal links between work conditions and employee well-being. An evidence-based approach would in each case examine the nature and truth of such a premise by first conducting a thorough research.

Recent research has focused on stress management interventions. Nicholson, Duncan, Hawkis, Belcastro and Gold (1988) described and summarized the methods and results of 62 published reports on stress management programs from numerous fields. Programs crossed all levels of prevention, and most often took place in university, medical, or worksite settings. A meta-analysis of the quantitative results of a sample of these studies yielded mildly encouraging results. A meta-analysis conducted by Richardson and Rothstein (2008) to determine the effectiveness of stress management interventions in occupational settings suggested that intervention type played a moderating role. Cognitive behavioral programs consistently produced larger effects than other types of interventions, but if additional treatment components were added the effect was reduced. Within a sample of 55 studies, relaxation interventions were most frequently used, and organizational interventions continued to be scarce. Effects were based mainly on psychological outcome variables, as opposed to physiological or organizational measures. The examination of additional moderators such as treatment length, outcome variable, and occupation did not reveal significant variations in effect size by intervention type. Generally, evidence as to the success of stress management interventions is confusing and imprecise (Bunce & Stephenson, 2000), which possibly reflects the idiosyncratic nature of the form and content of this kind of training. Overall, evidence as to the success of interventions which focus at the individual level in isolation suggests that such interventions can make a difference in temporarily reducing experienced stress (Cooper & Cartwright, 1997). Work-directed interventions showed the most consistent effects on job stress (Taris, Kompier, Geurts, Schreurs, Schaufeli, de Boer, Sepmeijer, & Watterz , 2003). Some recent studies that have evaluated the outcome of stress management interventions have found a modest improvement in self-reported symptoms and psychological indices of strain, but little or no change in job satisfaction and motivation (Bond & Bunce, 2000). Saunders, Driskell, Johnston, & Salas (1996) conducted a metaanalysis to determine the overall effectiveness of stress inoculation training in workplace settings and to identify conditions that may

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moderate the effectiveness of this approach. The analysis was based on a total of 37 studies with 70 separate hypothesis tests, representing the behavior of 1,837 participants. Results indicated that stress inoculation training was an effective means for reducing performance anxiety, reducing state anxiety, and enhancing performance under stress. Furthermore, the examination of moderators such as the experience of the trainer, the type of setting in which training was implemented, and the type of trainee population revealed no significant limitations on the application of stress inoculation training to applied training environments. Evidence as to the success of interventions which focus at the individual level in isolation suggests that such interventions can make a difference in temporarily reducing experienced stress. In a study conducted by Reynolds (1997), an individual-level intervention was compared with an organizational-level intervention aimed at increasing employees' participation and control. The individually oriented intervention proved clearly superior. Caulfield, Chang, Dollard and Elshaug (2004) investigated empirical research into occupational stress interventions conducted in Australia within the past 10 years. Most interventions were individually focused, despite the preponderance of research identifying risky work environment stressors. Results suggest a paucity of published information regarding what works with occupational stress interventions in Australia and an urgent need for further research in the area, particularly focusing on the private sector, rural workers, and scientific evaluation. While it is important to develop workplace practices that promote positive health outcomes and remediate negative stress and health outcomes, it is also important that organizations focus on the needs of employees in developing such programs (Munz & Kohler, 1997). Employees in organizations do not all have the same values, expectations of work, backgrounds, and family arrangements. If programs do not align with the needs of employees, then it would be expected that employees would not use them, thus reducing the positive benefits of such programs (Grawitch, Gottschalk, & Munz, 2006). Therefore, it is important to assess not only actual practices, but also the extent to which employees value and are satisfied with those practices.

An evidence-based approach would also include treating the stress claims made by organizations with caution. Stress is often treated as though it is a purely scientific phenomenon, somehow immune from cultural and social influence. The reason employees make complaints about stress may often be highly symbolic (ex. in response to feeling undervalued or politically powerless). Concluding remarks and future directions Generally, evidence as to the success of stress management interventions is confusing and imprecise, which possibly reflects the idiosyncratic nature of the form and content of this kind of interventions. The level of research activity in the area of occupational stress and stress prevention varies considerably from country to country, as does the level of organizational activity. Organizational intervention studies have reported several problems in acquiring controlled evidence on the effects of the actions. Flexibility of modern organizations rapidly destroys experimental conditions and weakens or complicates the interpretation of results. In addition, when planning a fieldexperimental study design, external and internal validity pull in different directions. A single study design does not offer optimal grounds for drawing both theoretical and practical conclusions (Elo et al., 2008). Much more research is needed, particularly studies that evaluate the long-term effectiveness of stress intervention strategies. There is also much to be learned from the dissemination of more practical case studies of organizational practice and experience in stress prevention. Stronger industrial links between the business community and academic institutions can promote this type of activity, particularly when there is some joint investment. There are clearly a number of issues in this field that need urgent resolution. First, there are major logistic difficulties that arise in attempting to assess organizational-level stress interventions. Research with adequate methodology involving scientific evaluations is extremely rare in this field. Moreover, programs introduced by organizations vary widely in terms of their objectives, structure, and target groups. Internal and external threats to validity are often difficult to manage and may obscure the real effects of these programs. Alternatively, the paradigms underpinning

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current stress intervention programs may be fundamentally flawed. As Martin (1992) suggested, although stress is a complex phenomenon, any discussion of it is necessarily framed in a specific, usually limited context. In designing occupationally appropriate stress training, we need a range of perspectives varying from the individual/subjective to a societal/objective point of view. Indeed, the physical reality of the individual stress response, with its cascading physiological, psychological, and behavioral effects as mediated by the presence and role of others, underlines the objective reality of our mental and physical interdependence on each other. Thus, dealing with stress inevitably requires dealing with self, others, and an external world beyond relationships. Given this view of stress, the pivotal issue for stress training is the way a person learns, especially from her or his own experience, and applies these learnings to competently deal with her or his situation. This puts the focus of stress training on experiential learning, the primary means by which almost all of us learn about our selves and develop our skills for managing self and situation. The high cost of work stress related problems highlights the need to spend more time evaluating work stress interventions and publishing the findings so that other organizations can gain insight into programs of merit. As Kompier et al. (2000) suggested, there exists at present a large gap between theory and practice. Without further research, our knowledge of what works with regard to occupational stress will remain stunted. Questions surrounding the issue of whether stress prevention actually works; which interventions are most effective, and why; and the costs and limitations of various interventions need to be explored further. Future work in this area should focus on intervention studies or programs that have not been published and delving into the gray area of work stress interventions to find out what industry is actually doing to tackle the work stress situation.
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Atella,

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Cooper, C.L., & Cartwright, S. (1997). An Intervention Strategy for Workplace Stress. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 43, 1, 716. Cooper, C.L., & Cartwright, S. (2001). Organizational Management of Stress and Destructive Emotions at Work. In R.L. Payne, C.L. Cooper, (Eds.), Emotions at Work. Theory, Research and Applications for Management, Chichester, England, John Wiley and Sons, p. 269-280. Daniels, K., & Guppy, A. (1997). Stressors, Locus of Control and Social Support As Consequences of Affective Psychological Well Being. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology,2, 2, 156-174. Eddleston, K.A.,Veiga, J.F., & Powell, G.N. (2006). Explaining Sex Differences in Managerial Career Satisfier Preferences : The Role of Gender Self-Schema. Journal of Applied Psychology,91, 2, 437-445. Elo, A., Ervasti, J., Kuosma, E., & Mattila, P. (2008). Evaluation of an organizational stress management program in a municipal public works organization. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 13,1, 10-23. Folkman, S., Lazarus, R.S., Dunkel-Schetter, C., DeLongis, A., & Gruen, R.J. (1986). Dynamics of a Stressful Encounter: Cognitive Appraisal, Coping and Encounter Outcomes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 5, 992-1003. Grawitch, M.J., Trares, S., & Kohler, J.M. (2007). Healthy workplace practices and employee outcomes. International Journal of Stress Management, 14, 3, 275-293. Gross, J.J., Carstensen, L.L., Tsai, J., Skorpen, C.G., & Hsu, A.Y. (1997). Emotion and Aging: Experience, Expression, and Control. Psychology and Aging, 12, 4, 590-599. Hall, A.T., Royle, M.T., Brymer, R.A., Perrewe, P.l., Ferris, G.R., & Hochwarter, W.A.(2006). Relationships Between Felt Accountability as a Stressor and Strain Reactions: The Neutralizing Role of Autonomy Across Two Studies. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology,11,1, 87-99. Hobfoll, S.E. (1989). Conservation of Resources. A New Attempt at Conceptualizing Stress. American Psychologist, 44, 3, 513-524. Hobfoll, S.E., & Spielberger, C.D. (1992). Family stress: Integrating Theory and Measurement. Journal of Family Psychology, 6, 2, 99-112. Hochwarter, W.A.,Witt, L.A., Treadway, D.C., & Ferris, G.R. (2006). The Interaction of Social Skill and Organizational Support on Job

Performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 2, 482-489. Hudek-Knezevic, J., & Kardum, I. (2000). The effects of Dispozitional and Situaional Coping, Perceived Social Support, and Cognitive Appraisal on Immediate Outcome. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 16, 3, 190-201. Ivancevich, J.M., Matteson, M.T., Freedman, S.M., & Philips, J.S. (1990). Worksite Stress Management Interventions. American Psychologist, 45, 2, 252-261. Jex, S. M., Beehr, T. A., & Roberts, C. K. (1992). The meaning of Occupational Stress Items to Survey Respondents. Journal of Applied Psychology, 77, 5, 623-628. Kenny, D.T., & Cooper, C.L. (2003). Introduction: Occupational Stress and Its Management. International Journal of Stress Management, 10, 4, 275-279. Krajewski, H.T., & Goffin, R.D. (2006). Predicting Occupational Coping Responses : The Interactive Effect of Gender and Work Stressor Context. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 10, 1, 44-53. Lazarus, R.S., DeLongis, A., Folkman, S., & Gruen, R. (1985). Stress and Adaptational Outcomes. The Problem of Confounded Measures. American Psychologist, 40, 7, 770-779. Le Blanc, P., de Jonge, J., & Schaufeli, J. (2000). Job Stress and Health. n Chmiel, N. (Ed.) Work and Organizational psychology. A European Perspective. Oxford: Blacwell Publishers Ltd. Long, B.C., Kahn, S.E., & Schultz, R.W. (1992). Causal Model of Stress and Coping: Women in Management. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 39, 2, 227-239. Long, B.C., & Schultz, R.W. (1995). Temporal Stability and Replicability of a Workplace Stress and Coping Model for Managerial Women: A Multiwave Panel Study. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 42, 3, 266-278. Martin, E.V. (1992). Designing stress training. In Quick, J. Campbell; R.L. Murphy; J.J.Jr. Hurrell, (Eds.). Stress & well-being at work: Assessments and interventions for occupational mental health. (pp. 207-224). Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association. Nicholson, T., Duncan, D.F., Hawkis, W., Belcastro, P.A., & Gold, R. (1988). Stress Treatment: Two Aspirins, Fluids, and One More Workshop. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 19, 6, 637-641.

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Studii i Cercetri Peake, A., & Harris, K.L. (2002). Young Adults Attitudes toward Multiple Role Plsanning: The Influence of Gender, Career Traditionality, and Marriage Plans. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 60, 405-421. Portello, J.Y., & Long, B.C. (2001). Appraisal and Coping with workplace International Stress: A model of Women Managers. Journal of Counseling Psychology,48, 2, 144-156. Quick, J.C., Murphy, L.R., Hurrell, J.J., & Orman, D. (1992). The value of work, the risk of distress, and the power of prevention. In Quick, J. Campbell; R.E. Murphy; J.J.Jr., Hurrell (Eds.). Stress & well-being at work: Assessments and interventions for occupational mental health. (pp. 3-13). Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association Quick, J.C., Quick, J.D.,Nelson, D.L., Hurrell, J.J. (1997) Preventive stress management: From threat to opportunity. In Quick, J. Campbell; J. D; Quick; D. L. Nelson, J.J.Jr., Hurrell (Eds.) Preventive stress management in organizations. (pp. 301-307). Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association, 368 pp. Reynolds, S. (1997). Psychological Well-Being at Work. Is Prevention Better than Cure? Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 43, 1, 93-102. Richardson, K.M., & Rothstein, H.R. (2008). Effects of occupational stress management intervention programs: A meta-analysis. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 13,1, 69-93. Saunders, T., Driskell, J.E.,Johnston, J.H., Salas, E. (1996). The effect of stress inoculation training on anxiety and performance. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 1, 2, 170-186. Schonfeld, I., Jaesoon, R., Xia, F. (1995). Methodological Issues in Occupational-Stres Research: Research in One Occupational Group and Wider Applications. n S. Sauter, L. Murphy, (Eds.), Organizational Risk Factors for Job Stress. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Shaffer, M.A., Bell, M.P., Joplin, J.R., Theresa Lau, T., Oguz, C. (2000). Disruptions to Women's Social Identity: A Comparative Study of Workplace Stress Experienced by Women in Three Geographic Regions. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 5, 4, 441456. Siegrist, J. (1996). Adverse Health Effects of HighEffort/Low-Reward Conditions. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 1, 1, 27-41. Taris, T.W., Kompier, M.A.., Geurts, S.A., Schreurs, P.J., Schaufeli, W.B., de Boer, E., Sepmeijer, K.J., Watterz, C. (2003). Stress Management Interventions in the Dutch Domiciliary Care Sector: Findings From 81 Organizations. International Journal of Stress Management, 10, 4, 297-325. Theorell, T., Karasek, R.A. (1996). Current Issues Relating to Psychosicial Job Strain and Cardiovascular Disease Research. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology,1, 1, 9-26.

Organizational Diagnosis & Development Brand Research Academic & Institutional Evaluation Organizational Simulation & Gaming Focus on people and opportunities. For reliable outcomes contact@aphorme.ro; www.aphorme.ro

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Justiia organizaional i afectivitatea negativ: o metaanaliz a relaiei acestora cu comportamentele contraproductive

1

Horia D. Pitariu Babe-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca Coralia Sulea Ctlina Zaboril Laureniu Maricuoiu Universitatea de Vest din Timioara

Abstract We present here a meta-analysis carried on a number of 21 empirical studies including 5678 participants from 23 independent samples with an average of 276,86 subjects per sample. Individual and organizational predictors related to counterproductive work behaviors were investigated. The variables taken into account as predictors of counterproductive work behaviors were: organizational justice (interactional, procedural and distributive) and negative affectivity. The results indicate a negative association between justice dimension and counterproductive work behaviors and a medium positive association between negative affectivity and counterproductive work behaviors, as predictors. The best predictor of these behaviors is procedural justice. Negative affectivity is influencing directly and proportionally the employees counterproductive behavior mainly directed towards organization. The authors describe implications for future research and suggestions regarding managers behavior. Key words: meta-analysis, counterproductive work behaviors, organizational justice,

negative affectivity

Rezumat n cadrul articolului de fa s-a efectuat o metaanaliz pe 21 studii empirice incluznd 5678 participani din 23 de eantioane independente cu o medie de 276,86 subieci pe eantion. Au fost investigai predictori individuali i organizaionali afereni comportamentului contraproductiv la locul de munc. Variabilele luate n considerare au fost: justiia organizaional (interacional, procedural i distributiv) i afectivitatea negativ, ca predictori ai comportamentului contraproductiv. Rezultatele indic o asociere negativ ntre dimensiunile justiiei i comportamentele contraproductive i o asociere medie pozitiv ntre afectivitatea negativ i comportamentele contraproductive. Cel mai bun predictor al comportamentelor contraproductive este justiia procedural. Afectivitatea negativ influeneaz direct proporional comportamentul contraproductiv al angajatului, acesta fiind ns preponderent direcionat spre organizaie i nu spre colegi. Autorii descriu implicaiile pentru cercetri ulterioare i sugestiile cu privire la comportamentul managerilor. Cuvinte cheie: metaanaliz, comportament contraproductiv, justiie organizaional, afectivitate negativ.

Comportamentele contraproductive reprezint o preocupare important a cercettorilor din domeniul organizaional,

Adresa de coresponden: horia_pitariu@yahoo.com
1

managerilor i consultanilor datorit implicaiilor pe care acestea le au pentru organizaie i membrii acesteia. n cadrul acestui articol vor fi analizate aceste tipuri de comportamente i dou categorii de predictori

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situaionali i personali: justiia organizaional i afectivitatea negativ. Comportamentul contraproductiv Comportamentele contraproductive la locul de munc constau n acte voluntare care duneaz sau au intenia de a afecta organizaia i persoanele din organizaie sau care au legturi cu aceasta (clieni, colegi, supervizori) (Spector & Fox, 2005). Comportamentele contraproductive sunt regsite i sub denumirea de devian la locul de munc sau deviana angajailor, definit ca un comportament voluntar care ncalc norme semnificative organizaionale i amenin astfel bunstarea unei organizaii i/sau a membrilor acesteia (Robinson & Bennett, 1995). Ambele abordri subliniaz caracterul voluntar al comportamentelor i potenialul duntor pentru mediul organizaional. n cadrul acestui articol, termenii de comportament contraproductiv la locul de munc i deviana angajailor vor fi folosii n mod interanjabil. Definirea devianei este realizat n funcie de standardele unui grup social specific (normele, politicile, procedurile organizaionale) i nu este legat n mod nemijlocit de un sistem de standarde morale absolute (Robinson & Bennett, 1995). Folosind scalarea multidimensional, aceleai autoare ajung la o soluie bidimensional: prima dimensiune (a gravitii) reflect un continuum de comportamente, pornind de la acte relativ minore, pn la acte grave; cea de-a doua dimensiune (a intei) reflect un continuum care descrie gradul n care comportamentele deviante sunt interpersonale i duntoare indivizilor versus comportamentele care nu sunt interpersonale i care sunt duntoare organizaiei. ncrucind aceste dimensiuni, autoarele au ajuns la patru cadrane ale comportamentelor deviante: cadranul 1. care conine comportamente grave i duntoare pentru organizaie (deviana fa de proprietate); cadranul 2. care conine comportamente relativ minore i duntoare fa de organizaie (deviana legat de producie); cadranul 3. care conine comportamente relativ minore i

duntoare la nivel interpersonal (deviana politic); cadranul 4. care conine comportamente grave i duntoare la nivel interpersonal (agresivitatea personal). n baza acestor rezultate, Bennett i Robinson (2000) au dezvoltat i validat un instrument, de tip auto-raportare, al devianei la locul de munc. Acesta conine dou subscale, bazndu-se pe dimensiunea intei a cercettoarelor o subscal care msoar deviana interpersonal i alta care msoar deviana orientat spre organizaie. i Spector, Fox, Penney, Bruursema, Goh i Kessler (2006) au identificat de asemenea dimensiunile organizaional i interpersonal ale comportamentelor contraproductive, precum i cinci tipuri de categorii ale acestor comportamente: abuz mpotriva celorlali, deviana legat de producie, furt, retragere i sabotaj, construind i validnd un instrument pentru surprinderea acestora. n continuare va fi prezentat o clasificare general a predictorilor comportamentelor contraproductive precum i definirea principalilor predictori analizai n lucrarea de fa. Bennett i Robinson (2003), menioneaz trei categorii de poteniali predictori ai comportamentului contraproductiv: 1. Deviana, ca reacie la experienele angajatului n organizaie: deviana ca reacie la frustrare, injustiia/incorectitudinea perceput, lipsa controlului, ameninri la propria identitate (sporirea comportamentelor de furt sau sabotaj ca reacie la injustiia procedural sau distributiv) (Greenberg, 1993; Ambrose, Seabright & Schminke, 2002); 2. Deviana ca reflectare a unor trsturi de personalitate. Anumii autori au evideniat existena unei relaii ntre deviana organizaional i nivelele sczute ale factorului contiinciozitate, precum i dintre deviana interpersonal, extraversiune i nivelele sczute ale agreabilitii (Lee, Ashton & Shin, 2005). Metaanaliza realizat de Salgado (2002) a confirmat c Big Five este un instrument util de predicie pentru comportamentele contraproductive, relevnd c factorul contiinciozitate este unul dintre cei mai buni predictori ai acesteia. Tot n categoria trsturilor de personalitate este luat n considerare i dimensiunea afectivitii negative, precum i a furiei ca

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trstur de personalitate. Persoanele cu scoruri mari pe o scal care msoar furia ca trstur se implic mai mult n devian interpersonal, iar cei care au scoruri mari pe o scal care msoar furia ca stare sau reacie situaional, se implic mai mult n comportamente deviante orientate ctre organizaie (Fox & Spector, 1999). Deviana ca adaptare la un context social: este analizat rolul normelor sociale, comportamentul colegilor care realizeaz comportamente deviante i care pot constitui modele pentru ceilali, datorit mecanismelor nvrii sociale. Justiia/injustiia organizaional

Injustiia, n general, se refer la convingerea unui angajat c el (sau altcineva) a fost tratat n mod incorect. Dintre numeroii predictori ai comportamentului contraproductiv, perceperea incorectitudinii este unul din cei mai puternici (Robinson & Bennett, 1995). Colquitt (2001) a artat n studiile sale c justiia organizaional este cel mai bine conceptualizat prin prisma a patru dimensiuni distincte: procedural, distributiv, interpersonal i informaional, ultimele dou tipuri fiind faete ale justiiei interacionale. Modelul cu patru dimensiuni al autorului este susinut de analiza factorial realizat, argumentnd c o astfel de abordare este mai bine susinut de date dect abordrile cu doi sau trei factori ai justiiei. Justiia distributiv e recunoscut atunci cnd rezultatele sunt consistente cu normele implicite de alocare a acestora, cum ar fi echitatea sau egalitatea. Se refer la corectitudinea perceput a rezultatelor, gradul n care recompensele sunt alocate ntr-o manier corect. Cercetri mai recente s-au centrat pe corectitudinea proceselor care conduc la rezultate pozitive i care se regsesc sub denumirea de justiie procedural (Colquitt, 2001). Acest tip de justiie se refer la corectitudinea perceput a procedurilor, msura n care cei afectai de deciziile de alocare a recompenselor i procesul de luare a deciziilor sunt percepute ca fiind realizate n conformitate cu metode i demersuri corecte. Cea de-a treia component a justiiei organizaionale este justiia interacional, care este conceptualizat ca tratamentul interpersonal de care oamenii au parte atunci cnd anumite proceduri sunt puse n aplicare.

Acest tip de justiie este perceput atunci cnd persoanele care sunt responsabile de luarea deciziilor trateaz oamenii cu respect i sensibilitate (aspectul interpersonal) i explic procedurile i motivele ce susin deciziile luate (aspectul informaional). Unii autori au abordat acest tip de justiie ca fiind un al treilea tip de justiie (Aquino, 1995; Skarlicki & Folger, 1997) iar alii au considerat-o ca fiind un subset al justiiei procedurale (Moorman, 1991; Niehoff & Moorman, 1993). Studiile au demonstrat c deviana poate fi precedat de experiene ale injustiiei percepute la locul de munc, artnd cum furturile se nmulesc ca reacie la injustiia procedural sau distributiv (Greenberg, 1993); la fel i sabotajul (Ambrose, Seabright & Schminke, 2002) i agresivitatea (Skarlicki & Folger, 1997). Pornind de la analiza unor forme izolate de comportament contraproductiv, cercetrile s-au orientat apoi spre analiza impactului diferitelor faete ale justiiei asupra dimensiunii interpersonale sau organizaionale a comportamentelor contraproductive. Un angajat care se simte tratat ntr-un mod incorect poate ncerca s egaleze scorul prin comiterea unui sabotaj. Spre exemplu, un angajat care nu a fost tratat cu respect, nu a fost promovat, i s-au dat responsabiliti adiionale fr ca acestea s fie nsoite de o mrire de salariu, cruia nu i se ofer resurse adecvate pentru a-i face munca sau care nu a primit ceea ce consider a fi adecvat pentru munca realizat, se ncadreaz n profilul unui angajat nemulumit. Aceast nemulumire legat de injustiie poate constitui un predictor important pentru anticiparea direciei n care va evolua comportamentul organizaional al unui angajat. n ceea ce privete justiia distributiv, Ambrose i colab. (2002) au obinut n studiul lor o confirmare a ipotezei conform creia indivizii care simt c au fost tratai incorect din punct de vedere al distribuiei resurselor se vor angaja ntr-un comportament de sabotaj n ncercarea de a restabili echitatea. Aquino, Lewis i Bradfield (1999) au artat c percepiile favorabile ale justiiei distributive sunt negativ legate de deviana interpersonal i nu sunt semnificativ legate de deviana orientat spre organizaie. Fox, Spector i Miles (2001) au artat c justiia distributiv este semnificativ corelat cu comportamentul contraproductiv organizaional. La fel, cu referire la justiia procedural, s-au gsit

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corelaii negative puternice cu deviana organizaional i interpersonal. Studiul realizat de Bennett i Robinson (2000) a relevat c scorurile devianei interpersonale i organizaionale au fost corelate negativ cu justiia procedural i justiia interacional. Scorurile legate de justiia distributiv nu au corelat cu nici una dintre scale. Analiznd justiia interpersonal, Ambrose i colab. (2002) au artat c persoanele care simt c nu au fost respectate sau tratate cu consideraie se vor angaja ntrun comportament de sabotare de tipul rzbunrii. Aquino i colab. (1999) au evideniat faptul c percepiile asupra justiiei interacionale au fost predictori puternici ai comportamentului deviant orientat spre organizaie i alte persoane. Tot ei au subliniat i faptul c percepiile favorabile ale justiiei interacionale sunt negativ legate att de deviana interpersonal, ct i de cea orientat spre organizaie. Amintim i rezultatele lui Gallperin (2002) care prezint date ntr-o perspectiv general conform creia percepiile asupra justiiei coreleaz negativ cu deviana destructiv, att cu cea interpersonal ct i cu cea organizaional (folosim n mod specific termenul de devian destructiv pentru c unii autori, cum ar fi Warren (2003), au adus n discuie partea constructiv a devianei, care presupune comportamente adaptative n care angajaii se implic pentru a restabili echilibrul ntre ateptrile personale i standardele de comportament ale organizaiei). Percepiile asupra justiiei sunt predictori importani ai devianei destructive. Cnd angajaii percep c au fost tratai incorect, va exista o mai mare probabilitate de a nclca normele organizaionale i de a se implica n acte deviante ndreptate nemijlocit spre organizaie i spre ali indivizi. E important s amintim i constatarea lui Ambrose i colab. (2002) care au artat n studiul lor c indivizii se vor angaja n forme mai serioase de sabotaj cnd experimenteaz mai multe tipuri de injustiie. Aceste rezultate sunt argumente pentru ipotezele noastre care urmresc legtura dintre justiia organizaional n general dar i a faetelor acestora cu dimensiunile comportamentului contraproductiv.

Afectivitatea negativ Afectivitatea negativ este considerat a fi o tendin dispoziional generalizat pentru individul care experimenteaz emoii negative de-a lungul timpului i situaiilor (Fox & colab., 2001). Aceiai autori au artat c n cazul indivizilor care nregistreaz scoruri mari pe trstura furie, nivele nalte ale conflictului sunt asociate cu nivele nalte ale comportamentului contraproductiv interpersonal. Afectivitatea negativ reflect msura n care indivizii experimenteaz emoii stresante cum ar fi ostilitate, fric, anxietate (Watson & Clark, 1984). Dintre indicatorii unui nivel nalt al afectivitii negative, furia ca trstur este analizat n numeroase studii pe marginea comportamentului contraproductiv la locul de munc (Douglas & Martinko, 2001; Hepworth & Towler, 2004; Miles, Borman, Spector & Fox, 2002; Penney & Spector, 2005). Furia ca trstur (engl. trait anger) este predispoziia de a rspunde la situaii cu ostilitate. Fox i Spector (1999) au artat c trstura furie este n mod particular asociat cu comportamentul contraproductiv interpersonal. n studiile realizate de Fox i colab. (2001), Miles i colab. (2002), comportamentele contraproductive au fost legate de msuri mai generale ale emoiilor pozitive i negative la locul de munc, corelaiile cu emoiile negative au fost semnificative n toate cazurile iar comportamentul contraproductiv a fost asociat negativ cu experiena emoional pozitiv. Studiile au relevat c la indivizii care au un nivel nalt de afectivitate negativ se evideniaz o mai mare probabilitate de a experimenta stri emoionale n diferite situaii, indiferent de stimulul specific. n ceea ce privete legtura dintre afectivitatea negativ i comportament ntr-un context de lucru se constat faptul c un nivel crescut al afectivitii negative este legat de stabilirea unor scopuri minimale i o probabilitate mai mare de a se implica n comportamente de retragere, de a avea un nivel mai mare de ostilitate, pretenii i o conduit distant (Necowitz & Roznowski, 1994). Studiile privind afectivitatea negativ au fost n general orientate pe o percepie dimensional asupra emoiilor, ca experiene nespecifice, susinnd c rapoartele individuale privind trirea furiei i fricii sunt puternic corelate. Acest lucru conduce la concluzia c aceste emoii nu sunt aa de clar difereniate una de cealalt n viaa de zi cu zi (Russell & Feldman Barrett, 1999; Watson &

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Tellegen, 1985). Cele mai vehiculate modele dimensionale prezente n literatura organizaional asupra emoiilor sunt: modelul circumplex al emoiilor propus de Russell (1980) care include strile emoionale ca puncte n interiorul unui cerc, ntr-un spaiu bidimensional bipolar descris de dimensiunea valenei emoionale a acestor stri (satisfacie insatisfacie) pe care este orientat perpendicular cea de-a doua dimensiune, reflectnd nivelul de activare (activare puternic activare slab); modelul bidimensional al lui Watson i Tellegen (1985) care organizeaz strile emoionale de-a lungul a dou dimensiuni nespecifice: stri afective pozitive/trsturi temperamentale pozitive (engl. positive affect/temperament) (ex., fericirea, interesul, ncrederea, agreabilitatea, starea de bine, activismul) i stri afective negative/trsturi temperamentale negative (engl. negative affect/temperament) (cum ar fi frica, furia, vinovia, iritabilitatea, anxietatea, depresia, ostilitatea). Martinko, Gundlach i Douglas (2002) realizeaz o analiz a diferenelor individuale care sunt legate de variate forme ale comportamentului contraproductiv i investigheaz afectivitatea negativ. Conform datelor colectate de autori, cei care prezint un nivel ridicat al afectivitii negative au tendina de a avea un nivel mai sczut de satisfacie fa de viaa lor i se centreaz pe aspecte negative legate de propria persoan i mediul lor, fiind deseori percepui ca fiind ostili i distani. Aceti indivizi percep ntr-o mai mare msur dezechilibrul i fac atribuiri pesimiste. Astfel, la ei se ntlnete o mai mare probabilitate de a etala mai multe comportamente contraproductive. Cercetrile asupra afectivitii pozitive i negative n termenii dispoziiilor care influeneaz atitudinile i conduita oamenilor la locul de munc indic faptul c afectivitatea negativ este asociat unor niveluri crescute ale stresului, simptomelor depresive, atitudinilor negative fa de locul de munc i fa de via, n general (George, 1990; Staw, Bell & Clausen, 1986). n plus, se pare c angajaii cu afectivitate dominant negativ sunt cu predilecie gsii n posturi caracterizate prin autonomie redus, identitate slab a sarcinii, abiliti reduse i absena feedbackului din

partea managementului (Spector, Fox & Van Katwyk, 1999). Aquino i colab. (1999) au relevat c exist o relaie direct ntre afectivitatea negativ i comportamentele contraproductive, afectivitatea negativ fiind pozitiv legat att de deviana interpersonal ct i de cea organizaional. Lee i Allen (2002) au argumentat c emoiile legate de munc (engl. job affect) pot constitui predictori pentru deviana interpersonal, iar cogniia fa de munc (engl. job cognition) prezice deviana organizaional. Relaia dintre justiia organizaional si emoiile negative Comportamentele contraproductive pot aprea ca rspuns la stresorii legai de locul de munc i alte condiii care induc emoii negative. Modelul lui Spector i Fox (2005) presupune o legtur cauzal ntre mediu, percepia (evaluarea) mediului, emoie i comportament. Se pornete de la ideea c n mediu exist un factor stresor care, n funcie de felul n care este evaluat, determin un tip de percepie a stresorului care mai departe conduce la emoii negative ce determin comportamentul contraproductiv. Controlul perceput influeneaz nu numai modul n care stresorul e perceput, ci i emoiile negative i realizarea efectiv a comportamentului contraproductiv. Fox i colab. (2001) au demonstrat c stresorii legai de locul de munc (conflicte cu alte persoane i constrngeri interpersonale) sunt legai de o msur compozit a emoiilor. Aceast msur a fost, de asemenea, legat de percepia injustiiei (care este considerat un tip de stresor legat de munc). Skarlicki i Folger (1997) au explorat cercetrile care indic faptul c angajaii pot rspunde la percepii ale unui tratament incorect cu emoii negative (furie, resentiment) i cu o serie de rspunsuri comportamentale directe sau indirecte cum ar fi furtul, vandalismul, sabotajul, retragerea, rezistena. Skarlicki, Folger i Tesluk (1999) au demonstrat c relaia dintre injustiia perceput i comportamentele de rzbunare este moderat de factori de personalitate cum ar fi afectivitatea negativ i agreabilitatea. Spector i colab. (1992, 1999, 2001) au adus un suport empiric considerabil pentru ideea c deviana angajailor constituie un rspuns emoional la stresorii frustrani ai postului de munc.

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Analiza cercetrilor din domeniul afectivitii negative susin demersul nostru metaanalitic pentru evidenierea rolului de predictor al afectivitii negative n producerea comportamentelor contraproductive, punnd accentul pe relevana acesteia asupra dimensiunilor interpersonal i organizaional ale comportamentelor contraproductive. Obiectivul i ipotezele cercetrii n studiul metaanalitic pe care l-am proiectat au fost luai n considerare doi dintre predictorii semnalai de Bennett i Robinson (2003): justiia organizaional (cu cele trei faete ale sale) i emoiile negative trite la locul de munc. Se urmrete att analiza comportamentului contraproductiv ca un construct general, ct i legtura dintre faetele comportamentelor contraproductive (organizaional i interpersonal) i relaia acestora cu afectivitatea negativ. Am ales aceti predictori pentru cercetarea de fa pentru a analiza impactul unei variabile situaionale i al uneia individuale asupra comportamentelor contraproductive, urmnd ca n cercetrile ulterioare s analizm i implicaiile altor predictori. Ipotezele cercetrii urmresc: 1.Care este magnitudinea relaiei dintre faetele justiiei organizaionale i dimensiunile comportamentelor contraproductive? i 2.Care este magnitudinea relaiei dintre afectivitatea negativ i dimensiunile comportamentelor contraproductive? Metoda Identificarea studiilor Cutarea articolelor s-a realizat prin folosirea unor cuvinte cheie n baza de date PsychInfo, ProQuest, Ebsco, Science Direct, PsychArticles, JSTOR, ScienceDirect (folosind cuvinte cheie: workplace deviance, counterproductive work behavior, organizational misbehavior, interpersonal workplace deviance, organizational workplace deviance, antisocial behavior at work, employee deviance). Au fost cutate n special articolele care au folosit scala lui Bennett i Robinson (2000) sau Robinson i Bennett (1995) i au fost luate n considerare doar articolele care au folosit aceste scale sau scale care au la baz acest model bidimensional al devianei organizaionale i interpersonale. De asemenea, au fost identificate i lucrrile prezentate la diferite conferine n domeniul

psihologiei organizaionale. O alt modalitate de cutare a articolelor a fost reprezentat de analiza bibliografiei metaanalizelor anterioare (Dalal, 2005; Salgado, 2002; Lau, Au & Ho, 2003; Herschovis, Turner, Barling, Arnold, Dupre, Inness, LeBlanc & Sivanathan, 2007). Au fost reinute studiile care au respectat simultan condiiile minimale pentru includere n studiul metaanalitic: articole care au folosit scale de msurare pentru comportamente contraproductive de tip auto-raportare i care s aib la baz dimensiunea interpersonal i dimensiunea organizaional (Spector & colab., 2006; Bennett & Robinson, 2000; Robinson & Bennet, 1995); articole care au folosit scale de msurare a afectivitii negative (JAWS - Van Katwyk, Fox, Spector & Kelloway, 2000; PANAS Watson & Clark, 1994). Nu au fost luate n considerare acele articole care au msurat aspecte asociate afectivitii negative (de exemplu, furia ca trstur); articole care s raporteze cel puin coeficientul de corelaie liniar r (Pearson) dintre o form sau alta a comportamentului contraproductiv sau acesta luat ca un construct global i unul dintre predictorii de interes ai acestei metaanalize i numrul de subieci. Nu au fost luate n considerare studiile care investigau aspecte singulare ale comportamentelor contraproductive (de exemplu, absenteismul) sau variabile psihologice asociate acestor comportamente (de exemplu, agresivitatea la locul de munc). Procedura Demersul de fa este o metaanaliz a corelaiilor, derulat n conformitate cu recomandrile oferite de Hunter i Schmidt (2004). Prin aceasta, ne-am propus identificarea intervalelor de ncredere a coeficienilor de corelaie dup eliminarea influenelor erorilor de eantionare a studiilor analizate i a influenelor erorilor de msurare datorate variaiei consistenei interne a scalelor aplicate. Controlul statistic al acestor influene s-a realizat utiliznd metodele de corecie prin distribuia artefactelor deoarece nu toate studiile au coninut un set complet de indicatori.

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Din studiile gsite au fost selectate urmtoarele informaii: caracteristici ale eantionului utilizat (N, distribuie de gen, medie i abatere standard vrst, medie i abatere standard vechime n munc, naionalitate), indicatori descriptivi ai variabilelor de interes (medie i abatere standard a scalelor), coeficienii de corelaie dintre dimensiunile comportamentale contraproductive i predictorii de interes pentru aceast metaanaliz, precum i consistena intern a scalelor respective (comportamente contraproductive i predictori). Rezultate Pentru a facilita citirea variabilelor utilizate n studiul prezent, s-au folosit urmtoarele prescurtri: JDjustiie distributiv, JPjustiie procedural, JI justiie interacional, CCO comportament contraproductiv orientat spre organizaie, CCIcomportament contraproductiv interpersonal, CCcomportament contraproductiv n general, ANafectivitatea negativ.

a. Relaia dintre comportamentele contraproductive i justiia organizaional Diferitele tipuri de injustiie (procedural, distributiv, interpersonal i informaional) sunt relaionate de variate forme de comportament contraproductiv (deviana organizaional vs. deviana interpersonal). Sursa justiiei procedurale este n mod tipic organizaia, n timp ce sursa justiiei interacionale este deseori un superior, sursele transformndu-se apoi n inte ale comportamentului contraproductiv (Colquitt, 2001). Rezultatele prezentate n Tabelul 1 arat c relaia dintre justiia procedural i comportamentul contraproductiv este, n general, negativ, de intensitate medie i omogen. Variaiile observate la nivelul rezultatelor studiilor analizate sunt explicate preponderent de erorile de eantionare i n mai mic msur de variaiile consistenei interne ale scalelor utilizate. Cu alte cuvinte, variaiile consistenei interne a scalelor joac un rol mai puin important n determinarea intensitii relaiei dintre variabilele incluse n studiul prezent.

Tabelul 1. Relaia comportamente contraproductive i justiia procedural. Relaie JP-CCO JP-CCI JP-CC N 2012 2012 1289 k r(obs) 7 -0.257 7 -0.226 5 -0.303 r(aj) -0.359 -0.307 -0.389 AS(r.aj) 0 0.041 0.045 r(min) -0.359 -0.387 -0.478 r(max) -0.359 -0.226 -0.301 % er.esant. 100.00% 77.53% 76.31% % consist 14.20% 8.85% 9.42% % total 100.00% 86.38% 85.73%

Legend: N=numrul cumulat de subieci din toate studiile luate n considerare; k=numrul de studii luate n considerare; r(obs)=media ponderat a coeficienilor de corelaie; r(aj)=media ajustat a coeficienilor de corelaie, dup eliminarea influenelor erorilor datorate consistenei interne a scalelor; SD(r.aj)=abaterea standard a lui r(aj); r(min)=limita inferioar a intervalului de ncredere al coeficientului de corelaie (=.05); r(max)=limita superioar a intervalului de ncredere al coeficientului de corelaie (=.05); %er.eant.=procentul de varian observat care poate fi atribuit erorilor de eantionare; %consist.=procentul de varian observat care poate fi atribuit erorilor de msurare a variabilelor; %total=procentul total de varian explicat de artefacte.

Analiznd comparativ rezultatele relaiei dintre justiia procedural i dimensiunile comportamentului contraproductiv putem spune c legtura dintre acest tip de justiie i comportamentele contraproductive organizaionale este mai puternic dect legtura acesteia cu comportamentele contraproductive interpersonale. n ceea ce privete relaia dintre comportamentele contraproductive i justiia

interacional, articolele analizate nu ne-au permis analiza pe faetele comportamentului contraproductiv datorit faptului c au preferat studierea unei abordri general a devianei organizaionale. Tabelul 2 prezint rezultatele obinute n urma analizei relaiei dintre comportamente contraproductive i justiia interacional.

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Studii i Cercetri Tabelul 2. Relaia comportamente contraproductive i justiia interacional. Relaie JI-CC N 776 k 6 r(obs) -0.298 r(aj) -0.389 SD(r.aj) 0.14 r(min) -0.68 R(max) -0.097 % er.esant. 49.71% % consist 1.08% % total 50.79%

Legend: N=numrul cumulat de subieci din toate studiile luate n considerare; k=numrul de studii luate n considerare; r(obs)=media ponderat a coeficienilor de corelaie; r(aj)=media ajustat a coeficienilor de corelaie, dup eliminarea influenelor erorilor datorate consistenei interne a scalelor; SD(r.aj)=abaterea standard a lui r(aj); r(min)=limita inferioar a intervalului de ncredere al coeficientului de corelaie (=.05); r(max)=limita superioar a intervalului de ncredere al coeficientului de corelaie (=.05); %er.eant.=procentul de varian observat care poate fi atribuit erorilor de eantionare; %consist.=procentul de varian observat care poate fi atribuit erorilor de msurare a variabilelor; %total=procentul total de varian explicat de artefacte.

Relaia JICC este n general negativ, de intensitate medie i eterogen. Variaiile rezultatelor raportate de studiile analizate sunt n mic msur explicate de consistena intern (doar 1,08% din varian) sau de erorile de eantionare ale studiilor (doar 49,71% din varian), dei o putere explicativ de 50% din varian poate prea una acceptabil. Hunter i Schmidt (2004) susin c n situaii n care variana explicat este mai mic de 75% se poate vorbi de existena unor variabile moderatoare care nu au fost luate n considerare. Datorit varianei mari neexplicate, intervalul de ncredere al mediei coeficientului de corelaie se apropie foarte

mult de valoarea 0 (r(max)=-0.097), ceea ce ne indic faptul c aceast relaie nu a aprut n mod constant ca fiind semnificativ. Relaia justiiei distributive cu dimensiunile comportamentului contraproductiv este prezentat n Tabelul 3. Datorit faptului c autorii studiilor identificate de noi au preferat s analizeze comportamentul contraproductiv din perspectiva sa bidimensional, nu s-a putut calcula un coeficient de corelaie mediu pentru relaia justiie distributiv-comportament contraproductiv (n general).

Tabelul 3. Relaia dintre comportamentele contraproductive i justiia distributiv. Relaie JD-OCC JD-ICC N 1660 1763 k 6 7 r(obs) -0.177 -0.148 r(aj) -0.246 -0.201 SD(aj) 0 0 r(min) -0.246 -0.201 r(max) -0.246 -0.201 % er.esant. 100% 100% % consist 0 0 % total 100% 100%

Legend: N=numrul cumulat de subieci din toate studiile luate n considerare; k=numrul de studii luate n considerare; r(obs)=media ponderat a coeficienilor de corelaie; r(aj)=media ajustat a coeficienilor de corelaie, dup eliminarea influenelor erorilor datorate consistenei interne a scalelor; SD(r.aj)=abaterea standard a lui r(aj); r(min)=limita inferioar a intervalului de ncredere al coeficientului de corelaie (=.05); r(max)=limita superioar a intervalului de ncredere al coeficientului de corelaie (=.05); %er.eant.=procentul de varian observat care poate fi atribuit erorilor de eantionare; %consist.=procentul de varian observat care poate fi atribuit erorilor de msurare a variabilelor; %total=procentul total de varian explicat de artefacte.

n relaia JD i dimensiunile CC, coeficientul de corelaie este negativ, de intensitate slab, dar constant de la un studiu la altul. Aceasta nseamn c, n studii viitoare, pentru obinerea unei corelaii semnificative statistic este necesar un volum mai mare al eantionului.

Relaia dintre comportamentele contraproductive i afectivitatea negativ Studiile care analizeaz emoiile specifice cu impact asupra comportamentelor contraproductive susin n special ideea c afectivitatea negativ (furie, fric, tristee) are impact asupra comportamentelor contraproductive (Martinko, Gundlach &

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Douglas, 2002). Un nivel crescut al afectivitii negative conduce, prin diferite mecanisme, la etalarea unui comportament contraproductiv, n special datorit ostilitii (furiei) resimite la locul de munc (Watson & Clark, 1994).

Tabelul 4 prezint relaia dintre comportamentele contraproductive i afectivitatea negativ.

Tabelul 4. Relaia comportamentelor contraproductive i afectivitatea negativ. Relaie AN-CCO AN-CCI AN-CC N 1271 1496 2017 k 6 8 6 r(obs) 0.349 0.241 0.359 r(aj) 0.509 0.341 0.458 SD(r.aj) 0.094 0 0.079 r(min) 0.325 0.341 0.301 r(max) 0.693 0.341 0.615 % er.eant. 28.02% 99.02% 21.41% % consist 13.81% 16.13% 9.95% % total 41.83% 100% 31.36%

Legend: N=numrul cumulat de subieci din toate studiile luate n considerare; k=numrul de studii luate n considerare; r(obs)=media ponderat a coeficienilor de corelaie; r(aj)=media ajustat a coeficienilor de corelaie, dup eliminarea influenelor erorilor datorate consistenei interne a scalelor; SD(r.aj)=abaterea standard a lui r(aj); r(min)=limita inferioar a intervalului de ncredere al coeficientului de corelaie (=.05); r(max)=limita superioar a intervalului de ncredere al coeficientului de corelaie (=.05); %er.eant.=procentul de varian observat care poate fi atribuit erorilor de eantionare; %consist.=procentul de varian observat care poate fi atribuit erorilor de msurare a variabilelor; %total=procentul total de varian explicat de artefacte.

Relaia afectivitate negativcomportamente contraproductive este n general pozitiv, de intensitate medie. S-a constatat o omogenitate foarte bun a rezultatelor la nivelul relaiei afectivitate negativ-comportamente contraproductive interpersonale, dar pentru relaia afectivitate negativcomportamente contraproductive organizaionale i afectivitate negativcomportamente contraproductive n general, omogenitatea las de dorit. Este foarte probabil ca aceast relaie s fie aib moderatori care nu au fost luai n considerare n acest studiu. Relaia afectivitate negativcomportament contraproductiv organizaional este mai puternic dect afectivitate negativcomportament contraproductiv interpersonal, cel puin la nivelul relaiei observate. Media ajustat a coeficientului de corelaie dintre afectivitatea negativ i comportamentul contraproductiv organizaional a relevat relaii de intensitate similar. Spre deosebire de relaiile prezentate anterior (justiie proceduralcomportament contraproductiv), erorile de msurare a variabilelor au o pondere mai mare n a explica diferenele dintre studii. Acest aspect este important deoarece ne indic faptul c obinerea acestei relaii este influenat n mai mare msur de calitatea instrumentelor folosite.

Comparaii cu metaanalize anterioare n metaanaliza realizat de Herschovis i colab. (2007) nu s-au evideniat diferene ntre justiia procedural i distributiv n predicia celor dou tipuri de agresivitate, n sensul c ambele tipuri de justiie sunt n relaii negative cu ambele tipuri de agresivitate. Menionm c acest autor a folosit conceptul de agresivitate la locul de munc, definit ca orice comportament iniiat de ctre angajai pentru a face ru unui individ din cadrul organizaiei sau organizaiei n sine, inta fiind motivat s o evite (Neumann & Baron, 2005). Afectivitatea negativ, dei coreleaz cu cele dou tipuri de agresivitate, nu s-a dovedit a fi un predictor al acestora n momentul n care a fost inclus ntr-o analiz de regresie mpreun cu ali predictori. Din moment ce nu am realizat o astfel de regresie pornind de la rezultatele metaanalizei noastre, este dificil de estimat ce se poate ntmpla n astfel de ecuaii de regresie cu variabilele identificate n acest studiu ca fiind asociate comportamentului contraproductiv. n studiul lui Dalal (2005) a obinut corelaii similare cu cele din studiul de fa ntre justiia organizaional i comportamentele contraproductive ca i constructe globale, precum i ntre afectivitatea negativ i comportamentele contraproductive. Discuii i implicaii practice

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Scopul acestei metaanalize a fost acela de a analiza tipul i intensitatea relaiei dintre comportamente contraproductive i anumii predictori ai acesteia (justiia organizaional i faetele ei i afectivitatea negativ). Pe baza studiului ntreprins se poate afirma c dintre faetele justiiei organizaionale cel mai bun predictor al comportamentelor contraproductive este justiia procedural, deoarece rezultatele indic un efect mediu constant, indiferent de caracteristicile studiului. Dac angajaii percep corectitudinea n aplicarea procedurilor, se vor implica ntr-o mic msur n comportamente contraproductive la locul de munc. Aceast relaie este mai puternic pentru comportamentele contraproductive orientate ctre organizaie. Rezult c atunci cnd angajaii percep c procedurile folosite n organizaie sunt aplicate n mod constant, fr distorsiuni, fiind totodat fundamentate pe informaii corecte, respectnd standarde etice i cu posibilitatea exprimrii punctului propriu de vedere cu referire la aplicarea procedurilor pentru luarea deciziilor, scade semnificativ riscul implicrii lor n comportamente contraproductive. Afectivitatea negativ la nivelul angajatului crete probabilitatea implicrii acestuia n comportamente contraproductive la locul de munc. Afectivitatea negativ are o influen mai mare asupra comportamentelor contraproductive orientate spre organizaie. Predispoziia angajailor de a experimenta emoii negative sau de a gestiona dificil aceast experien poate constitui un predictor al frecvenei comportamentelor contraproductive la locul de munc. Cum afectivitatea negativ este o dimensiune a personalitii, aceasta caracteristic poate fi investigat i identificat de angajatori nc din faza primelor proceduri de selecie a candidailor pentru o poziie (n acest scop se pot utiliza o serie de probe psihologice de profil). Aceast informaie poate fi ulterior utilizat n cadrul programelor de dezvoltare organizaional (training, team-building, consiliere, coaching), pentru a asigura o intervenie util din perspectiva mbuntirii climatului organizational. Important pentru manageri este s acorde o mai mare atenie modului n care sunt aplicate procedurile n cadrul organizaiei, datorit riscului crescut ca acestea s conduc la realizarea comportamentelor contraproducti-

ve n ncercarea de a restabili o anume echitate, avnd n vedere c justiia procedural este cel mai important predictor al comportamentelor contraproductive organizaionale. i, indiferent de comparaie, aceast relaie rmne una semnificativ. Legtura semnificativ negativ ntre comportamentele contraproductive n general i justiia interacional, relev importana ca angajaii s se simt tratai corect, cu respect i sinceritate i s le fie explicate deciziile luate de superiorii lor, avnd n vedere cele dou faete ale justiiei interacionale (interpersonal i informaional). De asemenea, important este i relaia dintre justiia distributiv, echitatea recompenselor i cele dou faete ale comportamentului contraproductiv. Angajaii au nevoie ca rezultatele/recompensele pe care le primesc s reflecte efortul depus de ctre ei n munca lor, s fie adecvate muncii realizate i sa fie justificate n raport cu performana de care dau dovad. Implicaii pentru cercetri viitoare Metaanaliza de fa i-a propus includerea doar a acelor articole care au msurat comportamentul contraproductiv cu ajutorul chestionarelor special dezvoltate n acest sens. Aceast abordare reprezint un punct forte al studiului de fa, dar i o limit a lui: n baza rezultatelor prezentate este dificil de identificat intensitatea relaiei dintre comportamentele contraproductive specifice (de exemplu, furt) i variabilele corelate evideniate n acest studiu. O alt limit a demersului prezentat const n faptul c, n situaiile n care am ajuns la relaii eterogene ntre variabilele investigate, nu am reuit s analizm posibilele variabile moderatoare. Aceast limit se datoreaz numrului relativ redus de studii existente n acest moment n literatura de specialitate, studii care s respecte toate condiiile de selecie a articolelor. Totui, considerm c relaiile evideniate sunt cu att mai valoroase, cu ct studiile incluse n metaanaliz prezent sunt similare din punct de vedere metodologic. Cercetrile metaanalitice ulterioare trebuie s ia n considerare i ceilali predictori importani ai comportamentelor contraproductive, cum ar fi factorii de personalitate, variabilele demografice i factori situaionali precum satisfacia la locul de munc sau factorii stresori organizaionali.

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Studii i Cercetri its determinants. Journal of Personnel Selling and Sales Management, 26 (4), 327-344. *Judge, T.A., Scott, B.A., & Ilies, R. (2006). Hostility, job attitudes, and workplace deviance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 1, 126138. *Kickul, J.R., Neuman, G., Parker, C., & Finkl, J. (2001). Settling the score: the role of organizational justice in the relationship between psychological contract breach and anticitizenship behavior. Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal, 13, 2, 77-92. Lau, V.C.S., Au, W.T., & Ho, J.M.C. (2003). A qualitative and quantitative review of antecedents of counterproductive behavior in organizations. Journal of Business and Psychology, 18, 1, 73-99. *Lee, K., & Allen, N. (2002). Organizational citizenship behavior and workplace deviance: the role of affect and cognitions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 1, 131-142. Lee, K., Ashton, M.C., & Shin, K.H. (2005). Personality correlates of workplace antisocial behavior. Applied psychology: An International Review, 54, 1, 81-98. *Marcus, B. & Schuler, H. (2004). Antecedents of counterproductive behavior at work: a general perspective. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89, 4, 647-660 Marcus, B., Lee, K., & Ashton, M.C. (2007). Personality dimensions explaining relationships between integrity tests and counterproductive behavior: Big Five, or one in addition? Personnel Psychology, 60, 1, 134. Martinko, M., & Gundlach, M. & Douglas, S. (2002). Toward an integrative theory of counterproductive workplace behavior: a causal reasoning perspective. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 10, 1/2, p. 36-50. *Mehta, K. (2000). Examining the relationships between motivational traits and counterproductive work behaviors. Unpublished thesis. *Miles, D.E., Borman, W.E., Spector, P. E. & Fox, S. (2002). Building and integrative model of extra role work behaviors: a comparison of counterproductive work behavior with organizational citizenship behavior. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 10, 1/2, 51-57. Moorman, R.H. (1991). Relationship Between Organizational Justice and Organizational Citizenship Behaviors: Do Fairness Perceptions Influence Employee Citizenship? Journal of Applied Psychology, 76, 6, 845855. Necowitz, L.B., & Roznowski, M. (1994). Negative affectivity and job satisfaction: Cognitive processes underlying the relationship and effects on employee behaviors. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 45, 3, 270-294. Neuman, J. H., & Baron, R. A. (2005). Aggression in the workplace: A social psychological perspective. In S. Fox, & P. E. Spector (Eds.), Counterproductive workplace behavior: Investigations of actors and targets (pp. 13-40). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Niehoff, B., & Moorman, R. (1993). Justice as a mediator of the relationship between methods of monitoring and organizational citizenship behavior. Academy of Management Journal, 36, 3, 527-556. *Penney, L.M., & Spector, P.E. (2005). Job stress, incivility, and counterproductive work behavior (CWB): the moderating role of negative affectivity. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 26, 777-796. Robinson, S., & Bennett, R. (1995). A typology of deviant workplace behaviors: a multidimensional scaling study. Academy of Management Journal, 38, 2, 555-572. Russell, J.A., & Feldman Barrett, L. (1999). Core affect, prototypical emotional episodes, and other things called emotion: Dissecting the elephant. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Special Section on the Structure of Emotion, 76, 805-819. Russell, J.A. (1980). A Circumplex Model of Affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 6, 1161-1178. Salgado, J.F. (2002). The Big Five Personality Dimensions and Counterproductive Behaviors. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 10, 1/2, March-June, 117125. Skarlicki, D.P. & Folger, R. (1997). Retaliation in the Workplace: The Roles of Distributive, Procedural, and Interactional Justice. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82, 3, 434-443. Skarlicki, D.P., Folger, R., & Tesluk, P. (1999). Personality as a moderator in the relationship between fairness and retaliation. Academy of Management Journal, 42, 1, 100-108. Spector, P.E., Fox, S., & Van Katwyk, P. T. (1999). The role of negative affectivity in employee reactions to job characteristics: Bias effect or substantive effect. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 72, 205-218. (P)

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Spector, P.E. & Fox, S. (2005). The stressoremotion model of counterproductive work behavior. n S. Fox & P.E. Spector (eds.) Counterproductive work behavior: investigations of actors and targets, APA. *Spector, P.E., Fox, S., Penney, L. M., Bruusema, K., Goh, A., & Kessler, S. (2006). The dimensionality of counterproductivity: Are all counterproductive behaviors created equal? Journal of Vocational Behavior, 68, 446-460. Staw, B.M., Bell, N.E., & Clausen, J. A. (1986). The dispositional approach to job attitudes: a lifetime longitudinal test. Administrative Science Quarterly, 56 - 77. *Thau, S., Aquino, K., & Wittek, R. (2007). An extension of uncertainty management theory to the self: the relationship between justice, social comparison orientation, and antisocial work behaviors. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 1, 250-258

Van Katwyk, P.T., Fox, S., Spector, P.E., & Kelloway, E.K. (2000). Using the Job-related Affective Well-being Scale (JAWS) to investigate affective responses to work stressors. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 5, 219-230. Watson, D., & Clark, L.A. (1994). THE PANAS-X. Manual for the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule - Expanded Form. The University of Iowa. Watson, D. (1985). Toward a Consensual Structure of Mood. Psychological Bulletin, 98, 2, 219235. Warren, D. (2003). Constructive and destructive deviance in organizations. Academy of Management Review, 28, 4, 622-632. Watson, D., & Clark, L. A. (1984). Negative Affectivity: The disposition to experience aversive emotional states. Psychological Bulletin, 96, 465-490.

D&D Consultants, Bucureti www.ddconsultants.ro

Instrumente psihometrice publicate de D&D Consultants/TestCentral CPI (California Psychological Inventory (462, 434, 260)) NPQ (Nonverbal Personality Questionnaire) FFNPQ (Five-Factor Nonverbal Personality Questionnaire) SWS (Survey of Work Styles) STAXI-2 (State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory) FPI (Freiburg Personlichkeitsinventar (Formele G i R)) LSI (Learning Styles Inventory) MLQ (Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Forma 5X)) STAI (State-Trait Anxiety Inventory) STAIC (State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children) JVIS (Jackson Vocational Interest Survey) AMI (Achievement Motivation Inventory) FJAS (Fleishman Job Analysis Survey) Instrumente psihometrice n curs de apariie: ASSET (A Shortened Stress Evaluation Tool) EPQ-R (Eysenck Personality Questionnaire, Revised) IVE (Eysenck's Impulsiveness Questionnaire) BFQ-2 (Big Five Questionnaire) BFA (Big Five Adjectives) GAMA (General Ability Measure for Adults) MAB-II (Multidimensional Aptitude Battery) NEO-PI-R (Revised NEO Personality Inventory) BASC-2 (Behaviour Assessment System for Children, Second Edition) MSCEIT (Mayer Salovey Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test) EO-I (Emotional Quotient Inventory) TEDE6 (Test dvaluation dynamique de lducabilit) DDDI (Dula Dangerous Driving Index)

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Studii i Cercetri

MLQ (Chestionarul Multifactorial de Leadership). Date preliminare pentru Romnia

1

Drago Iliescu D&D Research, Bucureti Rare Mocanu SNSPA/FCRP, Bucureti Felicia Beldean Target Romania, Bucureti

Abstract The Multifactorial Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ), in its latest version (5X), is a complex instrument, created in order to offer (1) a valid measurement of the transformational, transactional and passive components of leadership and also (2) as accurate a profile as possible for a persons leadership potential and leadership-related behavior. The MLQ has been often used in laboratory and field researches, being an adequate, very useful tool for selection, transfer, promotion, development and counseling of individuals, groups or organizations. Various forms of the MLQ have been used in more than 30 countries, in industrial organizations, hospitals, religious institutions, military organizations, governmental agencies, universities, primary and secondary schools. It has been demonstrated that the efficiency of the MLQ remains constant, no matter if the leader is evaluated by his direct superiors, subordinates, co-workers or customers. An outstanding advantage of the MLQ is thus the possibility of 360 usage (with parallel forms of for selfevaluation and peer-evaluation). The adaptation of the MLQ started in Romania in 2005. This paper presents a pilot study on the self-evaluation form of the MLQ. A pilot sample of 229 participants was used, comprising mediumlevel and top managers, recruited from different corporations in Bucharest. Primary statistics, reliability, interscale correlations and the factor analysis of the MLQ are being presented and discussed, contrasted with the results reported by the original authors on USA samples. The results of these preliminary studies are encouraging, indicating that, in spite of an obvious need of extra research, the Romanian MLQ is an effective tool so far. Key-words: transformational leadership, transactional leadership, Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ)

Rezumat Chestionarul Multifactorial de Leadership (MLQ), n versiunea sa cea mai recent (Forma 5X) este un instrument complex, dezvoltat att cu scopul de a oferi o dimensiune clar a componentelor transformaionale, tranzacionale i celor de tip pasiv/evitant ale leadershipului, ct i pentru a oferi un profil ct mai complet al performanelor unui candidat i al potenialului su de leadership. MLQ este unul din instrumentele de leadership cel mai des folosite n cadrul cercetrilor de teren i de laborator, fiind un instrument adecvat i foarte util n activiti de selecie, transfer, promovare, dezvoltare i consiliere individual, de grup sau organizaional. Numeroase forme ale MLQ au fost folosite n peste 30 de ri n organizaii industriale, spitale, instituii religioase, organizaii militare, agenii guvernamentale, faculti, coli primare i gimnaziale. S-a demonstrat c MLQ este la fel de eficient, indiferent dac leaderul este evaluat de superiori direci, colegi, subordonai direci sau colaboratori (inclusiv clieni). Un avantaj marcant al MLQ l constituie faptul c poate fi administrat n forma 360 pentru acest c hestionar, , existnd forme paralele de auto-evaluare i de hetero-evaluare.
1

Adresa de coresponden: dragos.iliescu@ddresearch.ro

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n Romnia, adaptarea MLQ a nceput n anul 2005. Prezentul studiu este o pilotare a chestionarului n forma sa de auto-evaluare, pe un eantion pilot de 229 de participani, cu funcii de conducere, plasai la nivel mediu i de top n corporaii din Bucureti. Sunt prezentate, comparativ cu aceleai statistici raportate de autori pe eantioane din SUA, indicii statistici primari, caracteristicile de fidelitate ale scalelor, corelaiile interscale i analiza factorial a itemilor testului. Rezultatele acestei pilotri i cercetri preliminarii sunt ncurajatoare, semnalnd, n ciuda necesitii clare de efort suplimentar dedicat adaptrii finale a chestionarului n Romnia, faptul c traducerea i adaptarea MLQ este pn la acest moment un succes. Cuvinte cheie: leadership transformaional, leadership tranzacional, Chestionarul Multifactorial de Leadership, MLQ

Introducere n ultimii 40 de ani, cercetrile care explic fenomenologia leadership-ului i, subsecvent, teoriile rezultate din aceste cercetri, s-au centrat preponderent pe descrierea eficienei n conducere ca manifestare a comportamentului corect dintro diad de posibile comportamente. Discutm astfel de leadership autocrat sau democrat, de luarea deciziilor n mod directiv sau participativ, de centrarea pe sarcin sau centrarea pe relaie, comportament de iniiere sau comportament de apreciere etc. n ciuda succesului lor parial de a explica leadershipul i de a prezice i dezvolta eficiena leaderilor, aceste explicaii par astzi nu doar incomplete ci poate i uor simpliste. O concesie trzie a fost fcut n aceste aprecieri extremizate variabilelor situaionale, care ar putea fixa cadrul pentru a considera una sau alta dintre entitile unei diade ca fiind cea corect: situaia dicteaz dac un stil autocrat sau unul democrat este mai eficient i astfel poate fi considerat corect. Aceast schimbare de perspectiv dinspre stil pur nspre un stil adaptat situaiei, a marcat nceputul noilor teorii n leadership (Bass, 1990). Tendina de a nelege comportamentul managerial centrat pe o gam mai larg de stiluri de leadership, numit de ctre House i Podsakoff (1994) leadership excepional, coincide nu doar cu o schimbare natural n paradigma n care se realizeaz studiile n domeniul conducerii, ci i cu mutaiile radicale care au loc n natura muncii. Aceste schimbri n natura sarcinilor de munc, au transformat cerinele pe care organizaiile le au de la leaderi, astfel nct conductorului actual i se cer nu doar lucruri fundamental diferite dect n urm cu una sau dou decade, ci i comportamente mai variate i mai versatile. Chiar dac asupra modalitilor de manifestare a acestui stil de leadership se poart n continuare discuii extensive, care genereaz un volum impresionant de cercetri empirice, exist astzi totui consens n comunitatea tiinific privind cel puin denumirea i fundamentul acestui comportament: leadership transformaional. Aceast denumire (leadership transformaional) fixeaz n acelai timp ruptura paradigmatic fa de practicile de leadership preferate i promovate n trecut, bazate pe conducere ca tranzacie i numite n consecin leadership tranzacional. n aceast lucrare va fi prezentat pe scurt modelul teoretic al leadershipului tranzacional, dup care analiza se va concentra pe MLQ, care este instrumentul consacrat pentru msurarea componentelor acestui model, vizualiznd caracteristicile psihometrice care sunt asociate msurrii componentelor modelului leadershipului transformaional, cu un accent deosebit pe situaia acestor indici pentru populaia Romniei. Leadership transformaional tranzacional vs.

Leadership-ul transformaional a fost prima oar difereniat de leadership-ul tranzacional de ctre Downton (1973), pentru a explica diferenele dintre leaderii revoluionari, rebeli, reformatori i cei obinuii. Totui, conceptualizarea propus de Downton nu a fost remarcat pn n momentul apariiei n 1978 a lucrrii lui Burns despre leaderii politici. Conform lui Burns (1978), leaderii politici tranzacionali i motivau colaboratorii i electoratul dndu-le recompense n schimbul serviciilor prestate:

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Studii i Cercetri [Leaderii tranzacionali] i abordeaz asociaii din perspectiva schimbului: se urmrete schimbarea unui lucru pe altul - a locurilor de munc pentru voturi sau a subveniilor pentru contribuii la campanii. Asemenea tranzacii nglobeaz majoritatea relaiilor dintre leaderi i asociai, n special n grupuri politice, n parlament i partide (p. 3).

O conceptualizare similar cu cea a lui Burns a realizat Zeleznik (1977) privitor la managerii din organizaii comerciale. Concluziile analizei lui Zeleznik (1977) cu privire la manageri au concordat i cu diferenierea fcut de Burns ntre liderii transformaionali i cei tranzacionali. Conform acestui autor, managerii/leaderii tranzacionali analizeaz nevoile colaboratorilor lor i stabilesc pentru ei eluri bazndu-se pe ceea ce se poate atepta n mod raional de la acetia. Bass (1985a, 1985b) a extins definiia leaderului tranzacional de la mediul politic i la alte sectoare (militar, industrial, public i educaional). Urmnd cadrul trasat de Burns, el i-a descris pe aceti leaderi ca fiind cei care identific ceea ce ateapt de la munca subalternilor i ncearc s se asigure c primesc acele lucruri, adecvnd aceste cerine i ateptri la performanele care pot fi ateptate n mod realist de la cei din jur; ofer recompense i promisiuni de recompens n schimbul unor eforturi corespunztoare i nu neaprat n schimbul rezultatelor ateptate. Ei rspund nevoilor i dorinelor celor cu care lucreaz atta timp ct acetia i ndeplinesc sarcinile. Spre deosebire de cel tranzacional, leaderul transformaional nu doar recunoate nevoile subalternilor, ci i ncearc s le dezvolte de la niveluri inferioare ctre niveluri superioare de maturitate i integrare a eului. Leaderii transformaionali implic persoana din toate punctele de vedere, n aa fel nct angajaii sunt ei nii dezvoltai pentru a deveni leaderi. Acest tip de leadership poate aprea ca o influen manifestat de sus n jos (cel mai uor de perceput), dar apare i la acelai nivel ntre doi angajai care se afl pe aceeai treapt ierarhic i, de asemenea, de jos n sus, de exemplu atunci cnd o persoan i influeneaz superiorul ierarhic n aa fel nct acesta s-i reconsidere obiectivele imediate, sau chiar aspecte mai profunde, cum ar fi misiunea sau viziunea pe care le urmrete.

n concordan cu cercetrile lui Burns (1978), Bass (1985a, 1985b) a descris leaderii transformaionali ca fiind aceia care cresc la nivelul celorlali (subordonai, colegi, efi) gradul de contientizare a importanei atingerii obiectivelor i a importanei strategiei utilizate pentru atingerea respectivelor obiective. De asemenea, aceti leaderi ncurajeaz angajaii s treac de interesul lor individual i s vad, dincolo de acesta, binele echipei, al organizaiei sau al politicii generale n care se ncadreaz (accentul fiind pus pe interese i scopuri supraordonate). Totodat, leaderul transformaional este cel care dezvolt nevoile angajailor legate de realizri, autonomie, afiliere, mpingndu-le spre niveluri mai nalte att n plan profesional ct i extraprofesional. Leadershipul transformaional i ncurajeaz pe ceilali s se dezvolte i s obin performane dincolo de ateptrile normale, fcnd posibil acest lucru i printr-un exemplu personal de efort susinut i sacrificiu n realizarea misiunii. De asemenea, subordonaii ajung s se identifice mult mai mult cu urmrirea misiunii i cu sprijinul pe care l primesc pentru realizarea acesteia. n cadrul acestui proces de identificare personal, nivelul lor motivaional este crescut, autoeficacitatea este mrit i disponibilitatea lor de a accepta provocri ieite din comun este mult mai mare (Shamir, 1990). Leadershipul transformaional genereaz astfel ncredere, respect i o dorin de a lucra n echip, alturi de ali oameni, cu scopul realizrii acelorai obiective. n continuare va fi prezentat diferena ntre concluziile asupra leadershipului transformaional i cel tranzacional ntre Burns (1978) i Bass (1985), considernd absolut necesar parcurgerea celor dou viziuni asupra acestui fenomen pentru a nelege fundamentele teoretice ale MLQ. Inspirat de cercetrile lui Burns (1978) asupra leadershipului, Bass (1985) a transferat conceptul de leadership transformaional n context organizaional susinnd, n contrast cu prerile lui Burns, c leadership-ul transformaional completeaz leadership-ul tranzacional. Autorul a propus un model (Bass, 1985) pentru relaia dintre leadership-ul transformaional i cel tranzacional, ncercnd s ofere o modalitate de predicie a efectelor comportamentului leaderului asupra satisfaciei angajailor i asupra altor rezultate organizaionale. Mai exact, s-a ncercat demonstrarea concluziei c manifestrile

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transformaionale nu pot nlocui complet pe cele tranzacionale, dar c, atunci cnd ele sunt prezente, sunt responsabile de variaii unice n nivelurile de performan, care se prezint astfel mai ridicate, i deseori chiar cu mult, peste acelea cauzate de leadership-ul tranzacional activ. Dovezi empirice ale acestei ipoteze de lucru au nceput s apar cu rapiditate, fiind oferite pentru prima dat de Waldman i Bass (1986), care au evideniat statistic acest efect de completare n cadrul unor eantioane variate de manageri industriali i de ofieri ai armatei americane. n baza acestei noi paradigme, mai complete i mai versatile, despre duetul tranzacional/transformaional n comportamentul de leadership, acesta a fost analizat la aproape toate nivelurile organizaionale, n domenii industriale, educaionale, guvernamentale i militare (Avolio & Yammarino, 2002; Avolio, Bass & Yung, 1996; Avolio & Bass, 1988a; Bass & Avolio, 1993, 1994; Boyd, 1988; Deluga, 1988; Koh, 1990). Evident, aceste studii au demonstrat existena ntr-o anumit msur att a leadership-ului transformaional, ct i a celui tranzacional, la toate nivelurile diferitelor organizaii private, nonprofit i militare. O rezultant interesant i neateptat a acestor studii a fost aceea a identificrii unor leaderi transformaionali nu doar la nivel de top management, ci i printre managerii de proiect fr funcie de supervizare i a celor din cadrul nivelurilor celor mai de jos ale managementului. Important este ns c studiile demonstreaz posibilitatea ca deseori, n situaii diferite, acelai leader s manifeste att un leadership tranzacional, ct i unul transformaional, punnd astfel bazele empirice pentru a considera c aceste dou tipuri de conducere se manifest n grade diferite de-a lungul timpului. n consecin, modelul integrativ propus de Avolio i Bass (1988) i Bass i Avolio (1990) nu vine s nlocuiasc pleiada de concepte propuse de studiile n leadership, ci ofer cadrul integrativ al acestor concepte, stipulnd o eficien superioar nu pentru un tip sau altul i nici pentru un tip sau altul ntr-o situaie sau alta, ci artnd c eficiena superioar a comportamentului de conducere apare atunci cnd leaderul este suficient de versatil nct n situaii diferite s-i poat asuma roluri diferite, din ntreaga gam (full range) a acestor posibile manifestri. Autorii amintii au numit aceast situaie full range leadership - "o gam complet de leadership".

n urma stipulrii formale a acestei noi paradigme, au nceput cu rapiditate s apar instrumente psihometrice pentru msurarea "gamei complete" de stiluri de leadership (Antonakis, Avolio & Sivasubramaniam, 2003; Bass & Avolio, 1994). n acest context a fost dezvoltat i MLQ. Cercetarea pentru pilotarea primar a MLQ n Romnia Studiile preliminare de adaptare a MLQ au demarat n anul 2005, prin prima ncercare de traducere. n aceast prim variant de traducere a MLQ s-a apelat la o traducere a itemilor n contextul scalei, efectuat de ctre experi, nefiind utilizat procedura clasic de traduceri i retroversiuni consecutive de ctre subieci naivi. De asemenea, adaptarea s-a concentrat ntr-o prim faz doar asupra formei de autoevaluare a chestionarului, numit i forma leader. 1. Instrument utilizat: Chestionarul Multifactorial de Leadership (MLQ) Conceptualizarea iniial a modelului leadershipului tranzacional/transformaional prezentat de Bass (1985) includea apte factori de leadership (Carisma, Leadershipul Inspiraional, Stimularea intelectual, Aprecierea Individual, Recompensa Situaional, Managementul prin Excepie i Laissez-Faire). Factorii Carismatic i Inspiraional corelau puternic, dar erau diferii din punct de vedere conceptual. Corelaia acestor doi factori a infirmat la nivel empiric modelul, iar dovezi pentru o structur de cinci factori care s combine Carisma i Leadershipul Inspiraional au fost prezentate de Bycio, Hackett i Allen (1995) pentru prima form a Chestionarului Multifactorial de Leadership (MLQ Forma 1). Totui, Bycio, Hackett i Allen (1995) au notat cteva rezerve privitoare la descoperirile lor care indicau c: Dei per ansamblu analiza factorial tinde s susin existena a cinci componente de leadership, factorii transformaionali coreleaz puternic i, mai important, ei nu au, n general, relaii de difereniere puternic cu variabilele rezultat (p. 474). Versiunile anterioare ale MLQ au fost criticate de o seam de autori (Hunt, 1991; Smith & Peterson, 1988; Yuki, 1994, 1999) i pentru c structura factorial propus de autori

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Studii i Cercetri

nu a putut fi reprodus de toate cercetrile ulterioare. Bass i Avolio (1993) au concluzionat, dup trecerea n revist a studiilor empirice anterioare realizate cu MLQ, c:
Structura factorial iniial prezentat de Bass (1985) reprezint, totui, att din punct de vedere conceptual, ct i, n mare msur, din punct de vedere empiric, factorii leadership-ului transformaional, tranzacional i laissez-faire. A devenit ns evident c structura conceptului este mai complex dect a fost propus iniial, ceea ce va duce curnd la mbuntiri ale instrumentului (p. 61).

La aceste presiuni, din 1985 s-au operat mai multe actualizri ale MLQ. De la modelul iniial cu apte factori propus de Bass (1985) s-a ajuns la evidenierea ctorva factori adiionali i astfel au aprut versiuni actualizate ale MLQ, mult mai robuste din punct de vedere factorial (Bass i Avolio, 1993, 1994). Unii factori noi, care se regsesc n scalele noi ale chestionarului, acoper elementele atributive legate de stilul transformaional al leaderului, fiind bazai pe distincia dintre comportamentele carismatice idealizate i caracteristicile atribuite leaderului. De asemenea, Managementul prin excepie este mprit n dou scale difereniate: Managementul prin Excepie Activ (MBEA) i Managementul prin Excepie Pasiv (MBEP). Dup o munc susinut, forma actual a MLQ are nou scale de evaluare a caracteristicilor leaderului i, ntr-adevr, din punct de vedere empiric, aceste nou scale se evideniaz cu mare claritate ntr-o structur factorial cu nou factori. Ele reprezint mai degrab o ncercare de a defini ntr-un mod mai clar constructele asociate cu stilul i comportamentele de leadership care reprezint ceea ce Avolio i Bass (1991) au numit o gam complet de leadership. Aceast gam complet include la un pol aspecte ale leadership-ului transformaional, adugndu-le celor care sunt evitante sau transformaionale, la cellalt pol. Forma 5X a MLQ a fost utilizat n peste 300 de programe de cercetare, dizertaii doctorale i teze de masterat peste tot n lume. Versiunea curent a MLQ a fost tradus, de asemenea, n spaniol, portughez, italian, francez, german, norvegian, suedez, ebraic, turc, arab, chinez, tailandez i coreean pentru utilizri n diverse evaluri i n proiecte de cercetare i dezvoltare. Utilitatea adaptrii acestui chestionar pentru utilizatorii de limb romn este evident, MLQ

reprezentnd un instrument extrem de util att n detectarea leaderilor eficieni, performani, ct i n dezvoltarea de astfel de leaderi n contextul organizaional romnesc. Chestionarul Multifactorial de Leadership (MLQ) n versiunea sa cea mai recent (Forma 5X forma scurt) conine 45 de itemi, care se scoreaz n 12 scale: nou scale i subscale evalueaz comportamentele de leadership, iar trei scale msoar performana i rezultatele asociate acestor comportamente. Primele nou scale conin fiecare cte patru itemi, care identific i msoar comportamente de leadership i de eficien fundamentale, despre care s-a stabilit n cercetri anterioare c sunt strns legate de succesul individual i de cel organizaional. MLQ surprinde astfel o arie mai vast de comportamente de leadership, de la cel de tip laissez-faire pn la cel idealizat. n cadrul primelor nou scale ale MLQ, itemii din cadrul aceleiai scale coreleaz puternic ntre ei, dar coreleaz ct se poate de puin cu itemii celorlalte opt componente. MLQ difereniaz ns, n acelai timp, leaderii eficieni de cei ineficieni, cci conine de asemenea nou itemi, mprii pe trei scale, care evalueaz rezultatele leadershipului asupra subordonailor. Puine instrumente de leadership includ att itemi pentru leadership, ct i pentru rezultatele acestuia. Includerea ambelor aspecte permite compararea, pe baza aceluiai instrument, a aptitudinilor de leadership demonstrate de o persoan, cu performanele manageriale obinute de respectiva persoan, Exist o serie de diferene ntre forma scurt i cea lung a MLQ. Varianta extins a MLQ (5X forma lung) are 63 itemi, adic doi itemi n plus pentru fiecare component, care tind s se rsfrng asupra a mai mult de un singur stil, de exemplu itemii transformaionali din cadrul unei scale coreleaz i cu alte scale transformaionale. Dei MLQ (5X forma lung) este un instrument foarte util pentru training i coaching, forma scurt a MLQ este mai util pentru studii empirice i de cercetare. Pentru evaluarea itemilor MLQ, evaluatorul utilizeaz o scal cu cinci puncte, de la 0 la 4, care estimeaz frecvena comportamentului descris prin fiecare item pe baza unei liste de ancore care a fost testat iniial i furnizat de Bass, Cascio i O'Connor (1974). Ancorele pentru cei cinci pai ai scalei de evaluare din MLQ sunt prezentai astfel:

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0=Deloc, 1=Foarte rar, 2=Cteodat, 3=Destul de des, 4=Frecvent sau chiar ntotdeauna. n medie, completarea chestionarului dureaz aproximativ 15 minute. Respondenii ar trebui s aib o aptitudine de a citi comparabil cu cea a unui adolescent de clasa a noua (14-15 ani), cu toate c MLQ a fost folosit de-a lungul timpului i n organizaii cum ar fi instituiile de corecie, unde unii respondeni aveau o aptitudine de a citi mai mic dect cea indicat de autori (Crookall, 1989). n aceste cazuri, personalul care administreaz MLQ, poate citi itemii testului cu voce tare. Scalele Chestionarul Multifactorial de Leadership (MLQ) Aa cum anticipam mai sus, scalele MLQ sunt structurate in patru categorii primele trei msoar comportamentul leaderului, cea de-a patra evalueaz rezultatele leadershipului, fiecare scal grupnd, n componena sa un anumit numr de scale/subscale. Avem astfel, ca i categorii distincte, urmtoarele: 1. scalele transformaionale (includ cinci scale/sub-scale); 2. scalele tranzacionale (compuse din dou scale); 3. scalele de comportament pasiv/evitant (dou scale); 4. scale care msoar rezultatele leadershipului (integreaz trei scale distincte). SCALELE TRANSFORMAIONALE msoar caracteristicile de leadership transformaional, care este neles ca proces de influenare, de schimbare a modului n care angajaii (colegi, subordonai) contientizeaz ceea ce este important i de determinare a acestora de a avea o nou perspectiv asupra propriei persoane, asupra sarcinilor de munc i oportunitilor i provocrilor din cadrul mediului lor. II. Influena Idealizat: atribute i comportamente (Idealized Influence: Attributes and Behaviors). Scala, notat cu II, identific prin scorurile sale mari leaderii admirai, respectai i crora li se acord ncredere. Cei care-i urmeaz, se identific cu astfel de leaderi i doresc s fie ct mai asemntori cu ei. Printre lucrurile pe care un leader le face pentru a ctiga ncredere din partea subordonailor este i tendina de a

pune nevoile acestora naintea nevoilor sale personale. Leaderul mprtete riscurile cu subordonaii i este consecvent n comportamentele sale care se bazeaz pe etic, principii i valori mprtite. Aceasta scal este mprit n dou subscale, anume Atribute Idealizate (IA) i Comportamente Idealizate (IB). II(A). Atribute Idealizate (Idealized Attributes). Scala de Atribute Idealizate detecteaz prin scorurile sale mari capacitatea unei persoane de a exercita influen, inspirnd putere, trezind mndrie n rndul adepilor si, asigurnd i oferind ncredere, trecnd peste interesele individuale n favoarea celor de grup i servind drept model de referin celor care-i urmeaz. Scala pune accent pe faptul c scorurile mari identific persoane crora cei din jur le atribuie caliti idealizate i nu neaprat pe faptul c ele ar poseda respectivele caliti. Aceste persoane trezesc mndrie n alii, acioneaz n aa fel nct s trezeasc respectul celorlali pentru ei i afieaz un sentiment de ncredere i putere. II(B). Comportamente Idealizate (Idealized Behaviors). Aceast scal evideniaz prin scorurile sale mari tendina de a manifesta comportamente ideale, cum ar fi ascendena, dominana, contiinciozitatea, autocontrolul, judecata moral nalt, optimismul, eficiena. Persoanele cu scoruri mari la aceast scal vorbesc despre valorile i credinele lor cele mai importante, accentueaz necesitatea atingerii unei finaliti (dezirabile), iau n calcul aproape ntotdeauna consecinele morale i etice ale deciziilor lor i accentueaz, de asemenea, importana construirii unui sens colectiv, mprtit de toi, privind misiunea echipei sau grupului. IM. Motivaia inspiraional (Inspirational Motivation). Leaderii cu scoruri mari la aceast scal se comport ntr-o manier motivatoare pentru cei din jur, dnd semnificaie muncii i descoperind provocarea n activitatea proprie i a celorlali. Ei stimuleaz spiritul individual, i cel de echip, sporesc entuziasmul i, mai ales, optimismul n rndul echipei; leaderul insufl tuturor ncredere ntr-un viitor pozitiv i i stimuleaz i pe ceilali s se raporteze pozitiv la viitor. Aceti leaderi vorbesc cu optimism despre viitor, au o viziune plin de ncredere asupra viitorului, i exprim ncrederea n faptul c

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obiectivele vor fi realizate, accentund importana fiecruia n atingerea acestora. IS. Stimularea intelectual (Intellectual Stimulation). Scorurile mari la aceast scal identific persoanele care stimuleaz i cultiv inovaia i creativitatea celor din jurul lor. De obicei reuesc acest deziderat prin ncurajarea celor din jur de a chestiona i pune la ndoial presupuneri i concluzii, de a reanaliza i reformula problemele cu care se confrunt, de a aborda situaiile vechi din noi perspective, de a privi orice situaie din mai multe unghiuri/puncte de vedere. Aceste persoane evit ironizarea sau critica public a greelilor membrilor echipei, ncurajndu-i astfel s experimenteze i s fie creativi. Aceti leaderi solicit n continuu subordonailor lor s gseasc noi idei i soluii creative pentru problemele uzuale, fiind antrenai n mod continuu n procesul rezolutiv. IC. Aprecierea individual (Individual Consideration). Persoanele cu scoruri mari la scala de Apreciere Individual (IC) acord atenie nevoilor de realizare i dezvoltare ale fiecrui individ, acionnd ca un mentor i un coach (antrenor), alocnd timp, efort i resurse individuale pentru a-i ajuta pe cei din jurul lor s creasc, s se dezvolte. Subordonaii lor i dezvolt astfel potenialul individual la niveluri tot mai nalte, cci li se creeaz noi oportuniti de a nva i sunt parte a unui climat orientat spre sprijin, n care au toate condiiile pentru a evolua. Astfel de leaderi tind s recunoasc diferenele individuale la cei din jur, sub aspectul nevoilor i dorinelor fiecruia, abordeaz fiecare subordonat n concordan cu potenialul i capacitile sale, petrec timp prednd i antrennd pe ceilali n dezvoltare continu cu accent pe competenele cheie/punctele forte, tratndu-i difereniat pe cei din jurul lor, ca indivizi i nu doar ca membri ai grupului. SCALELE TRANZACIONALE msoar caracteristicile tranzacionale la persoanele evaluate i anume, comportamentele asociate cu tranzacii constructive (de exemplu recompens situaional) i corective (de exemplu management prin excepie). CR. Recompensa situaional (Contingent Reward). Leaderii cu scoruri mari la aceast scal manifest comportamente caracteristice unei tranzacii eficiente, i anume tind s discute n termeni clari cine este responsabil

pentru realizarea obiectivelor de performan, clarific ceea ce o persoan se poate atepta s primeasc atunci cnd obiectivele de performan sunt realizate i i exprim satisfacia atunci cnd ceilali ndeplinesc ceea ce se atepta de la ei. Aadar, aceti leaderi obinuiesc s clarifice ateptrile i s recunoasc meritele celorlali la atingerea obiectivelor. Recompensele situaionale reprezint un instrument important al leadershipului tranzacional i constau n rsplata acordat doar atunci cnd obiectivele sunt atinse. Rezultatul obinut n urma unei astfel de abordri const n realizarea nivelelor ateptate de performan de ctre indivizi i grupuri. MBEA. Management prin excepie: Activ (Management-by-Exception: Active). Persoanele cu scoruri mari la aceast scal sunt acei leaderi care specific clar att standardele pentru complian, ct i ceea ce reprezint performana ineficient, i care se rezum ulterior la a sanciona subalternii pentru posibila nerespectare a acestor standarde. Acest stil de leadership presupune monitorizarea atent a deviaiilor, a greelilor i a erorilor i apoi luarea de msuri corective ct mai rapid cu putin, atunci cnd sunt comise greeli sau abateri de la standard. Leaderii care practic un management prin excepie activ obinuiesc s in evidena tuturor greelilor, i concentreaz atenia asupra neregulilor, erorilor, excepiilor i deviaiilor de la standarde, precum i asupra tratrii acestor greeli, plngeri i eecuri. SCALELE DE COMPORTAMENT PASIV/EVITANT (PASSIVE/AVOIDANT BEHAVIOR). Cealalt form de management prin excepie este mai pasiv i reactiv, ea descrie leaderi care nu reacioneaz sistematic la situaiile i problemele cu care se confrunt. Leaderii pasivi evit s clarifice nenelegerile, s enune ateptrile i s stabileasc obiective i standarde care s fie realizate de ctre subalterni. Acest stil are de cele mai multe ori un efect negativ asupra rezultatelor dorite - opus celui intenionat de leaderul respectiv. Din acest punct de vedere este asemntor stilului numit laissez-faire, numit i fr leadership. Ambele aceste tipuri de leadership pasiv prin excepie au un impact negativ asupra subalternilor i angajailor. n consecin, ambele stiluri pot fi grupate n categoria leadership pasiv-evitat.

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MBEP. Managementul prin excepie pasiv (Management-by-Exception: Pasive). Dac stilul de leadership activ prin excepie presupune monitorizarea atent a deviaiilor, greelilor i erorilor i apoi aplicarea, ct mai rapid cu putin, a msurilor corective, leaderul care ader la un management pasiv prin excepie nu ateapt doar ca aceste erori s apar, ci ateapt efectiv ca problemele s devin serioase i grave pentru ca el s acioneze. Adeptul convingerii dac nc nu sa rupt, nu reparm acioneaz doar atunci cnd lucrurile merg prost i cnd problemele devin cronice. LF. Management permisiv (Laissez-faire). Acest stil de leadership poate fi definit mai degrab ca stil de non-leadership i se afl la cealalt extrem de (in)eficien a stilului transformaional. n cazul leadershipului permisiv, practic leaderul evit s-i asume comportamentul de conducere: nu ofer informaii subalternilor, nu ofer feedback, este incapabil de a recunoate sau satisface dorinele angajailor. Persoanele identificate prin scorurile mari la aceast scal evit s se implice atunci cnd apar probleme importante, sunt absene atunci cnd este nevoie de ele, evit s ia decizii i obinuiesc s aib o reacie ntrziat la probleme urgente.

satisfacerii nevoilor profesionale ale celorlali, a reprezentrii grupului lor n faa unei autoriti superioare, n satisfacerea cerinelor organizaionale i, nu n ultimul rnd, prin eficiena ntregului grup coordonat. SAT. Satisfacia legat de leadership (Satisfaction with the Leadership). Scala de satisfacie legat de leadership conine doar doi itemi i identific prin scorurile sale nalte leaderi care genereaz satisfacie interpersonal n interaciunea cu ceilali. Aceti leaderi sunt persoane deschise, autentice, calde i oneste, capabile s genereze i s dezvolte sentimente de mulumire la nivelul celor cu care lucreaz. Scalele MLQ sunt construite n concordan cu modelul propus de autori (Bass & Avolio, 1990; Avolio & Bass, 1988) model care ofer o viziune integrativ asupra numeroaselor concepte din problematica leadershipului, accentund necesitatea flexibilitii i a versatilitii leaderului n asumarea rolurilor diferite n situaii diferite i practicarea unui leadership complet, adoptnd comportamente din ntreaga gam (full range) a posibilelor manifestri de leadership. 2. Participani n primvara anului 2006 (aprilie-mai) au fost culese datele aferente unei prime pilotri n Romnia. Eantionul este unul de pilotare, compus dintr-un numr de 229 de subieci cu funcii de conducere, plasai la nivel mediu i de top n corporaii din Bucureti. Din aceti 229 de subieci, 91 (39.74%) sunt femei i 138 (60.26%) sunt brbai. Media de vrst este de 42.6 ani. 3. Rezultate i discuii Vom prezenta n cele ce urmeaz date psihometrice, rezultate din aceast pilotare n Romnia a traducerii preliminare a MLQ, comparativ cu datele desprinse de pe urma eantionului normativ american i prezentate de autori n ultima versiune a manualului MLQ (Avolio & Bass, 2004). Tabelul 1 prezint mediile i dispersiile celor 9+3 scale ale MLQ, calculate pentru eantionul normativ american i respectiv pentru eantionul romnesc, pentru acesta din urm au fost evideniate i mediile i dispersiile calculate pe baza sub-eantioanelor de gen. Se poate observa c n cazul Romniei femeile

SCALELE CENTRATE PE REZULTATELE LEADERSHIP-ULUI. Att leadership-ul transformaional ct i cel tranzacional sunt relaionate cu succesul grupului. Eficiena leadershipului este evaluat de MLQ pe baza modului n care evaluatorii i percep leaderii ca fiind buni motivatori, ca fiind eficieni n interaciunile de la deferite niveluri ale organizaiei i ca genernd satisfacie cu metodele de lucru. EE. Efortul suplimentar (Extra Effort). Efortul suplimentar, ca efect al unui leadership eficient, este acea dorin a subordonailor de a realiza o performan superioar prin eforturi mult mai mari, fiind convini s fac mai mult dect se poate atepta n mod legitim de la ei. Leaderii cu scoruri mari la aceast scal amplific dorina celorlali de a reui i cresc disponibilitatea acestora de a se strdui mai mult. EFF. Eficiena (Effectiveness). Scala de Eficien identific prin scorurile ei nalte leaderii eficieni, judecai astfel prin prisma

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au n medie scoruri mai mari dect brbaii la scale precum MBEA - Management prin excepie activ, MBEP - Managementul prin excepie pasiv i LF - Management permisiv, la

toate celelalte scale scorurile mai mari fiind cele prezentate de leaderii de sex masculin.

Tabelul 1. Indici statistici de start pentru scalele MLQ, n SUA (N=27285) i Romnia (N=229) Scalele MLQ Eantion SUA (N=27285) II(A) II(B) IM IS IC CR MBEA MBEP LF EE EFF SAT m 2.94 2.77 2.92 2.78 2.85 2.87 1.67 1.03 .65 2.74 3.07 3.08 .76 .72 .76 .71 .78 .7 .88 .75 .67 .86 .72 .83 Masculin (N=138) m 2.71 .59 3.1 .54 3.07 .58 3.27 .45 2.97 3.1 2.38 1.01 .65 3.03 2.99 2.86 .61 .59 .81 .6 .51 .6 .53 .74 Eantion Romnia Feminin (N=91) m 2.47 2.96 3.01 3.17 2.74 2.95 2.44 1.27 .87 2.93 2.93 2.65 .67 .57 .62 .54 .67 .57 .71 .68 .51 .65 .49 .81 Total (N=229) m 2.57 3.02 3.04 3.21 2.83 3.01 2.41 1.16 .78 2.97 2.95 2.73 .65 .56 .61 .51 .65 .58 .75 .66 .52 .63 .51 .79

De principiu se arat astfel c, cel puin n eantionul nostru, comportamentul femeilor din poziii manageriale este mai nclinat spre componenta tranzacional a leadershipului dect este cazul pentru managerii brbai. Femeile sunt mai nclinate spre a meniona cu claritate standardele pentru complian i comportamentele indezirabile i spre a sanciona ulterior subalternii pentru nerespectrile acestor principii. De asemenea, tot femeile manageri par a fi mai nclinate spre a renuna la monitorizarea atent a deviaiilor, greelilor i erorilor i la impunerea din timp a unor msuri corective, amnnd deseori nejustificat de mult deciziile care se impun ntro anumit situaie. Ele sunt i mai nclinate dect managerii brbai s decad ntr-un stil de management permisiv, n care evit s-i asume comportamentul de conducere, evit s se implice atunci cnd apar probleme importante, evit s ia decizii i obinuiesc s aib o reacie ntrziat la probleme urgente. Tabelul 2 expune semnificaia diferenelor dintre mediile scalelor MLQ, calculate pe eantioanele american i romnesc. Se poate observa ca exist un avantaj pentru managerii romni n ceea ce privete prezena comportamentelor transformaionale comparativ cu cei americani, n special la scale precum II(B) -

Comportamente Idealizate, IM - Motivaia inspiraional, IS - Stimularea intelectual; de asemenea, tot la managerii romni, se constat i prezena n mai mare msur a comportamentelor caracteristice leadershipului tranzacional i a celui pasiv (scalele CR Recompensa situaional, MBEA Management prin excepie Activ, MBEP Managementul prin excepie Pasiv i LF Management permisiv). Am putea spune, pe baza acestor date c managerii romni au n general scoruri mai mari att la scalele transformaionale ct i la scalele tranzacionale, dect cei americani, ns atragem atenia asupra faptului c n cazul SUA scorurile scalelor sunt calculate pe un eantion normativ naional, pe cnd eantionul romnesc este un eantion de necesitate, selectat din cele mai competitive industrii i companii romneti. Diferenele n favoarea managerilor romni sunt de ateptat, n acest caz. Cu toate acestea, este interesant c scorurile scalelor de eficien managerial, anume EFF - Eficiena i SAT - Satisfacia legat de leadership sunt mai mici pentru leaderii romni, n ciuda faptului c provin din industrii foarte competitive. Semnificaia celei mai mari pri a acestor diferene este relevant din punct de vedere statistic, singura scal la care putem

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spune c leaderii romni au scoruri nedifereniate de cei americani ar fi scala de IC - Apreciere individual. Avansm cu titlul de ipotez explicaia c, dei provin din zone foarte competitive ale economiei, managerii din eantionul romnesc nu au comportamente de valorizare ale celor din jur dect la media

intensitii eantionului american, care conine de bun seam i indivizi din zone mai puin competitive dect mediul de afaceri: management educaional, carier militar, management sanitar etc.

Tabelul 2. Semnificaia diferenelor ntre mediile pe scale calculate pe eantioanele american (N=27285) i romnesc (N=229) Scalele MLQ m II(A) II(B) IM IS IC CR MBEA MBEP LF EE EFF SAT 2.94 2.77 2.92 2.78 2.85 2.87 1.67 1.03 .65 2.74 3.07 3.08 SUA .76 .72 .76 .71 .78 .7 .88 .75 .67 .86 .72 .83 Romnia m 2.57 3.02 3.04 3.21 2.83 3.01 2.41 1.16 .78 2.97 2.95 2.73 .65 .56 .61 .51 .65 .58 .75 .66 .52 .63 .51 .79 t 7.34 5.24 2.38 9.14 .38 3.01 12.68 2.61 2.92 4.03 2.51 6.35 Semnificaie p .0001 .0001 .0172 .0001 .6988 .0025 .0001 .0089 .0034 .0001 .0118 .0001

Rezultatele obinute sunt contradictorii fa de datele anterioare obinute de autori pe subieci americani, rezultate care indicau faptul c liderii femei sunt mai transformaionali dect omologii lor masculini, evalurile acestora fiind nsoite i de o mai mare satisfacie i eficien n rndurile subordonailor (Bass, Avolio & Atwater, 1996). Ele pot fi explicate pe baza

unei experiene reduse pentru femeile director din Romnia, sau prin prisma procentului redus de manageri femei (mai ales de vrf) in Romnia sau printr-o multitudine de ali factori explicativi care transced scopul nostru actual, fcndu-ne s lansm aceast provocare pentru studii ulterioare.

Tabelul 3. Fidelitatea scalelor MLQ, calculat pentru SUA i Romnia Scalele MLQ II(A) II(B) IM IS IC CR MBEA MBEP LF EE EFF SAT SUA (N=3755) .70 .64 .76 .64 .62 .60 .75 .64 .60 .79 .67 .78 Romnia (N=229) .65 .54 .69 .62 .59 .63 .78 .65 .58 .77 .67 .81

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Tabelul 3 prezint indicii Alpha de consisten intern, calculai pentru cele 12 scale ale MLQ n Romnia. n paralel sunt prezentai indicii de consisten intern indicai de autori n ultima versiune a manualului testului (Avolio & Bass, 2004). Se poate observa c indicii obinui n Romnia sunt comparabili din toate punctele de vedere cu cei americani. n SUA indicii de fidelitate sunt cuprini ntre un minim de .60

(pentru scalele CR - Recompensa situaional i LF - Management permisiv) i un maxim de .79 (pentru scala EE - Efort suplimentar), cu o median de .66. n Romnia indicii Alpha sunt cuprini ntre un minim de .54 (pentru scala II(B) - Comportamente Idealizate) i un maxim de .81 (pentru scala SAT Satisfacia legat de leadership), cu o median de .65.

Tabelul 4. Corelaii interscale pentru scalele MLQ, calculate pentru eantioane din SUA (N=3755) i Romnia (N=588) II(A) II(A) II(B) IM IS IC CR MBEA MBEP LF EE EFF SAT .49** .54** .39** .46** .45** -.01 -.16** -.25** .55** .53** .52** II(B) .50** .58** .44** .42** .43** .01 -.13** -.17** .46** .37** .35** IM .64** .53** .43** .41** .45** -.08** -.19** -.25** .56** .50** .43** IS .59** .56** .67** .45** .38** .02** -.17** -.15** .45** .37** .36** IC .57** .53** .49** .69** .44** -.13** -.16** -.20** .47** .44** .46** CR .66** .59** .56** .66** .60** .06* -.13** -.24** .45** .47** .39** MBEA .20** .24** .21** .16** .06 .14* .11** .07** -.02 -.05* -.07** MBEP -.38** -.25** -.33** -.32** -.41** -.43** .10* .46** -.22** -.25** -.20** LF -.51** -.32** -.39** -.32** -.31** -.47** -.02 .49** -.24** -.38** -.27** EE .66** .56** .61** .68** .56** .74** .11* -.40** -.51** .56** .53** EFF .72** .50** .64** .62** .53** .57** .26** -.30** -.57** .63** .60** SAT .63** .52** .64** .68** .62** .63** .20** -.45** -.51** .69** 71** -

Not: Datele rezultate din SUA sunt prezentate sub diagonal, iar datele rezultate din Romnia sunt prezentate deasupra diagonalei. * p<.01; **p<.0001.

Tabelul 4 prezint corelaiile ntre scalele MLQ, aa cum au rezultat ele dintr-un eantion SUA de N=3755 subieci (dup Avolio & Bass, 2004) i un eantion romnesc de N=588 subieci. Acest eantion a fost utilizat datorit volumului superior, fa de eantionul de manageri discutat anterior, completnd cu un numr de 359 subieci lotul experimental. Aceti 359 de subieci provin dintr-un program experimental de training n leadership, iar datele au fost culese n aa fel nct nu a fost posibil pentru noi dect accesul la scorurile scalelor i nu la scorurile itemilor individuali; din acest motiv singura statistic n care se poate utiliza viabil acest lot suplimentar este corelaia interscale. Se poate observa o evoluie a corelaiei foarte similar pentru cazul Romniei, fa de cazul SUA. de principiu se semnaleaz corelaii mari ntre toate scalele transformaionale i ntre cele trei scale de rezultate ale chestionarului. Exist corelaii aproape nule ntre cele dou scale tranzacionale (CR - Recompensa situaional i MBEA - Management prin excepie Activ), o

corelaie medie dar semnificativ (r=.29) ntre cele dou scale de comportament pasiv/evitant (MBEP - Managementul prin excepie pasiv i LF - Management permisiv). Semnalm de asemenea corelaii pozitive puternice ntre scalele tranzacionale i cele transformaionale, corelaii negative, de intensitate sczut i medie, ntre scalele transformaionale i cele de leadership pasiv/permisiv i corelaii pozitive i foarte puternice ntre scalele transformaionale i cele de rezultat. Interpretarea acestei constelaii este relativ simpl, ea indicnd c se ntmpl de cele mai multe ori ca manifestrile transformaionale s fie nsoite i de comportamente tranzacionale; ambele aceste comportamente sunt principial legate de o asumare a poziiei de leader i stau n contradicie cu refuzul de asumare a acestei poziii i cu evitarea responsabilitilor aferente, descrise de scalele de comportament pasiv/evitant. Eficiena leadershipului, evaluat prin prisma unui efort suplimentar depus de angajai, a unei eficiene sporite n satisfacerea

57

nevoilor profesionale ale celorlali i a capacitii de a genera satisfacie n interaciunea cu ceilali, este strns legat de

comportamentul tranzacional dar mai ales de cel transformaional.

Tabelul 5. Structura factorial n nou factori, pe un eantion SUA de N=3755 subieci Scala II(A) - item 1 II(A) - item 2 II(A) - item 3 II(A) - item 4 II(B) - item 1 II(B) - item 2 II(B) - item 3 II(B) - item 4 IM - item 1 IM - item 2 IM - item 3 IM - item 4 IS - item 1 IS - item 2 IS - item 3 IS - item 4 IC - item 1 IC - item 2 IC - item 3 IC - item 4 CR - item 1 CR - item 2 CR - item 3 CR - item 4 MBEA - item 1 MBEA - item 2 MBEA - item 3 MBEA - item 4 MBEP - item 1 MBEP - item 2 MBEP - item 3 MBEP - item 4 LF - item 1 LF - item 2 LF - item 3 LF - item 4 * Dup Avolio i Bass (2004), p. 76. 1 .69 .73 .44 .81 .55 .45 .75 .73 .70 .73 .74 .76 .74 .52 .76 .60 .79 .67 .59 .65 .57 .51 .64 .69 .61 .66 .65 .70 .34 .62 .80 .73 .64 .65 .68 .52 2 3 4 Factori 5 6 7 8 9

Tabelul 5 i Tabelul 6 prezint structura factorial n 9 factori, obinut prin factorizarea primilor 35 de itemi ai MLQ, anume a itemilor care determin stilurile de leadership. Tabelul 5 prezint structura raportat de Avolio i Bass (2004) pentru SUA, iar Tabelul 6 prezint structura obinut pentru Romnia, printr-un procedeu de analiz factorial confirmatorie.

Menionm n acest context c studii diferite realizate cu ajutorul MLQ prezint un numr diferit de factori rezultai prin procedee de analiz factorial exploratorie, din itemii MLQ. Chiar i Avolio i Bass (1995, 2000, 2004) prezint structuri factoriale cu 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, i 9 factori. Analiza exploratorie, cu extracie n componente principale, realizat pentru primii

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Studii i Cercetri

35 de itemi ai MLQ, pentru eantionul romnesc a rezultat, la un criteriu de stopare a extraciei bazat pe inspecia vizual a saturaiilor (scree-test), n 6 factori, acoperind

52.70% din varian, iar la un criteriu de stopare bazat pe saturaia supraunitar n 11 factori, acoperind 58.91% din varian.

Tabelul 6. Structura factorial n nou factori, pe un eantion din Romnia de N=229 subieci Scala II(A) - item 1 II(A) - item 2 II(A) - item 3 II(A) - item 4 II(B) - item 1 II(B) - item 2 II(B) - item 3 II(B) - item 4 IM - item 1 IM - item 2 IM - item 3 IM - item 4 IS - item 1 IS - item 2 IS - item 3 IS - item 4 IC - item 1 IC - item 2 IC - item 3 IC - item 4 CR - item 1 CR - item 2 CR - item 3 CR - item 4 MBEA - item 1 MBEA - item 2 MBEA - item 3 MBEA - item 4 MBEP - item 1 MBEP - item 2 MBEP - item 3 MBEP - item 4 LF - item 1 LF - item 2 LF - item 3 LF - item 4 1 .29* .63* .54* .32* .64 .34* .28* .22* .32* 2 .42 3 4 Factori 5

.31 .32

.48 .36* .41* .45* .43* .39

.49 .31 .46* .11* .44* .55* .56 .35 .49* .34* .19* .35* .38 .31* .45* .60* .25* .42* .50* .51* .47* .34 .39 .35 .46* .23* .51* .50* .55* .43* .49* .20*

.45 .36

.31

.37 .34

.31 .46 .45 .34 .31

* Marcajele indic poziia factorial indicat de cheia de scorare.

n Tabelul 6 sunt prezentate scorurile fiecrui item, fiind indicat scala din care face parte pe baza cheii de scorare, saturaia obinut pe respectiva scal, precum i saturaiile semnificative obinute de respectivul item n ali factori. Au fost suprimate toate saturaiile mai

mici de .30, cu excepia celor prescrise cheia de scorare a respectivului item. Se poate observa cu uurin numr destul de mare de itemi care probleme de integrare coerent n factorul care aparin. n total semnalm 7 itemi din

de un au de 35

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(20%) n care saturaia maxim este n alt scal dect prescrie cheia de scorare a MLQ i 6 itemi din 35 (17.14%) n care ncrcarea pe factorul corect este mai mic de .25, fiind nsoit de scoruri mai mari pe ali factori. Dintre aceti din urm 6 itemi, 4 itemi sunt aceiai cu cei menionai ca avnd scorul maxim n alt scal dect prescrie cheia de scorare. n total nregistrm aadar 9 itemi din 35 (25.71%) cu probleme. Aceti itemi cu probleme se mpart pe scale dup cum urmeaz: cte un item pe scalele II(A), IM, IS, CR i MBEP i cte doi pe II(B) i IC. Soluia factorial este n genere un indicator foarte bun al performanei coerente a unui test i descrie felul n care itemii testului surprind constructe care exist latent la nivel empiric. O soluie factorial care nu confirm performana similar a testului n alt cadru cultural dect cel original, indic n genere probleme de semantic sau de adaptare cultural pe o parte din itemi. Considerm c rezultatele analizei factoriale, mai mult dect orice alt statistic, ndreptesc continuarea muncii de adaptare a MLQ, cci structura este suficient de apropiat de cea indicat de Avolio i Bass (2004) nct s fie ncurajatoare, iar

diferenele sunt suficient de bine conturate nct s arate cu claritate zonele care necesit atenie n continuare. Dorim s menionm n acest context faptul c n cazul MLQ apar unele probleme principiale n ceea ce privete utilitatea unei analize factoriale exploratorii. Este vorba n primul rnd despre multicolinearitatea constructelor transformaionale, care sunt puternic interrelaionate. Faptul c aceste scale msoar constructe similare s-ar traduce ntr-un model factor-analitic prin identificarea unei singure variabile latente care s explice variana tuturor celor cinci scale transformaionale (Bycio, Hackett & Allen, 1995; Carless, 1998). Argumentul autorilor MLQ de a pstra totui cele cinci scale independente ine de sinergia acestor cinci scale i de plusul pe care existena lor ca scale separate l aduce n nelegerea analitic a fenomenului msurat (Bass, 1985a, 1998; Bass & Avolio, 1994). ns multicolinearitatea ar sugera c factorii rezultai sunt oblici (corelai) i nu ortogonali, aa cum se presupune n genere n analiza factorial exploratorie.

Tabelul 7. Indicii de potrivire generali n cazul ctorva modele factoriale, pentru Romnia Indice de potrivire GFI* AGFI** CFI*** RMSEA**** Modelul cu 1 factor .74 .71 .71 .084 Modelul cu 2 factori .79 .76 .75 .081 Modelul cu 3 factori .82 .80 .80 .063 Modelul cu 6 factori .84 .81 .79 .057 Modelul cu 9 factori .87 .83 .82 .053

* GFI este indicele gradului de potrivire (Goodness of Fit Index). ** AGFI este indicele ajustat al gradului de potrivire (Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index). *** CFI este indicele comparativ de potrivire (Comparative Fit Index). **** RMSEA este rdcina ptratelor medii reziduale (Root Mean Square of Approximation).

Din toate aceste motive, adaptarea MLQ 5X n Romnia a presupus i rularea unui set de analize factoriale confirmatorii, pentru testarea modelelor factoriale explicate i analizate i de autorii MLQ. n mod specific a fost analizat potrivirea datelor din eantionul normativ romnesc cu modelele de 1, 2, 3, 6 i 9 factori, explicate de Avolio i Bass (2004). n Tabelul 7 pot fi observai cei mai uzuali indici de potrivire pentru aceste cinci modele. Se poate observa c modelul cu trei factori are indicii GFI i AGFI peste pragul acceptat de .80, dar o rdcin a ptratelor (RMSEA) plasat semnificativ peste nivelul

acceptat de .05. Modelul cu ase factori este ceva mai apropiat de acceptabilitate, iar modelul cu nou factori poate fi considerat a ilustra o potrivire bun, chiar dac indicele RMSEA se plaseaz cu .003 asupra pragului acceptat de teorie. Putem aadar afirma c analizele confirmatorii rulate asupra instrumentului rezult ntr-o imagine mult mai coerent dect cele exploratorii, ceea ce poate fi explicat pe baza multicolinearitii scalelor MLQ. Dei indicii prezentai n aceast analiz nu se plaseaz la nivelul acceptabilitii, chiar dac sunt foarte aproape de acesta, ele sunt

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Studii i Cercetri

ncurajatoare i arat c MLQ este un instrument robust i c eforturile de adaptare a sa n Romnia sunt foarte aproape de succes. Concluzii Liderii transformaionali, susin numeroase studii, genereaz o implicare mai mare n munc a celor din jurul lor (Avolio, 1999; Avolio & Yammarino, 2002; Bass, 1998a) i produc o mai mare eficien i satisfacie n rndul celor din jur dect o face orice alt comportament de leadership (tranzacional sau pasiv). Totui, accentul n comportamentul de conducere trebuie s se pun pe practicarea unui leadership complet, prin adoptarea comportamentelor din ntreaga gam (full range) a posibilelor manifestri de leadership. Organizaiile actuale, denumite drept "organizaii inter-relaionate" (Drucker, 1988), sau "ntreprinderi inteligente (Quinn, 1992), fac presiuni asupra managementului n vederea ctigrii n adaptabilitate i competitivitate; o alternativ cert pentru leaderul modern este aceea de a explora o gam mai larg de stiluri de conducere i de ai dezvolta competene de leadership transformaional (Cascio, 1995). n acest context, MLQ apare ca un instrument extrem de util i uzitat n detectarea, dezvoltarea i corectarea comportamentului leaderului. De aici rezult i importana adaptrii MLQ la contextul romnesc, pentru a furniza specialitilor din domenii diferite ale managementului resurselor umane un instrument foarte bun pentru identificarea i optimizarea aptitudinilor i a rezultatelor de leadership, viznd, ca obiectiv ultim, succesul organizaional. Scalele MLQ pot ajuta la msurarea impactului diferit pe care tipuri diferite de leaderi l au asupra colegilor lor, asupra echipelor conduse i asupra eficienei organizaiilor n care activeaz. Putem astfel cuantifica aria de influen a modelului de leadership al managerilor din domenii diferite (afaceri, industrie, militar, educaional, religios, administrativ, guvernamental, sportiv) i la a vedea n ce msur acest model afecteaz satisfacia subordonailor i colegilor, eficiena echipei i succesul organizaional (Bass & Avolio, 1993a). Scorurile MLQ pot fi utilizate i pentru a nelege mai bine factorii care contribuie la dezvoltarea timpurie a aptitudinilor de leadership i a preferinelor pentru anumite stiluri, precum i experienele care contribuie la

crearea gamei att largi de stiluri de leadership care poate fi observat n organizaii. Rolul diagnostic al MLQ poate fi aprofundat, cu ajutorul metodologiei calitative, n care datele legate de experienele timpurii din dezvoltarea unui leader pot fi culese prin interviuri de profunzime sau prin interpretarea informaiilor biografice. Leaderul devine apoi contient de experienele personale care pot limita leadership-ul eficient (Avolio, 1994; 2004), aici intervenind utilitatea formativ a MLQ, instrumentul fiind o bun baz de pornire pentru dezvoltarea ulterioar prin training, coaching sau consiliere. Trainingul sau consilierea individual se pot ocupa de acele aspecte marcate de experienele anterioare de dezvoltare ale individului, care l-au lsat pe acesta nepregtit pentru provocrile cu care se confrunt ca leader. Scorurile MLQ de dinainte i de dup training pot constitui baza pentru cercetri evaluative. Ele pot fi utilizate i pentru a reflecta schimbrile de politic din organizaie, i evoluiile aprute n timp. MLQ poate analiza att profilurile de leadership ntr-o analiz de ansamblu, ct i pe cele individuale ale leaderilor dintr-o organizaie. Raportul MLQ a fost folosit pentru a arta felul n care leadershipul se rsfrnge de la un nivel al organizaiei asupra urmtorului nivel, ori superior ori inferior. Se pot de asemenea compara i departamentele diferite din cadrul unei organizaii, pe baza unor criterii specifice de performan, prin confruntarea leaderilor individuali cu scorurile cumulate de leadership. Astfel, MLQ poate fi folosit att la un nivel de analiz individual ct i, atunci cnd acest lucru e posibil, combinat pentru realizarea unor comparaii interesante ntre grupuri (Avolio & Bass, 1995). Utilitatea chestionarului este foarte mare i a fost punctat pe tot parcursul acestei lucrri. Datele preliminarii obinute pentru Romnia ne indic faptul c adaptarea cultural a chestionarului evolueaz n direcia corect, chiar dac mai necesit munc susinut i pilotri viitoare. Semnalm ca o limit a prezentului studiu calitatea special a eantionului de necesitate utilizat, precum i lipsa datelor rezultate din hetero-evaluare, pe lng datele rezultate din auto-evaluare. Cercetri ulterioare realizate n Romnia cu ajutorul MLQ vor aduce cu siguran un plus de rigoare n acest plan, consacrnd instrumentul ca o parte important n trusa cu scule a psihologului industrial i organizaional.

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Articolul a fost acceptat spre publicare in 2007.

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Engagement organisationnel en situation de changement: quelles perspectives dans un hpital public? Revue de question
1

Elisabeth Doutre Universit Pierre Mends France

Abstract This study aims to identify which variables are presents in a context of organizational change and to examine how they are antecedents of the leaders organizational commitment (EO), either separately or jointly. These variables can also have some effects on the collaborators affective commitment to the supervisor. The case of a French public hospital will betaken as an example to develop the context of these perspectives of research and application. Key words: Organizational commitment, affective commitment, commitment towards the supervisor, organizational change, public organization.

Rezumat Acest studiu i propune identificarea variabilelor prezente ntr-un context de schimbare organizaional i investigarea manierei n care acestea se constituie ca antecedente ale angajamentului organizaional al liderului, fie idependent unele de altele, fie n interaciune. Aceste variabile pot de asemenea influena angajamentul afectiv al colaboratorului fa de supervizor. Cazul unui spital public din Frana va fi luat ca i exemplu pentru dezvoltarea contextului acestor perspective de cercetare i aplicaii. Cuvinte cheie: angajament organizaional, angajament afectiv, angajament fa de superior, schimbare organizaional, organizaie public.

Obtenir lengagement des salaris pourrait-il tre aujourdhui considr comme lune des conditions de russite des changements introduits dans lorganisation de travail? Certains auteurs le laisseraient penser (Fisch, Weakland & Segal, 1982; Hersey & Blanchard, 1987; Fiedler, 1986; Bandura, 2001; Brasseur & Mzabi, 2003, Paill, 2006). Sil apparat vident que sans les acteurs organisationnels, aucune pratique nest envisageable, certaines formes dengagement ne pourraient elles pas favoriser la concrtisation de projets de changement, et auquel cas, quel modle permettrait-il le mieux de le faire? Notre objectif ici est de raliser un tat de lart pour comprendre comment sorganisent et se structurent les mcanismes dengagement organisationnel. Quelles sont les diverses variables, comment sarticulent leurs effets
Adresa de coresponden: Elisabeth.doutre@upmf-grenoble.fr
1

lorsquelles jouent conjointement sur lengagement organisationnel du chef et de ses collaborateurs dans une dmarche de changement, notamment dans un contexte organisationnel de service public. Ce dernier a fait lobjet de nombreuses tudes par diffrents experts. Ces tudes montrent la difficult dobtenir cet engagement en situation de modernisation organisationnelle notamment lhpital. Certains auteurs expliquent cela par une inertie bureaucratique (Warin, 2004), dautres par une inadaptation des mthodes utilises (Franois, 2003; Meyer, & al, 2002). Nous tenterons de clarifier le concept dengagement dans un premier temps, celui de changement ensuite et enfin nous tenterons une analyse explicative des difficults rencontres ce sujet dans le cadre de lintroduction dun changement tel que la modernisation dun service public.

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Lengagement: un concept multi objet et multiforme Si lengagement au travail a suscit de nombreux travaux de recherche, sa clarification se heurte la coexistence de multiples approches. Morrow (1983) a ainsi recens plus de trente dfinitions diffrentes de ce concept dans la littrature anglosaxonne travers le terme de commitment . Deux courants cependant prdominent la recherche, celui de lengagement comportemental li aux travaux de Festinger (1957) et se traduisant par une implication dans les actes, un passage aux actes selon Joul & Beauvois (1984) en tant au cur de la thorie de la rationalisation (Beauvois & Joul, 1985), et celui de lengagement attitudinal. Ce dernier, plus connu sous le terme dengagement organisationnel, est associ une relation entre deux entits, un sujet, et une composante de la situation de travail, un objet. Cet engagement organisationnel part du principe que lon ne peut tre membre dun groupe sans construire progressivement avec lui une relation et sans tre construit en partie soi-mme dans cette relation (Thvenet, 1993, p.33). Lengagement attitudinal Dans ce courant thorique, ce rapport sujet-objet est toujours dfini comme une attitude (Lincoln & Kalleberg, 1996). Trois points essentiels concernant lattitude permettent de dfinir les approches sur lengagement organisationnel: lattitude est interne au sujet, elle a un objet et elle comporte trois dimensions (Brasseur & Mzabi, 2003). Lattitude est interne: que ce soit un mcanisme psychologique, un tat mental ou une tendance psychologique (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993), lattitude est un processus quil est impossible dobserver directement puisque interne au sujet (Tafani & Souchet, 2001, p.59). Cet engagement des sujets nest alors jamais vraiment acquis car il nest identifiable que par son expression ou son extriorisation: il y a l un lien, certes complexe mais rel, entre attitude et comportement. Nos actes peuvent construire ou modifier nos attitudes (Beauvois & Joul, 1985) et ne relvent pas du mme indicateur mais ce rapport de cause effet peut tre aussi invers: des travaux attribuant

lengagement organisationnel labsentisme, le turn over ou la performance considrent le comportement comme la rsultante de lattitude (Wierner & Vardi, 1980; Mathieu & Zajac, 1990; Blau, 1999; Cohen, 2000). Nos attitudes peuvent donc transformer nos comportements (Brown, 1996); Lattitude a un objet: si les attitudes spcifiques un contexte ont toujours un objet, cela signifierait aussi quun sujet ne serait jamais pour dans labsolu (Fisbein & Ajzen, 1975). Par exemple, le sujet pourra adhrer la finalit dun projet donn, mais il pourra tre oppos ses modalits de mise en uvre. Son adhsion ponctuelle ne pourra pas, par ailleurs, sappliquer systmatiquement tous les projets futurs. Les recherches les plus dveloppes et les plus frquentes sont celles qui abordent le rapport entre le sujet et sa situation de travail par le biais de son attitude vis--vis de son organisation, de ses valeurs, de ses buts ou encore de son systme hirarchique. Cet engagement organisationnel pourra tre compromis par des conflits identitaires ou par des relations discordantes dans le groupe de travail (Angle & Perry, 1983; Reichers, 1985; Yoon, Baker & Ko, 1994). Enfin, lattitude prsente trois dimensions: une dimension cognitive, associe la pense, au jugement ou encore aux croyances du sujet, une dimension affective, qui renvoie ses motions et sentiments, et une dimension conative, qui regroupe les intentions daction (Rosenberg & Hovland, 1960). Ces trois dimensions permettent de diffrencier les processus internes luvre dans lengagement organisationnel. Lengagement organisationnel (EO) Les recherches sur lEngagement Organisationnel sont centres essentiellement sur ces trois dimensions. Les premires tudes se sont tout dabord situes sur la dimension affective et ont pris essentiellement en compte lattachement affectif, motionnel du salari (Mowday, Porter, & Steers, 1982): cest une relation entretenue entre les membres de lquipe, avec un partage des objectifs sous langle de lattachement affectif. Cet attachement dveloppe une identification son travail et une identification aux valeurs de lorganisation. Reli au sentiment dappartenance, lEngagement Affectif (EA) reste toujours dfini comme un attachement

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psychologique ressenti par le sujet (Lincoln & Kalleberg, 1996; Cohen, 2000; Meyer & Herscovitch, 2001). La dimension affective a t la plus tudie, car elle semble tre la plus prdictrice de comportements. Concernant la dimension cognitive, les chercheurs vont dfinir ce type dengagement comme une dynamique rationnelle interne aux sujets, parfois qualifie dEngagement Calcul (EC) (Commeiras, 1994). Inspirs par la thorie des avantages comparatifs (Becker, 1960), ces chercheurs considrent que les salaris procdent une valuation des bnfices et des cots professionnels et personnels de leur implication. Kanter (1968) introduit le concept dengagement de continuit ( continuance commitment ) associ la dcision de partir ou de rester dans lorganisation; lengagement du sujet est alors fonction de ce quil considre percevoir mais aussi de ses attentes vis--vis de sa situation professionnelle voire mme de ses idaux. Gaertner et Nollen (1992) montrent que les employs, qui croient quil existe des opportunits de carrire et qui pensent que lentreprise essaie de garantir la scurit de lemploi, sont plus engags dans lentreprise que ceux qui ne le croient pas. Des recherches prennent en compte la fois la dimension affective et la dimension cognitive et montrent le lien avec lthique du sujet (Morrow, 1983; OReilly & Chatman, 1986): la conviction que le travail est un bien en soi, ou que la valeur morale se mesure aux efforts que lon y fournit. Cette forme dengagement fait intervenir soit la raison soit les sentiments ou les motions dans une complexe articulation. Ainsi, lindividu pourra se contraindre de travailler en dpit de ce quil ressent, ou loppos, prouver de la joie en concordance avec ses valeurs et ses croyances. Enfin, lEngagement Normatif (EN) fait rfrence lensemble des pressions normatives internalises qui poussent un individu agir dans le sens des objectifs et des intrts de lorganisation, non pas pour en retirer un bnfice, mais parce quil est normal dagir ainsi (Wiener, 1980; Meyer & allen, 1997). Cette dimension contribuerait au renforcement du sentiment didentit ou encore du sentiment dappartenance. Des approches tridimentionnelles vont dfinir lengagement organisationnel comme un tat psychologique rsultant dun processus complexe darticulation et de priorisation (Allen & Meyer, 1991, 1996). Ce processus rsulterait la fois des dsirs, de la volont,

des devoirs, des intrts du sujet, des intentions daction dans lorganisation ou/et des intentions de quitter lentreprise. Ces auteurs proposent de dfinir lengagement organisationnel comme une attitude de lindividu correspondant dune part son attachement affectif lorganisation dans laquelle il travaille, et au partage des valeurs communes, et dautre part, son choix raisonn de lui rester fidle en fonction des cots associs son dpart, et enfin, lobligation morale quil ressent daccomplir son devoir (Varona, 1996; Meyer & al, 2001; Durrieu & Roussel, 2002). Cest un tat qui traduit finalement tout autant lattitude que le comportement (Mathieu & Zajac, 1990, Herrbach & Mignonac, 2002; Meyer & al, 2002). Tous les auteurs semblent saccorder sur ces concepts de base. Des mcanismes efficaces Lidentification (la relation gratifiante avec lorganisation) et linternalisation (congruence entre valeurs du sujet et objectifs de lorganisation) peuvent tre considrs comme les meilleurs mcanismes par lequel lEngagement Affectif (EA) se dveloppe. Contrairement lEngagement calcul, lEA oriente positivement les comportements individuels lgard de lorganisation (Meyer & al, 2002). Cependant, ces composantes attitudinales pourraient diverger: le sujet en dsaccord avec les valeurs de son organisation ne partira pas ncessairement car ce nest pas son intrt ou parce quil ne pense pas pouvoir trouver un autre travail dans une autre organisation, ou encore parce quil est fonctionnaireCe sujet sera alors engag par dfaut (Becker, 1960). Cette particularit de lengagement calcul doit donc tre prise en compte dans llaboration des programmes de changement dans les services publics. Les recherches sur Organisationnel lEngagement

Nombre de recherches se sont alors orientes soit sur les antcdents de lengagement organisationnel (Allen & Meyer, 1990; Simard, 2000), soit sur ses consquences sur le comportement des sujets (Mathieu & Zajac, 1990; Palmero, 2000), soit encore sur les deux la fois (Meyer & al 2002).

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Les recherche nombreuses sur les antcdents ont montr diffrents liens significatifs: le lien avec lintention de dpart a t tudi (Hartman & Bambacas, 2000): les dimensions affective et calcule sont significatives dans leur relation avec lintention de dpart. LEA serait aussi associ une meilleure performance individuelle et collective (Meyer, Allen & Smith, 1993), la rduction des retards et de labsentisme (Mathieu & Zajac, 1990). Les variables organisationnelles semblent plus prdictibles dengagement organisationnel que les variables individuelles: la dcentralisation des dcisions, la dlgation de responsabilits, lautonomie au travail, le climat de soutien, semblent avoir un impact significatif dans le dveloppement de lengagement affectif (EA). Des perceptions ngatives de la justice et liniquit des pratiques dvaluation, de rmunration, et de promotion peuvent endommager la nature de lengagement affectif et normatif des salaris envers lorganisation (Meyer & Smith, 2000). Certaines tudes se sont intresses lengagement organisationnel de sujets hauts potentiels: le rle des pratiques de dveloppement des comptences, de participation la dcision et de rmunration individualise semblent dterminants (Mannheim, Baruch & Tal, 1997; May, Korczynski & Frenkel, 2002) de mme que la relation groupe/leader. Des tudes rcentes ce sujet (Paill, 2006) ont vrifi le lien significatif de la pratique de la responsabilisation et de la gestion des carrires sur lengagement affectif (EA), de la rmunration et des pratiques de recrutement sur lengagement normatif (EN), et enfin des pratiques de formation et de responsabilisation sur lengagement calcul (EC) ( El Akremi & Trabelsi, 2003). Enfin, il a t dmontr que les trois dimensions sinfluencent entre elles, lengagement affectif influence lengagement normatif (Meyer & Smith, 2000) qui lui-mme semble influencer lengagement calcul (Delobbe & Vandenberghe, 2000). Lvolution du concept dEO vers lengagement vis--vis du suprieur Plus rcemment, le modle de lEO a t appliqu au concept dengagement vis-vis du suprieur. Meyer et Herscovitch (2001) ont propos une gnralisation du modle partant de lide que les trois dimensions de lEO prenaient leurs racines dans des tats mentaux diffrents. Selon eux, les tats mentaux du dsir (EA) dobligation perue (EN) et de cot peru (EC) pouvaient tre le

terreau dengagement envers de nombreuses entits ou objets tel notamment le suprieur. Plusieurs recherches empiriques ont mis en vidence que les trois dimensions de lEO pouvaient dpeindre un engagement envers le suprieur . Ce report dengagement sur le suprieur rsulterait dune diminution de la relation identitaire entre lemploy et son organisation due notamment aux bouleversements conomiques (Eisenberger & al, 2002, Stinglhamber & al, 2002). Dans ce cas l, lengagement affectif envers le suprieur rsulterait du sentiment didentit partage et dadhsion ses valeurs, du sentiment de loyaut son gard et du sentiment de reconnaissance que pratiquerait le suprieur vis--vis des investissements personnels raliss par lemploy. LEN envers le suprieur se dfinirait comme la consquence de bnfices reus du suprieur et lEC envers le suprieur serait la consquence psychologique des investissements raliss par lemploy dans sa relation de travail avec son chef (Stinglhamber & al, 2002, p.141). A la lecture du tableau, on constate une influence largement dmontre des variables organisationnelles et managriales sur lEngagement Affectif (EA). En effet, on peut compter 6 variables uniquement antcdentes de lEA, et 6 autres variables antcdentes de lEA et lEngagement calcul ou de continuit (EC). On montre que ces variables organisationnelles sont prdictibles, notamment dans leur capacit explicative du degr dengagement (Meyer & Allen, 1997). Il est donc possible de penser que linfluence des variables individuelles reste encore un champ explorer notamment dans leurs liens avec ces variables organisationnelles. La relation employ/leaders qui a t explore dans le cadre de lEO envers le suprieur peut sexpliquer par le dsir de croire quune relation identitaire entre le collaborateur et son chef est essentielle au maintien dune motivation extrinsque des employs, notamment dans les grands groupes (De Cotiis & Summers, 1987; Stinglhamber & al, 2002). Esprer voir se dvelopper un engagement affectif envers le suprieur ne pourrait-il pas aussi laisser esprer une moindre rsistance au changement des employs? En maintenant un engagement envers le suprieur, lorganisation ne pourraitelle pas alors compenser les pertes de repres que les changements gnrent? Ces pertes

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de repres, naurait-elles pas un lien avec le

sentiment didentit ou dune identit menace?

Tableau 1. Liens significatifs entre les diffrentes variables

Variables antcdentes organisationnel lengagement Type dengagement: E0: engagement organisationnel EA: engagement affectif EC: engagement de continuit ou calcul EN: engagement normatif Reconnaissance (Simard, 2000) Reconnaissance Summers, 1987) du du suprieur leader (De immdiat Cotiis & EO Variables dpendantes

Variables individuelles: Anciennet (Meyer & al, 2002) Auto valorisation des composantes identitaires (Herrbach & Mignonac, 2002)

EA

Performance individuelle (Meyer & al, 1993) Performance collective (Meyer & al, 1993) Adoption de comportement de citoyennet organisationnelle (Meyer & Allen, 1997) Mobilisation (Simard, 2000) Rduction des retards (Mathieu & Zajac, 1990) Rduction de labsentisme (Mathieu & Zajac, 1990) Rduction du turn over (Mathieu & Zajac, 1990)

Variables organisationnelles Type dorganisation et dimension du pouvoir du chef (Meyer & al, 2002) Justice interactionnelle (Meyer & a, 2002) Justice distributive (Meyer & al, 2002) Lautonomie dans le travail (Matieu & Zajac, 1990; Simard, 2000) Partage de linformation (Varona, 1996) Le dveloppement des comptences des employs (Simard, 2000) Les pratiques de formation (Brasseur & al, 2003) La perception daccs la formation (Baling & al, 2000) Les opportunits dapprentissage au travail (Meyer & al, 2001) La perception de justice (Meyer & Smith, 2000) La reconnaissance par le suprieur (Decotiis & Summers, 1987) Partiques de rmunration (El Akremi & Trabelsi, 2003) Les pratiques de recrutement (El Akremi & Trabelsi, 2003) Dimension du pouvoir (Meyer & al, 2002) La justice interactionnelle (Meyer & al, 2002)

EA

EA + EC

EN

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Le sentiment didentit Il faut se connatre (concept de soi ou identit) avant de se reconnatre (estime de soi). En effet, tout individu doit connatre ses forces, ses habilets, ses qualits, ses difficults et ses limites personnelles pour qu'il puisse poser un jugement positif sur cette connaissance qu'il a de lui-mme. Acqurir un sentiment d'identit positive est synonyme d'une bonne estime de soi car les repres sont stabiliss et donnent confiance en soi lindividu. Le sentiment d'identit positive rfre l'estime de soi globale. La connaissance de soi et l'identit personnelle qui en rsultent, constituent les fondements de l'estime de soi. Ce sentiment didentit est une des variables anticipatrices de lEngagement Affectif (Herrbach & Mignonac, 2002). Les dfinitions du concept didentit doivent partir dun modle double entre : dun ct il est ncessaire davoir la perspective individuelle (le soi) qui concerne la structure organise de lidentit personnelle, et de lautre la vision sociale qui se rattache la culture et au sentiment dappartenance qui fait rfrence la structure organise de lidentit collective. Le sentiment didentit se consolide si on augmente les relations avec le groupe. On voit bien les liens qui peuvent se faire entre lidentit, notamment lidentit sociale ou collective et lengagement: lidentit est prcisment le chemin de la sociabilit. Lensemble des mcanismes relationnels qui soutiennent lidentit de soi dun individu et sa projection sur une identit sociale est un des lments fondamentaux des conduites humaines. L'identit sociale comprend les attributs catgoriels et statutaires qui se rfrent des catgories sociales o se rangent les individus (groupes, sous-groupes: jeune , femme , cadre , pre ). C'est souvent une identit prescrite ou assigne, dans la mesure o l'individu n'en fixe pas, ou pas totalement, les caractristiques. Cette identit sociale situe l'individu l'articulation entre le sociologique et le psychologique. Elle envisage, comme le souligne Tajfel et al (1999) le rle jou par la catgorisation sociale qui selon lui comprend les processus psychologiques qui tendent ordonner l'environnement en termes de catgories: Groupes de personnes, d'objets, d'vnements [] en tant qu'ils sont quivalents les uns aux autres pour l'action, les intentions ou les attitudes d'un individu

(p.165). Ce sentiment didentit est donc une variable importante dont les effets sont prendre en compte dans leur capacit accompagner ou inhiber un engagement organisationnel. Et notamment en cas de changement organisationnel, dans lequel, des rsistances attitudinales vont apparatre. Le changement organisationnel et lengagement organisationnel: un lien dintrts communs Le changement organisationnel est une dmarche aujourdhui courante dans toutes les organisations de travail, et les diverses recherches faites ce sujet montrent la complexit des mcanismes en jeu et les difficults contourner les rsistances qui apparaissent (Cornet, 1999; Rondeau, 1999; 2002). Ces chercheurs montrent que les processus de transformation doivent sajuster continuellement aux contraintes de lenvironnement. Dans cette perspective, un certain nombre de contraintes ont t explores: la pression des groupes dintrt, le leadership des dirigeants, le type dorganisation du travail, et les ressources disponibles. Les diffrents travaux ce sujet suggrent lexistence dtapes logiques par lesquelles passer afin dobtenir des changements comportementaux gages des transformations attendues (Lewin, 1951; Judson, 1991; Kotter, 1996; Mintzberg, Ahlstrand & Laampel, 1999). On parle alors dun processus de changement. Des recherches rcentes ont identifi des variables juges les plus significatives dans le succs dun processus transformationnel, ces variables permettraient de rduire notamment la rsistance au changement et le dlai de mise en uvre des transformations (Rondeau, 1999; Paill, 2006). Quatre familles de variables ont ainsi t constitues: des variables lies au contexte, dautres lies au scnario de changement lui-mme, celles lies aux acteurs, enfin, des variables lies la progression du changement. Les variables contextuelles La complexit du changement est dterminante. Si le changement remet en cause la structure de lorganisation, les modes de gestion, les pratiques et les rles, on est en face dune situation complexe qui va ncessiter une vritable stratgie de mise en uvre (un scnario) et ce dautant plus si la

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lgitimit de ces changements napparat pas suffisamment dans le projet. Le scnario Deuxime dimension, les variables lies au scnario apparaissent consquemment aux tapes choisies pour mettre en uvre les transformations: le management participatif par la consultation rgulire des acteurs, permet de conduire souplement ce changement et de raliser des ajustements nombreux en cours de route. Lutilisation de lencadrement comme animateur de la dmarche est un des lments significatifs du succs (Doutre & Kouabenan, 1998). Enfin, le rythme, la planification ellemme est importante, elle doit tenir compte des variables contextuelles. Les acteurs du changement La direction (les dirigeants) tout dabord a son importance, elle doit dterminer le contenu du projet et le lgitimer. Elle doit aussi montrer lexemple, c'est--dire simpliquer dans les actions changer. Les chefs de service ensuite, par leur fonction de relais de la direction, sengagent en sappropriant en premier les transformations.

La progression du changement La mobilisation de la base, c'est--dire leur engagement organisationnel, employs et excutants, nest obtenue quen dernier lieu. On a constat quils sapproprieront dautant plus les changements si pralablement lencadrement a montr lexemple. Le processus de changement doit donc tre pens avec diverses tapes progressives, de nature complmentaire, et dont lefficacit apparat au final, lors de limplication des acteurs les moins gratifis. Ces tapes suivent un processus descendant (top down) de la direction au personnel dexcution via un programme compos de formation suivies dactions permettant au projet de changement dtre pris en compte par lensemble du personnel afin de rendre ce dernier contributif des actions nouvelles mettre en uvre. On demandera au personnel dexcution dtre force de proposition dans la concrtisation des diffrents projets. Et cette participation se fera de manire remontante (bottom up). Diverses tudes (Rondeau, 1999) ont permis didentifier une vingtaine de variables diffrentes prsentes dans le tableau 2.

Tableau 2. Les variables significatives dans la conduite du changement Le contexte Complexit du changement lgitimit du changement Inertie de lorganisation disponibilit des ressources pressions de lenvironnement soutien des groupes intresss Le scnario Le plan Le rythme Les cibles atteindre laide dun expert extrieur (laccompagnement) Les acteurs le comit de direction lencadrement les quipes porteuses daction les engags La progression lorientation La sensibilisation lhabilitation lintgration la rgnration

Changer, exige donc que lorganisation elle-mme, ses systmes, ses faons de faire et ses acteurs voluent. On saperoit que le dveloppement de cette capacit se cre grce des activits qui vont permettre aux acteurs de comprendre la nature des changements viss et surtout qui vont leur

permettre de sengager dans les transformations. Ces acteurs vont devoir dvelopper de nouvelles comptences, sadapter et ajuster leurs comportements aux nouveauts. On comprend alors le lien dintrt qui existe entre la conduite du changement organisationnel et lengagement

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organisationnel: ce sont des liens interactifs. Lengagement organisationnel impacte sur les succs du changement. On peut comprendre que la force, ou la ralit dun engagement organisationnel est significatif dans lvaluation dune conduite de changement. Il a t aussi montr que le changement provoque une mobilisation des acteurs qui vont sengager dans des actions (Paill, 2006; Neves, 2003; Huy, 1999). Il y a donc des interdpendances entre toutes les variables en jeu, quelles soient dengagement et/ou de changement. Cette imbrication explique pourquoi il est important de comprendre leurs mcanismes dinteraction et didentifier les modles en prsence. Cependant, nous ne savons pas encore de faon consistante quel type dengagement est le plus explicatif de la russite dun changement organisationnel. Il y a l des perspectives relles de recherche, notamment dans les organisations publiques o le type dorganisation bureaucratique peut renforcer les rsistances des acteurs changer. Le changement dans le service public: des particularits organisationnelles La question de la modernisation des services publics entame depuis maintenant plusieurs annes en France (Weller, 1998) a permis lmergence de questionnement autour des problmatiques defficience, de performance et de qualit de service. La perception nave nest pas toujours favorable vis--vis des fonctionnaires. On leur reproche un manque dengagement (Warin, 2004). On peut le comprendre par une relecture des travaux de Weber (1900, 1917, in crits de 1957). Cest le premier avoir analys systmatiquement le concept dorganisation. Il a identifi deux forces primordiales qui la composent et qui sopposent, la division du travail et la centralisation de lautorit. La division du travail fragmente les organisations en les traduisant en lments simples et de plus en plus spcialiss. A loppos, la centralisation de lautorit va tendre unifier et Weber parle de coordination . Le but de la centralisation de lautorit est de synchroniser les parties fractionnes de faon quelles fonctionnent en harmonie pour servir les objectifs de lorganisation. Une des difficults majeures est donc dtablir un quilibre entre ces forces: plus la spcialisation augmente, plus lamlioration

des techniques de coordination doit tre plus grande. La rationalit lintrieur des organisations, dbat des thoriciens et des organisateurs, repose sur leffet rciproque des forces de spcialisation et de coordination. (Warin, 2004). Les principes Service Public qui rgissent le

Urwick (1937) a structur les caractristiques de la thorie bureaucratique de Weber en mettant en vidence les trois lments essentiels, spcialisation, coordination et distribution rationnelle des tches, et il tablit que ses principes sont universels. Cest sur ces bases quaujourdhui fonctionne le service public selon six principes fondamentaux: un principe de continuit permettant la rgularit de fonctionnement par exemple, des horaires de travail, et des procdures dlimitant les tches accomplir -. Ce principe de continuit ne peut avoir le mme contenu pour tous les services, il existe donc une chelle de continuit selon la nature du service rendre, le but de ce principe est dobtenir une rgularit de fonctionnement. Un principe dgalit, qui sest dvelopp partir de la dclaration des droits de lhomme de 1789 (article 6) et qui conduit la standardisation des services publics pour assurer un niveau gal de service pour tout le monde. Il ne doit pas y avoir de diffrenciation de prix et de qualit entre chacun des services publics de mme type. - Un principe de mutualit: principe dadaptation, les services publics sont appels voluer en fonction des besoins et en fonction de lapprciation de ces besoins par les autorits publiques. Ladaptation du service public consiste gnralement en une amlioration du service par une simplification des procdures, une modification des conditions daccs ou, la limite, par une suppression du service. Ladaptation du service public est donc ralise habituellement par voie unilatrale, les usagers ne pouvant pas se prvaloir dun droit au maintien dune rglementation dtermine travers des accords avec les collectivits locales. Un principe de transparence, les services publics doivent donner la possibilit aux usagers de sinformer sur lactivit de certains services, notamment sur lutilisation des fonds financiers. Cependant, cette demande de transparence pour les usagers

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nexiste pas dans lenseignement suprieur par exemple.. Un principe de spcialisation, englobant la division du travail et la spcialisation des tches, les employs tant recruts sur concours par rapport des standards objectifs dfinis. Ce principe ayant pour but de rationaliser la gestion du personnel administratif. Enfin, un principe de coordination par la centralisation de lautorit afin dtablir un quilibre entre les diffrentes forces qui peuvent sopposer. Les paradoxes On comprend lorigine dun premier paradoxe dans la mise en perspective des consquences de cette organisation du travail et les principes qui fondent le service public et lui donnent son essence, crant la culture bureaucratique considre comme un modle de qualit, voir comme le modle pour ses agents (Warin, 2004): pourquoi changer puisque ce modle est le meilleur ! Le deuxime paradoxe se trouve dans la logique floue du fonctionnement des services publics. Une des illustrations par exemple peut se trouver dans la mise en place de la rduction du temps de travail 35 heures: alors que les organisations prives, particulirement lindustrie, ont reconfigur leurs processus pour gagner des postes, le public passe aux 35 heures sans avoir envisag les consquences de cette diminution des heures travailles, laissant ainsi supposer, que les agents travaillant peu, peuvent se permettre une augmentation de productivit sans changement dorganisation du travail ni de comportement ! Cette conviction qui rejoint la pire des reprsentations du service public nest pas sans consquence sur la qualit du service rendu et la rsistance des agents (Franois, 2003). Les consquences public du modle

problmatique de jugement, mais seulement un contrle de respect des procdures. Cette absence dvaluation est lun des freins la performance (Beauvois, 1994), et peut expliquer les difficults rencontres dans diffrents services publics lorsque des dcisions damlioration sont prises: la question pose a toujours t de savoir sur quels rfrentiels se comparer, et non pas de se poser la question de sa performance propre, de sa capacit se remettre en cause (Tarquinio & Lochot, 2000). La difficile mise en uvre du changement dans le service public: succs et checs La notion de service dans le sens de service rendu prsente plusieurs spcificits comme lintangibilit (il est immatriel et rarement spcifi, il est difficile mesurer et, isoler son efficacit est complexe), la simultanit de la production et de la consommation (le service nest ni stockable ni transportable, il se consomme en mme temps quil se produit, il est donc difficile contrler), lhtrognit (il est rarement reproduit lidentique, il est difficile formater et talonner) (Argyris, 1995). Il est alors possible de dire que le service public est intangible, lusager consomme le service en mme temps quil se produit. Par contre, cest un service homogne o cependant, on rencontrera aussi des suites de comportements difficilement matrisables et provoquant un vcu motionnel fort (Warin, 2004). Enfin le mode de gouvernance gnralement peu participatif et dlgatif ne favorise pas lengagement des personnes. Dans ce contexte, lengagement organisationnel peut-il tre un levier daccompagnement du changement, peut-il tre mis en jeu pour diminuer les forces de rsistances que lon vient dvoquer? Lengagement organisationnel dans un contexte de changement: les diffrentes perspectives et le cas de lhpital public Les hpitaux Franais sont confronts depuis quelques annes de multiples changements appels rformes hospitalires (1996), dmarche qualit (2002), mise en oeuvre des 35 heures (2003), mise en place des ples de sant (2006)... Il est normal et

Le secteur public est rigide, il y a peu de mesure ni dvaluation relle car il est rgi par une autorit lointaine et diffuse qui peut radicalement changer dorientation puisquelle est politique et lue, et qui, pour assurer cette continuation se rfre ses principes de fonctionnement immuables. Il ny a pas de

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mme ncessaire que les organisations changent. Cependant, en moins de dix ans, lhpital public a t le lieu de processus si rptitifs et rapides que lon est en droit de se demander comment le personnel se sent toujours engag envers lui, et quels pourraient en tre les modles les plus prdicteurs face ces altrations de lquilibre fonctionnel du systme de travail: le changement est devenu la fois le dcor, le sujet et lobjet de la pice qui se joue dans les organisations hospitalires (Ribau, Fraisse & Bayad, 2003, p.2106). Ce mouvement continu demande donc de la part des acteurs une capacit rester matre de soi, et ce dautant plus que lon sait quune des ractions des individus est de rsister au changement (Angle & Lawson, 1993; Argyris, 1995). Engage en 1996, la rforme hospitalire a quelque peu chang les rles et missions des chefs de service de soins au patient en rduisant la dimension hirarchique au profit de la dimension danimation . Lintroduction des dmarches qualit (accrditation) va demander aux mdecins dtre efficaces, c'est--dire de soigner au mieux le patient compte tenu de ses symptmes, mais aussi, dtre efficient, c'est--dire de soigner le patient au moindre cot. Ces exigences introduisent une notion de performance conomique et de performance collective. Nous savons que cette performance peut se dvelopper grce un engagement affectif envers lorganisation (Meyer & al, 1993). Cependant, cette performance risque de se dtriorer en situation de changement car linfluence de lenvironnement sur les comportements reste essentielle, linteraction entre facteurs personnels et environnementaux est dterminante (Bandura, 1993). Pour soutenir cette performance, et permettre aux personnes dagir sur lenvironnement afin de reconstruire des points de repre (Ribau & al., 2003), des formations accompagnent lintroduction de ces dmarches. Elles ont pour buts de favoriser un changement des attitudes afin de maintenir une double implication, celui du suprieur, le mdecin chef de service, et celui des autres membres de lquipe (cadre de sant, infirmires, aides soignantes) (Ribau & al., 2003). Or, la littrature semble indiquer que les employs simpliqueraient dans des relations dchange avec lorganisation de manire distinctes de celles quils entretiendraient avec leur suprieur (Meyer & al., 2001, Stinglhamber & al, 2002). Un

contexte de changement amnerait-il dautres processus dengagement? Lordonnance 96 346 de 1996 fait obligation aux tablissements de sant de procder une valuation rgulire de la satisfaction des patients. La ralisation de ce type dvaluation, en gnral des questionnaires de satisfaction, est cense susciter ou renforcer limplication des quipes mdicales dans une dmarche qualit. La diffusion des rsultats de ces questionnaires devrait avoir pour effet la mise en place dactions correctives visant par voie de consquence lamlioration de la satisfaction des patients. Or, une revue de littrature notamment en la matire ne constate pas deffet significatif de ces nouvelles pratiques (Parker & Kroboth, 1991; Dull, Lansky & Davis, 1994; Scott & Smith, 1994; Tasa, Baker & Murray, 1996; Rogers & Smith, 1999; Cohen & Buchan, 2001; Greco & al, 2001; Ribau & al, 2003). Une tude exploratoire rcente sur cette question a permis de mettre en vidence un lien entre des variables personnologiques et comportementales des chefs de services et leur implication dans ces dmarches qualit considres comme introductives de changement. Deux variables ont t isoles: le style de leadership et le Locus of Control (ou degr de contrle) (Franois & Doutre, 2004). Il semblerait quun style de leadership soit plus particulirement prdicteur dengagement des collaborateurs: le style transformationnel cre un terrain favorable pour la diffusion et lutilisation de ces enqutes. Ce rsultat confirmerait ce que lon savait par ailleurs: le style transformationnel serait le plus adquat pour obtenir une motivation et une mobilisation du personnel compar aux deux autres styles, le transactionnel et le passif vitant (Hetland & Sandal, 2003, Bass, 1998, Bass, & Steidlmeier, 1999, Barling, Slater, & Kelloway, 2000). Concernant la deuxime variable, le LOC interne serait prdictible dun passage aux actes, et sinscrirait dans ce qui a t dj mis en vidence par des tudes sur lengagement interne aux sujets (Rotter, 1966, Pansu, 1997, Tafani & Souchet, 2001, Spector & al, 2002). Les liens de ces deux variables avec lEO ne sont pas nouveaux, mais nont pas fait lobjet dune publication consistante (Meyer & al, 2001, Meyer & al, 2002). Cependant ces deux variables, combines, nont pas encore t tudies dans leurs effets sur un EO. Concernant lengagement envers le suprieur pour les membres de lquipe de

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soins, de nombreuses tudes sur lhpital ont galement soulign limportance de la collaboration infirmires/mdecins pour lobtention de rsultats positifs en terme de performance rduction du taux de dcs, de la dure du sjour, du turnover infirmier et amlioration de la capacit des infirmires rpondre aux besoins des patients et de leurs familles (Knaus & al, 1986, Mitchell & al, 1989, Stordeur & al, 2003). Ces travaux confortent lhypothse de linfluence de la personnalit et du comportement du chef mdecin dans leur double effet sur son Engagement Organisationnel et sur celui de ses collaborateurs (lEO des collaborateurs ne se dveloppant pas vers lorganisation mais envers leur suprieur) dans un contexte de changement. Limportance des variables individuelles comme variables antcdentes lengagement organisationnel dans un contexte de changement organisationnel de service public La littrature suppose quun leader efficace, celui qui influence ses collaborateurs, sadapte son environnement, sache ngocier leadership transactionnel (Bass, 1985)-, et cherche le transformer leadership transformationnel (Bass, 1999) cette vision systmique du leadership sintresse son action en deux temps sur lquipe de travail, et propose un modle managrial. Le premier temps met en adquation le style de leadership les conduites du chef vis--vis de ses collaborateurs, leurs comptences acquises et leur niveau de confiance en lorganisation. Cette adquation situationnelle sentend dans un contexte stable o des transactions sont possibles entre les objectifs atteindre et les renforcements obtenus. Cependant, long terme, cette premire dimension du leadership ne semble plus prdictible de russite faute de provoquer chez les collaborateurs des changements dordre suprieur comme les attitudes, les croyances et les valeurs. Aussi, le leader doit transformer lenvironnement de ses collaborateurs en leur donnant du pouvoir de faon ce quils deviennent des agents de changement dans lorganisation. Ce style de leadership va sappuyer sur le partage des actions qui engagera les deux parties, le chef et les collaborateurs. Ce leader transformationnel dveloppe des qualits charismatiques, il sait

parler et enthousiasmer, il pratique la considration individuelle, et il provoque la stimulation intellectuelle. Ce type de leader voit se dvelopper dans son quipe de nombreuses innovations et de limplication (Bass & al, 1991; 1998; 1999). On peut lgitimement valider le choix de cette variable dans un contexte de changement organisationnel. La combinaison des variables Le comportement du chef, que lon appellera style de Leadership, permettrait alors de crer les conditions favorables dans un groupe sengager vis--vis du suprieur. Et ceci, notamment dans un contexte de changement parce qualors, le chef permettrait, par son comportement, de compenser la diminution de la relation identitaire de ses collaborateurs envers lorganisation. Paralllement, le LOC serait prdictible dengagement personnel passer aux actes. Nous pensons que ces deux variables combines peuvent tre antcdentes de lengagement organisationnel. La variable leadership ayant un effet prdictible dinfluence sur le groupe et la variable LOC tant prdictible dengagement personnel, il serait pertinent de les lier afin de reprer si elles sont prdictibles lune vis--vis de lautre et si elles peuvent avoir le double effet attendu: sur le chef et sur ses collaborateurs en contexte de changement. Perspectives de recherche Si limplication dans la dmarche qualit (ayant pour effet, dans un contexte de changement, dexploiter des questionnaires de satisfaction des patients) est attendu de la part des mdecins chefs de service (variable dpendante), peut-on admettre que plus un chef sera interne plus on obtiendra cette implication (Beauvois, 1994, Doutre, 2003)? Par ailleurs, lengagement organisationnel dans sa dimension affective (EA) attendu de la part des mdecins chefs de service pour exercer leurs rles, permet desprer quun chef interne peut avoir un sentiment dappartenance lorganisation (EA) plus important quun externe, et qu il simpliquera plus. Cette implication lamnerait exploiter les questionnaires de satisfaction des patients. Par ailleurs, on peut aussi admettre quun chef interne saurait pratiquer la reconnaissance des investissements personnels de ses collaborateurs et, par consquent, leur permettrait de sattacher lui et de dvelopper

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de la loyaut. Le LOC interne du chef pourrait avoir alors une antcdence sur lengagement affectif de ses collaborateurs via la pratique de la reconnaissance et le dveloppement de la loyaut. Cet EA envers le suprieur permettrait alors aux collaborateurs de simpliquer, en participant des actions correctives. Le LOC aurait donc une influence sur les deux types dengagement, organisationnel et envers le suprieur dans un contexte de changement. Enfin, le lien entre un LOC interne et un style de leadership transformationnel paratrait alors prdictible de conduites responsables dun chef qui dbattra des problmes rencontrs, (le contenu des questionnaires de satisfaction des patients), et prendra une dcision de manire concerte avec ses collaborateurs en les amenant raliser des actions correctives. On peut donc supposer que les collaborateurs engags affectivement envers leur chef accepteront de raliser ces actions correctives.

demande trs souvent de laccompagnement (Rondeau, 2002; Paill, 2006). La perspective dobtenir un engagement organisationnel, dans les conditions que nous supposons, peut vraisemblablement aussi jouer sur la variable temps: la rsistance au changement pourrait diminuer de manire plus significative et plus rapidement. Cest une hypothse que cette revue de question rend lgitime. Enfin, ce travail prend un intrt supplmentaire lorsque lon sintresse au service public: malgr ses paradoxes et sa rigidit, la diminution de la rsistance au changement pourrait aussi sobtenir dans un contexte dengagement organisationnel.
Rsum Ce travail a pour but de reprer quelles sont les variables organisationnelles mises en jeu en contexte de changement et comment elles sorganisent et sarticulent entre elles. Notamment lorsquelles jouent conjointement sur lengagement organisationnel du chef et de ses collaborateurs et ceci dans le contexte spcifique du service public Franais. Le cas de lhpital public servira identifier quelques perspectives de recherches et dapplication. Mots cls: Engagement organisationnel, engagement affectif, engagement envers le suprieur, changement organisationnel, service public.

Conclusion Lengagement affectif des salaris est il un moyen de contourner la rsistance au changement? Tout dpend du contexte environnemental et des typologies dacteurs en prsence: nous avons vu que lEA semble permettre de contourner cette rsistance. Cependant, ces connaissances restent vrifier dans le domaine de lorganisation publique et notamment lhpital. Dans ce travail, nous avons tent de comprendre comment sorganisent et se structurent les mcanismes dengagement organisationnel. Nous avons pu mettre en vidence lintrt dutiliser le type dengagement effectif envers le suprieur comme variable ayant un effet sur la diminution de la rsistance au changement. Cette variable est pertinente car si elle se rencontre dans une situation de travail concomitamment lexistence dun chef transformationnel et interne, on obtiendra, peut tre, un engagement des collaborateurs dans laction. Cet engagement dans laction peut tre entendu comme la preuve dune diminution de la rsistance au changement. La rsistance au changement est certes contournable autrement. Les diffrents programmes mis en uvre ici ou l (Rondeau, 1999) montrent cependant les difficults rencontres, notamment en matire de temps. En effet, le temps pour obtenir une diminution de la rsistance au changement est long,

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Studii i Cercetri 3ime Congrs International de Psychologie Sociale en Langue Franaise, 2, 325 335. Tasa, K. Baker, R., & Murray, M. (1996). Using patient feedback for quality improvement. Quality Management in Health Care, 4, 55-67 Thevenet, M. (1993). Limplication au travail, Les cahiers de lANVIE. Paris: Sciences Humaines, 28, 32-45 Urwick, L. (1937). Papers in the Science of Administration. Institute of Public Administration. Warin, Ph. (2004). Quelle modernisation des services publics? Les usagers au cur de la rforme. Paris: La dcouverte Varona, F. (1996). Relationship between communication satisfaction and organizational commitment in three Guatemalan organzations. The Journal of Business Communication, 33, 2, 111-140. Watzlawick, P., Weakland, J., & Fisch, R. (1975). Changement, Paradoxes et Psychothrapies. Paris: Seuil. Weber, M, (1952). The essentials of bureaucratic Organisation: an ideal-type construction. K. Robert; L. Merton (Eds). Reader in Bureaucracy. New York: The Free Press. Weller, J.M. (1998). La modernisation des services publics par lusager: une revue de la littrature 1986-1996. Sociologie du Travail, 3, 365-392. Wiener, Y., & Vardi, Y. (1980). Relationship between job, organization, and work outcomes: subgroup hypothesis revisited. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 26, 81-86. Yoon, J. Baker, M.R., & Ko, J.W. (1994). Interpersonal attachment and organizational commitment; Evidence for differences among multileved attachments. Human Relations, 47,3, 329-351.

D&D Consultants, Bucureti www.ddconsultants.ro

Instrumente psihometrice publicate de D&D Consultants/TestCentral CPI (California Psychological Inventory (462, 434, 260)) NPQ (Nonverbal Personality Questionnaire) FFNPQ (Five-Factor Nonverbal Personality Questionnaire) SWS (Survey of Work Styles) STAXI-2 (State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory) FPI (Freiburg Personlichkeitsinventar (Formele G i R)) LSI (Learning Styles Inventory) MLQ (Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Forma 5X)) STAI (State-Trait Anxiety Inventory) STAIC (State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children) JVIS (Jackson Vocational Interest Survey) AMI (Achievement Motivation Inventory) FJAS (Fleishman Job Analysis Survey) Instrumente psihometrice n curs de apariie: ASSET (A Shortened Stress Evaluation Tool) EPQ-R (Eysenck Personality Questionnaire, Revised) IVE (Eysenck's Impulsiveness Questionnaire) BFQ-2 (Big Five Questionnaire) BFA (Big Five Adjectives) GAMA (General Ability Measure for Adults) MAB-II (Multidimensional Aptitude Battery) NEO-PI-R (Revised NEO Personality Inventory) BASC-2 (Behaviour Assessment System for Children, Second Edition) MSCEIT (Mayer Salovey Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test) EO-I (Emotional Quotient Inventory) TEDE6 (Test dvaluation dynamique de lducabilit) DDDI (Dula Dangerous Driving Index)

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Efecte ale stilului de leadership asupra performantei n mediul organizational

1

Veronica - Stvil Rlea Universitatea Babe-Bolyai, Cluj-Napoca

Abstract Based on the transformative theory of leadership, the present research examines the predictive value of the process of Leadership on organisational citizenship behaviour, counterproductive work behaviour, and the performance of supervisors as it is perceived by subordinates. 138 subordinates form different organisations participated in this study. The participants were asked to complete several questionnaires: MLQ (Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire), OCBS (Organizational Citizenship Behaviour Scale), and IODS (Interpersonal and Organizational Deviance Scale). The results indicate that leadership style predicts organizational citizenship behaviour and counterproductive work behaviour. Furthermore, leadership style was related to the performance, extra-effort, and satisfaction with supervisor. The results support those of other researches in this field. Keywords: Transformational, transactional and laissez-faire leadership, organizational counterproductive behavior organizational citizenship behavior, satisfaction with supervisor, performance, and extra-effort. Rezumat Bazndu-se pe teoria leadershipul-ui transformaional; studiul de fa investigheaz tipul de leadership ca predictor al performanei manifestat prin tipurile de comportamente la locul de munc a 60 de manageri din mediul organizaional. Pentru evaluarea acestor leaderi au fost implicai n cercetare 138 de participani subalterni ai acestor manageri. Acestora li s-au aplicat, pentru msurarea predictorilor, chestionarul de personalitate BFQ i chestionarul heteroevaluator a tipului de leadership MLQ (Multifactor Leadership Questionaire). Pentru msurarea variabilelor criteriu s-au aplicat urmtoarele instrumente: IODS ce msoar comportamentele contraproductive la locul de munc, Scala CCO care evalueaz comportamentul cetenesc organizaional manifestat la locul de munc, i MLQ prin intermediul cruia s-a evaluat efortul suplimentar depus de ctre subordonai, satisfacia cu managerul i eficiena superiorului. Rezultatele obinute n urma acestui studiu, indic faptul c comportamentelele prosociale sunt relaionate pozitiv cu un stil de leadership Transformaional i negativ de stilul de leadership Laissez-Faire. Comportamentele contraproductive sunt asociate pozitiv cu un stil de leadership Laissez-Faire i negativ cu Leadership-ul Transformaional. Conform rezultatelor obinute n studiul de fa efectele leadershipului tranzacional asupra comportamentelor prosociale i deviante manifestate de ctre subalterni la locul de munc sunt nesemnificative. Cuvinte cheie: leadership transformaional, tranzacional, laissez-faire, comportament contraproductiv, comportament cetenesc organizaional, satisfacia cu superiorul, efort suplimentar i eficien.

Hogan & Kaiser (2005) afirm c procesul de leadership este probabil cea mai important problem existent n tiinele umaniste. Acesta este procesul cu consecinele cele mai vaste i hotrtoare asupra organizaiilor, de el depinznd
1

Adresa de coresponden: ralea24@yahoo.com

dezvoltarea, supravieuirea sau dispariia unei organizaii. De competena unui leader depinde eficiena echipei de munc n realizarea obiectivelor organizaionale, care are ca i consecine creterea bunstrii tuturor celor implicai (Schaubroeck, Lam & Cha, 2007, Chemers, 2000; Fuqua, & Newman, 2005).

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Una dintre consecinele stilului de leadership este performana profesional. Abordarea tradiional restrnge spaiul performanei organizaionale la ceea ce Borman i Motowidlo (1997) numeau performan n sarcin, definit ca eficiena cu care deintorii posturilor de munc realizeaz activitile ce contribuie la componenta tehnic de baz a organizaiei. Dei este larg recunoscut faptul c performana n munc este multidimensional, doar recent n literatura de specialitate a fost recunoscut rolul comportamentelor angajailor care nu se integreaz n dimensiunea performanei n sarcin, de exemplu, comportamentele ceteneti organizaionale i cele deviante (Dalal, 2005). Borman i Motowidlo (1997) au argumentat c acest tip de comportamente sunt importante deoarece contureaz contextul organizaional, social i psihologic servind drept catalizator pentru sarcinile i procesele de munc. Unii autori (Rotundo & Sackett, 2002, Viswesvaran & Ones, 2000) sugereaz existena a trei domenii largi de performan: performana n sarcin, comportamentul cetenesc (CCO), comportamentul contraproductiv (CCp). n aceast ordine de idei, rezultatele studiilor pe tematica performan i leadership sunt diverse. Ca o sintez a studiilor realizate, s-a constatat c tipul de leadership are un rol hotrtor asupra performanelor i dezvoltrii organizaionale att prin prisma unor criterii obiective (realizarea sarcinilor i activitilor) (Liao & Chuang, 2007; Bono et al., 2007; Schaubroeck et al., 2007; Howell, & Avolio, 1993), ct i a unora subiective cum ar fi: satisfacia cu munca, climatul organizaional sau calitatea relaiilor dintre subalterni (Arnold, et al., 2007; Dierendonck, et al., 2005; Epitropacki & Martin, 2005; Sy, et al., 2005), relaia acestora cu leaderul (Offerman, & Hellman, 1996; Bono & Judge, 2004; Bass, et al., 2003), absenteism, fluctuaie, comportamente contraproductive organizaionale (CCpO), comportamentelor ceteneti organizaionale (CCO) (McCarthy Veach, 2001; Pearce & Sims, 2002). Studiul de fa are la baz teoria transformaional a leadershipului. Ca urmare vom face o scurt caracterizare a acesteia. n plus, dat fiind faptul n acest studiu urmrim s testm legtura cauzal dintre stilul de leadership i CCO, CCp, Satisfacia cu Leaderul (SatL), Efortul suplimentar (ES) i Eficiena superiorului (Ef), se va realiza o scurt prezentare a acestora, apoi se vor

specifica ipotezele de cercetare i modul de testare a acestora, dup care se va trece la analiza i discutarea rezultatelor obinute. Dei s-au realizat cercetri ce au relaionat supervizarea cu CCO i CCp (McCarthy Veach, 2001), practic nu exist studii care s fi relaionat modul n care teoria transformaional are o valoare predictiv asupra acestor comportamente. Scurt descriere a teoriei transformaionale Teoria transformaional este structurat pe trei stiluri de leadership: Leadership Tranzacional, Transformaional i Laissez-Faire (sau absena procesului de leadership). Leadershipul transformaional ncorporeaz dimensiunile celui tranzacional. Ca urmare un leader eficient este cel ce poate integra n stilul su de conducere ambele tipuri (Avolio & Bass, 1999). Bass, Jung, Avolio, Berson, (2003) definesc leadershipul tranzacional (LTz) ca un stil ce identific trebuinele subalternilor pentru a le satisface n schimbul performanelor obinute n sarcini. n contrast, leadeshipul de tip transformaional (LTf), merge ceva mai departe de aceast relaie de schimb dintre leader i subaltern. LTf inspir subordonaii pentru a-i transcede propriile interese i percepii vizavi de limitele personale, cu scopul de a urmri realizarea obiectivelor comune benefice organizaiei i colectivului. Acesta furnizeaz subalternilor o viziune clar asupra viitorului, fornd oarecum identificarea acestora cu organizaia, dezvoltndu-i pe plan profesional i stimulndu-i intelectual pentru a aborda soluii multiple inovative la problemele ce apar n decursul realizrii muncii (Kara et al., 2007; Schaubroeck et al., 2007; Bycio, Hacket, Allen, 1995, Den Hartog et al., 1997 ; Kark, et al., 2003). Leadership-ul transformaional cuprinde 4 componente: Influena idealizat se refer la leaderii care sunt vzui de ctre angajai ca fiind modele, ca urmare subordonaii se identific cu acetia. Motivaia Inspiraional manifestarea de expectane mari fa de angajai i motivarea acestora pentru a deveni mai implicai n sarcinile pe care le au de ndeplinit. Stimularea intelectual se refer la comportamente din partea superiorului care stimuleaz angajaii s devin creativi i inventivi, n sensul c acesta sprijin inteniile subordonailor atunci cnd vor s ncerce noi

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direcii de abordare a problemelor (Northouse, 2001; Keller, 2006; Kelloway, et al., 2006). Consideraia individualizat presupune oferirea unui climat suportiv i atenie la problemele i necesitilor angajailor. De exemplu, managerii pot folosi delegarea responsabilitilor pentru subordonaii care au nevoia accentuat de actualizare (motivaie de autorealizare) (Kark, et al., 2003). Componentele leadershipului tranzacional (LTz): Recompensa contingent presupune ca leaderul s ofere recompense corecte i adecvate subalternilor n schimbul realizrii sarcinilor la nivelul standardelor ateptate. Management prin excepie activ implic monitorizarea performanei subordonailor i luarea de msuri corective n cazul apariiei neregulilor, precum i anticiparea deviaiilor posibile de la standardele acceptate (Bono, & Judge, 2004). Management prin excepie pasiv se refer la un comportament ce are scopul de a interveni cnd deja au aprut probleme, oferind feedback negativ i pedepse. Stilul de leadership Laizez faire (LLf), se caracterizeaz prin evitarea responsabilitilor i obligaiilor precum i eecul de a exercita ambele tipuri de leadership: tranzacional i transformaional (Sosik, Avolio & Kahai, 1997; Northouse, 2001). Referitor la validitatea teoriei transformaionale, unii autori au gsit 8 dimensiuni ale leadershipului tranzacional i transformaional, n timp ce ali cercettori au afirmat c ar exista doar 6, trei dimensiuni aparinnd celui tranzacional iar celelalte trei, celui transformaional (Avolio i Bass, 1999). Avolio i Bass (1999) au afirmat c exist un model n 6 factori, n loc de 8: astfel motivaia inspiraional i influena idealizat sunt combinate ntr-un singur factor, stimularea intelectual, consideraie individualizat, recompensa contingent, managementul prin excepie activ, iar managementul prin excepie pasiv i tipul laissez-faire sunt unul i acelai factor. El a susinut c acest model n doar 6 factori ar reprezenta mai bine structura leadershipului transformaional i tranzacional. In plus, factorii ncadrai la tipul transformaional au obinut o validitate mai mare dect cei corespunztori tipului tranzacional, unde cel mai bun coieficient de validitate a obinut-o factorul recompens contingent (.40). Lowe et al. (1996) au raportat o corelaie ntre

dimensiunile leadershipului transformational de peste 0,70 (citat n: Bono, & Judge, 2004) Intr-o metaanali realizat de Judge & Piccolo (2004), rezultatele arat c leadershipul transformaional are o validitate general de .44, recompensa contingent a leadershipului tranzacional - (.39), iar celelalte dou componente s-au dovedit instabile n a prezice criteriile: performan, satisfacia cu munca, satisfacia cu superiorul (Judge & Piccolo, 2004). n plus, s-au gsit corelaii de 0.80 ntre leadershipul transformaional i cel tranzacional. Leadershipul laissez faire a obinut o corelaie negativ cu celelalte dou tipuri (-0.37 cu LTz i -.65 cu LTf). Corelaiile obinute pe celelalte 2 componente ale leadershipului tranzacional au demonstrat o validitate relativ sczut (sub 0.30) (Judge, & Piccolo, 2004; Judge et al., 2004). Autorii au mai constatat c validitatea teoriei transformaionale este influenat de design-ul cercetrii i de sursele datelor. Acestea au o validitate mai mare n design-uri transversale dect n cele longitudinale. Validitatea leadershipul-ui transformaional pare a se generaliza de-a lungul diferitor situaii; evalurile realizate n medii de afaceri, n nvmnt, n sectorul militar i public, nu au dus la diferene la semnificative. n ceea ce privete validitatea componentei leadershipului tranzacional - recompensa contingent, s-au obinut urmtorii coieficieni de validitate: mediu de afaceri (.51), nvmnt (.19), mediul militar (.32), i sectorul public (.27) (Judge & Piccolo, 2004; Judge, Piccolo, & Ilies, 2004). Comportament cetenesc organizaional (CCO) i comportament contraproductiv (CCp) Comportamentul contraproductiv a fost definit ca i comportamente intenionate (i nu accidentale) care au consecine duntoare att asupra organizaiilor ct i asupra persoanelor implicate, indiferent dac ne referim la angajai, clieni sau manageri (Dalal, 2005; Spector & Fox, 2002; Rotundo & Sackett, 2002). Acestea au fost difereniate de ctre autori n CCp orientate asupra indivizilor din mediul organizaional (CCp-I) i comportamente duntoare orientate asupra organizaiei (CCp-O) (Levine et al., 2005). Pn n prezent, exist puine studii asupra relaiei dintre leadership i CCpO, iar cele realizate au fost derulate n mediul organizaional educaional sau clinic i mai

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puin cel industrial (McCarthy Veach, 2001; Cobia & Boes, 2000). CCpO a fost relaionat cu diferii factori cauz, ca eventuale conflicte cu superiori, colegi (Bruk-Lee & Spector, 2006), abiliti cognitive (Dilchert, et al., 2007), factori de personalitate (Salgado, 2002), stres i satisfacia cu munca (Colbert, et al., 2004; Hurz, & Donovan, 2000). CCO sunt comportamente intenionate i discrete manifestate la locul de munc care au efecte pozitive asupra organizaiei i asupra membrilor acesteia, acestea nu sunt recompensate de ctre manageri deoarece nu intr n atribuiile sarcinilor de munc ale subalternilor. Exist dou tipuri de CCO, cele de ajutor (CCO-A) i cele de exprimare (CCO-E). Cercetrile au indicat c angajaii care sunt satisfcui cu munca lor, consider c sunt tratai corect de organizaie i beneficiaz de mai mult autonomie n ndeplinirea sarcinilor de munc, sunt mai predispui s se implice n astfel de comportamente (Moorman, 1991; Tepper, Lockhart & Hoobler, 2001; Bachrach, Powell, Bendoly, Richey, 2006). In plus, alte cercetri au indicat c angajaii implicai n sarcini care le aduc satisfacii i sunt condui de lideri transformaionali i suportivi sunt de asemenea predispui s manifeste CCO (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Paine & Bachrach, 2000). ntre motivaiile care stau la baza CCO se remarc i valorile prosociale, preocuprile legate de organizaie i managementul impresiei (Rioux & Penner, 2001), factorii de personalitate (Salgado, 2002) i abilitile cognitive (Dilchert, Ones, Davis, Rostow, 2007), etc. Efortul suplimentar (ES) ES ca efect al unui leadership eficient, este acea dorin a subordonailor de a realiza o performan superioar prin eforturi mult mai mari, fiind convini s fac mai mult dect se poate atepta n mod legitim de la ei. Leaderii cu scoruri mari la aceast scal amplific dorina celorlali de a reui i cresc disponibilitatea acestora de a se strdui mai mult. (Avolio et al., 2007; Sntion & Iliescu, 2007). Eficiena (EF) Scala de Ef identific prin scorurile ei nalte leaderii eficieni, judecai astfel prin prisma satisfacerii nevoilor profesionale ale celorlali, a reprezentrii grupului lor n faa unei autoriti superioare, n satisfacerea cerinelor organizaionale i, nu n ultimul rnd, prin eficiena ntregului grup coordonat. (Avolio et al., 2007; Sntion & Iliescu, 2007).

Satisfacia (SatL)

legat

de

leadership

Scala de SatL conine doar doi itemi i identific prin scorurile sale nalte leaderi care genereaz satisfacie interpersonal n interaciunea cu ceilali. Aceti leaderi sunt persoane deschise, autentice, calde i oneste, capabili s genereze i s dezvolte sentimente de mulumire la nivelul celor cu care lucreaz (Avolio et al., 2007; Sntion & Iliescu, 2007). Studiul de fa are ca scop testarea msurii n care stilul de leadership manifestat de ctre manageri prezice comportamentele contraproductive, comportamentele ceteneti organizaionale, satisfacia cu managerul, disponibilitatea angajailor de a depune efort suplimentar n realizarea sarcinilor, precum i msura n care superiorul este perceput ca fiind eficient n atingerea obiectivelor organizaionale. Ipoteze de cercetare: 1. a. LTf manifestat de ctre superior prezice n sens negativ CCp. b. LTz manifestat de ctre superiori prezice n sens negativ rata de manifestrii CCp. c. Manifestarea unui stil LLf prezice scoruri nalte la CCp. 2. a. Un scor nalt la scala LTf prezice n sens pozitiv manifestarea CCO. b. Manifestarea LTz de ctre superior prezice n sens pozitiv apariia CCO. c. LLf manifestat de ctre manager are impact negativ asupra manifestrii CCO din partea subalternilor. 3. Subalternii ce percep managerii ca manifestnd LTf sunt mai predispui n a depune ES n realizarea sarcinilor, dect n cazul celorlalte dou tipuri de leadership. 4. Angajaii ce beneficiaz de LTf sunt mai satisfcui cu managerul dect subalternii managerilor ce manifest predominant celelalte tipuri de leadership. 5. Managerii care manifest comportamente predominant de tip transformaional sunt percepui de ctre subalterni ca fiind mai eficieni n comparaie cu cei ce manifest predominant LTz sau LLf.

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Metod Participani n cercetarea de fa au fost inclui 141 de voluntari angajai n organizaii din sectorul public i privat (10 organizaii), dintre care 54,3% dintre participani sunt femei i 45,7% brbai. Media de vrst este de 37.53 ani (AS = 11,88). Majoritatea participanilor la cercetare au studii superioare - 65%, 20% studii medii i 15% au absolvit doar gimnaziul. Rata rspunsurilor la chestionare a fost de 98% (138). Instrumente Chestionarul de personalitate BFQ (Big Five Questionnaire) este alctuit din 5 mari scale ce evalueaz cinci factori generali: Extraversie, Agreabilitate, Contiinciozitate, Neuroticism, Deschidere spre experien. Acesta cuprinde 156 itemi i a fost adaptat pe populaia romneasc (Caprara et al., 2008). MLQ (Multifactor Leadership Questionaire) Chestionarul este tradus i adaptat pe populaia romneasc i este compus din 45 itemi, grupai n 12 scale. Primele 9 scale evalueaz stilul de leadership, celelalte trei au rolul de a diferenia leaderii eficieni ce cei mai puin eficieni (Avolio et al., 2007, Sntion & Iliescu, 2007). Scalele MLQ: LTf cu subscalele: Influen idealizat, Motivaie inspiraional, Stimulare intelectual, Consideraie individualizat. Leadershipul LTz: subscala Recompens contingent, Management prin excepie activ, Management prin excepie pasiv i scala LLf. Scalele ce reflect rezultatele tipului de leadership sunt: Scala ES, Ef i SatL. Pentru msurarea Comportamentelor Ceteneti Organizaionale s-a utilizat chestionarul OCBS (Organizational Citizenship Behavior Scale) dezvoltat de ctre Van Dyne & LePine (1998). Acesta conine 2 scale: scala ajutor (CCOS-A), care cuprinde 7 itemi i cea de exprimare (CCOS-E) alctuit din 6 itemi. Pentru msurarea Comportamentelor Contraproductive s-a utilizat IODS (Interpersonal and Organizational Deviance Scale) chestionarul a fost elaborat de ctre Bennett & Robinson (2000) i conine 19 itemi. Participanilor li se cere s evalueze pe o scal Likert de 7 puncte, msura n care se angajeaz ntr-o serie de CCp, primii 7 itemi msoar CCp orientat asupra individului (CCpI) din organizaie, ceilali 12 itemi evalueaz

manifestarea comportamentelor CCp orientate asupra organizaiei (CCp-O). Procedur Aplicarea instrumentelor s-a fcut individual pentru chestionarul BFQ i colectiv (cte 3 sau 4 persoane) pentru MLQ, IODS, i OCB. Participanii au fost asigurai n prealabil c rspunsurile la chestionare sunt strict confideniale, de asemenea, li s-a sugerat ca n loc de nume s specifice un numr sau un semn dup care s-i poat identifica ulterior rezultatele. Ca o meniune special, n cazul aplicrii MLQ fiecare manager a fost evaluat de ctre 3 sau 4 subalterni, pe o scal de la 0 la 4, unde 0 nseamn absena total al unui tip de comportament manifestat de ctre superior, 4 nsemnnd manifestarea de zi cu zi a unui anumit comportament. Metoda statistic utilizat pentru testarea ipotezelor a fost regresia multiliniar ierarhic. Motivul alegerii acestei metode este controlul i evitarea erorii de specificare (Sava, 2004), deoarece numeroase studii au demonstrat o influen definitorie a factorilor de personalitate asupra comportamentelor deviante i prosociale (Jackson & LePine, 2003; Colbert, et al., 2004; Salgado, 2002, etc.). Factorii de personalitate introdui sunt : Agreabilitate (Ag), Contiinciozitate (Cs) i Stabilitate Emoional (StEm). Criteriul dup care s-au ales aceti factori a fost corelaiile nalte i semnificative ale acestora cu variabilele criteriu. Rezultate Statistici descriptive In tabelul 1, sunt prezentai indicatorii tendinei centrale, indicatorii de oblicitate i boltire, coieficienii de consisten intern i coieficienii de corelaie dintre variabilele predictor (Leadership i Personalitate) i criterii (CCO i CCp, ES, Ef i SatL). Pe baza rezultatelor prezentate n tabelul 1, coeficienii de consisten intern iau valori ce se ncadreaz n limitele general admise. Corelaiile dintre scalele predictor i criteriu sunt semnificative, mai puin cazul relaiei dintre predictorul LTz i criteriile CCO-A i CCO-E, precum i relaia dintre scala CCOE i factorul de personalitate - StEm, unde corelaiile sunt nesemnificative.

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Tabel 1. Rezumat statistic al variabilelor incluse n studiu

1 1 LTf (.86) 2 LTz .48** 3 LLF -.68** 4 CCO-A .28** 5 CCO-E .14 6 CCp I -.40** 7 CCp O -.48 ** 8 ES .80** 9 Ef .85** 10 SatL .75** 11 Ag .40** 12 Cs .42** 13 StEm .28** 2 (.53) -.08 .12 .14 -.18* -.11 .31** .41** .32** .16* .08 .00 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

(.74) -.20* -.12 -.34** -.44** -.60** -.67** -.62** -.42** -.43** -.28**

(.78) .43** -.30** -.37** .35** .31** .20* .38** .20* .30**

(.76) -.23** -.25** .16 .17* .20* .34** .30** .15

(.80) .65** -.32** -.41** -.38** -.33** -.36** -.47**

(.87) -.36** -.40** -.36** -.32** -.39** -.44**

(.83) .80** .76** .44** .39** .24**

(.84) .80** .50** .48** .28**

(.73) .43** .44** .19**

(.73) .48** .18*

(.81) .32** 84.3 7.84

(.90) 149.4 22.82

Media 45.3 27.2 3.77 35.28 28.39 15.09 25.34 8.39 11.83 5.74 139.7 AS 10.03 5.6 3.2 6.1 6.56 6.63 12.38 2.72 3.41 1.97 12.2 ** p< 0.01, * p< 0.05, N=138, coieficienii Alpha Cronbach sunt prezentai pe diagonal ntre paranteze.

Tabel 2. Estimarea CCp pe baza predictorului Leadership.

LTf i CCO-A R Pasul I Ag Cs StEm Pasul II Ag Cs StEm LTf Pasul II Ag Cs StEm LTz .18** R .18** . 34* -.03 .23 ** .22** .04* .31 ** -.05 .22** .167* LTz i CCO-A .18** .004 .33 ** -.03 .23** .06 LLF i CCO-A R Pasul II Ag Cs StEm LLf .18** R .00 . 34** -.03 .23** .003 F schimbare F (1,137)= 0,01; p>.05 LLF i CCO-E R .12** R F schimbare F .02* .12 .25** .00 .05 schimbare F(1,137)=0,35; p>.05 F (1,137)= 0,58; p>.05 LTz i CCO-E .11** .01 .10 .24* .003 .10 F(1,137)=1.45; p>.05 F (1,137)= 5,12; p<.05 .14** .04* .25** .05 .00 .166* F schimbare F (3,135)= 10,07; p<.00 LTf i CCO-E R .10** R .10** . 24* .03 .00 F(1,137)=2,04; p<.05 F schimbare F (3,135)= 4.9; p<.05

Interpretarea rezultatelor prin intermediul modelelor de regresie multiliniar ierarhic In primul pas al modelelor de regresie au fost introdui cei trei factori de personalitate Cs, StEm, i Ag, cu scopul, dup cum am mai

specificat mai sus, de a controla efectele acestora asupra variabilelor criteriu CCO i CCp, n pasul doi al modelelor de regresie au fost introdui pe rnd predictorii LTf, LTz i LLf (tabelul 2).

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n modelele de regresie de mai jos putem observa c factorul personalitate explic ntr-adevr ntr-o mare msur evoluia criteriului CCp (tabel 2). Mai precis, CCp-I este explicat de ctre Ag i StEm n proporie de 30% (StEm : =-0.39, p<.01 i Ag : =-0.20, p<.05), i respectiv acetia din urm explic 28% din evoluia CCp-O (StEm: =-0.35, p<.01 i Ag: =-0.17, p<.05). n pasul doi al modelului, se observ c dintre factorii inclui n model, cei ce pstreaz nivelul de semnificaie sunt StEm i Ag. Acetia cu mici excepii, au un impact semnificativ asupra explicrii CCp n ambele cazuri (tabel 2). Prin introducerea LTf obinem un plus de predicie semnificativ al CCp-I cu 7% (R=0,07, p<.01 ) i de 8% al CCp-O (R=.08, p<.01). Ca dovad, F schimbare n ambele cazuri este semnificativ statistic (F (1,137)= 7,06; p<.01; respectiv F (1,137) = 8.06, p<.01). n consecin, LTf are un rol semnificativ n prezicerea manifestrii CCp (=-.27, p<.01, n cazul CCp-I, i =-.35, p<.01 n cazul CCp-O). Ca urmare rezultatele din tabelul 2 confirm ipoteza 1.a. n pasul doi am modelului de regresie ce are ca scop testarea prediciei factorului
Tabel 3. Estimarea CCO pe baza predictorului Leadership LTf i CCO-A R R .18** .18** . 34* -.03 .23 ** .22** .04* .31 ** -.05 .22** .167* LTz i CCO-A .18** .004 .33 ** -.03 .23** .06 LLF i CCO-A R R .18** .00 . 34** -.03 .23** .003

LTz, observm c acesta aduce un plus de explicare, a evoluiei criteriului cu 5% (R=.05, p<.05), F schimbare (F (1,137)= 5.06, este semnificativ statistic la p<.05. Semnul minus al lui (-.17, p<.05) ne indic faptul c LTz are o influen negativ asupra CCp-I. n cazul CCp-O, LTz are o valoare predictiv nesemnificativ asupra acestuia (R=.02, p>.05; =-.08, p>.05) Ca urmare, factorul LTz are un impact semnificativ asupra CCp-I i nesemnificativ asupra CCp-O. Aceste rezultate confirm parial ipoteza 1.b, conform creia un manager ce manifest comportamente specifice LTz descurajeaz manifestarea de ctre subordonai a CCp de ambele tipuri (CCp-I i CCp-O). Vizavi de predictorul LLf i criteriul CCp, predictorul prezice semnificativ evoluia CCp, acesta explicnd 5% din variabilitatea CCp-I (R=.05; F schimbare (1,137) este 5,12, semnificativ la p<.05; iar =.171, p<.05) i respectiv 6% din cea a CCp-O (R=.06, p<.00; iar =.28, p<.00) (tabelul 2). Ca urmare ipoteza tiinific 1.c. va fi acceptat.

Pasul I Ag Cs StEm Pasul II Ag Cs StEm LTf Pasul II Ag Cs StEm LTz

F schimbare F (3,135)= 10,07; p<.00

LTf i CCO-E R R .10** .10**

. 24* .03 .00

F schimbare F (3,135)= 4.9; p<.05

F (1,137)= 5,12; p<.05

.14**

.04* .25** .05 .00 .166*

F(1,137)=2,04; p<.05

F (1,137)= 0,58; p>.05

LTz i CCO-E .11** .01 .10 .24* .003 .10

F(1,137)=1.45; p>.05

Pasul II Ag Cs StEm LLf

F schimbare F (1,137)= 0,01; p>.05

LLF i CCO-E R R schimbare F schimbare F .12** .02* F(1,137)=0,35; p>.05 .12 .25** .00 .05

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n tabelul 3 s-a analizat msura n care predictorul leadership prezice CCO. In primul pas al modelului de regresie, ca i anterior, au fost introdui factorii de personalitate, dup care au fost introdui pe rnd predictorii LTf, LTz i LLf. Factorii de personalitate au o influen semnificativ asupra CCO, putem vedea c i n pasul doi acetia (sau cel puin doi dintre acetia) i menin nivelul de influen asupra ratei CCO, o excepie fiind factorul de personalitate Cs (tabelul 3). Factorii de personalitate explic variabilitatea CCO cu 18 % asupra CCO-A (R=.18, p<.00) respectiv 10% din variabilitatea CCO-E (R=.10, p<.00). Vizavi de contribuia LTf acesta explic CCO cu 4% n ambele cazuri, variana explicat R fiind de .04, iar F schimbare este 5.12 i respectiv 2.04, semnificativ la p<.05 (tabelul 3).

n ceea ce privete LTz acesta prezice nesemnificativ variabilitatea CCO n cazul ambelor tipuri de comportamente prosociale (CCO-A : R=.004, p>.05 ; =.06; p>.05; i respectiv CCO-E : R=.01, p>.05; =.10; p>.05) (tabelul 3). Referitor la relaia dintre LLf i CCO, conform datelor noastre LLf nu ar avea o influen semnificativ asupra ratei manifestrii ambelor tipuri de CCO (CCO-A: =.003; p>.05 i respectiv CCO-E: =.05; p>.05). n consecin, ipotezele nule conform crora LTz i LLf nu au nici un impact asupra CCO, nu vor fi respinse. n cele ce urmeaz, se va analiza n ce msur tipul de Leadership are impact asupra nivelului de ES, SatL, i asupra Ef sau a msurii n care subalternii percep managerii ca fiind sau nu eficieni n funcie de stilul de conducere pe care acetia din urm l adopt.

Tabel 4. Estimarea ES, SatL i Ef pe baza predictorului Leadership Leadereship i ES Variabile R R Pasul I .35** .35 ** LLF Pasul II .42 ** .07* LLF LTz Pasul III .65 ** .23** LLF LTz LTf Pasul 1: F (1,136)=74,77; p<.00 Pasul II: F (2,135)= 49.81; p<.00 Pasul III: F (3,134)= 84.66; p<.00 -.59** .57** -.57** .26** .73** -.06 -.07 .79** .16** .13** -.63** .35** .58** .13* -.20* .09 .61** 1: F (1,136)=82,66; p<.00 II: F (2,135)= 55.1; p<.00 III: F (3,134)=63.41;p<.00 Leadership i SatL R .44** R .44** -.66** .45** .07* -.59** 26.** Leadership i Ef R .37** R .37** -.61**

-.20** .07 .67** 1: F (1,136)=108.8; p<.00 II: F (2,135)= 89.6; p<.00 III: F (3,134)=124.2, p<.00

n tabelul 4 avem modele de regresie multiliniar n 3 pai. Suntem interesai n special impactul stilului de LTf, i modul n care interaciunea dintre cei trei subfactori prezic evoluia variabilelor criteriu (ES, SatL i Ef). n primul model s-a testat valoarea predictiv a Leadershipului asupra ES. n primul pas al modelului de regresie s-a introdus LLF, vedem c acesta explic 35% din cauzele pentru care subalternii manifest ES, acesta este un impact puternic semnificativ, R fiind de .35 sau de 35% care este semnificativ la p<.00, n consecin prezena unui LLf prezice n sens negativ manifestarea acestui tip de comportament din

partea subalternilor, deoarece coeficientul este negativ (-.59, semnificativ la p<.00). n pasul doi al modelului de regresie, analiznd influena LLf i interaciunea acestuia cu LTz asupra ES, putem meniona c modelul de regresie i mbuntete nivelul de predictivitate asupra ES cu 7 % (F schimbare (1,135) fiind de 16.3; semnificativ la p<.00) LTz spre deosebire de LLf are un impact stimulator asupra criteriului. n pasul trei al modelului constatm urmtorul fapt: primii doi predictori LTz i LTf, pierd din valoarea predictiv, atunci cnd interacioneaz cu LTf, deoarece sunt nesemnificativi statistic (=-.06, p>.05; i

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respectiv =-.07, p>.05) spre deosebire cel de al treilea factor LTf (=.79, p<.00), care mbuntete eficiena modelului de regresie n a prezice ES cu 23% (R = .23, F schimbare (1,134)=89.2, p<.00). Aceasta pierdere din semnificaie a factorilor LTz i LLf ne ofer informaii vizavi de faptul c aa cum se stipuleaz n teoria transformaional, LTf se formeaz pe baza LTz, iar LLf mai este numit i nonleadership. Ca urmare, variabilitatea criteriului ES este explicat n proporie de 23% de factorul Leadership n general. Aceste rezultate confirm ipoteza 3, conform creia LTf contribuie ntr-o mai mare msur la explicarea evoluiei ES dect celelalte dou stiluri de leadership. n ceea ce privete tipul de leadership i SatL, din tabelul de mai sus observm urmtoarele: LLf explic 44% din evoluia criteriului. LTz aduce un plus de explicaie, cnd interacioneaz cu LLf, de 7% (R = .13, F schimbare (1,135) ia valoarea 39,5; puternic semnificativ la p<.00), iar LTf prezice evoluia variabilei SatL cu 16%, (F schimbare (1,134)=83.6; p<.00) (tabel 4). n pasul III al modelului LTz n interaciune cu LTf i LLf este nesemnificativ statistic (=.07, p>.05). Ca urmare, SatL este prezis de Leadership n proporie de 16%. De asemenea, mrimea efectului este de 73% (R=.73, p<.00) atunci cnd adugm la modelul de regresie i LTf , care este superior celor obinui n pasul unul i doi al modelelor de regresie (R=.44, p<.00; respectiv R=.57, p<.00). n consecin, manifestarea comportamentelor specifice LTf prezic ntr-o mai mare msur SatL a angajailor dect manifestarea celor tipice LTz sau LLf. LLf conform rezultatelor din tabel prezice n sens negativ SatL (=-.66, p<.00). Vizavi de stilul de leadership i Ef, constatm urmtoarele: LLF explic 37% din evoluia criteriului, (=-.61, p<.00), coeficientul beta avnd semnul minus. Atunci cnd se mai adaug predictorul LTz obinem un plus de explicaie a modelului de regresie de 7% (R =.07, p<.01; =.26, p<.01), observm c F schimbare este semnificativ F(1,135) =17.5; p<.00. n pasul trei al modelului s-a adugat predictorul LTf (=.61, la p<.00), acesta explic 13% din variabilitatea criteriului (F schimbare este semnificativ statistic: F (1,134)=44.4; p<.00). Ceea ce demonstreaz c Leadershipul n general explic 13% din Ef managerului perceput de ctre subalterni.

n concluzie vizavi de predictorul LTf, din modelele de regresie reiese c acesta are rolul cel mai semnificativ n prezicerea ES, SatL i Ef. Prin urmare ipotezele tiinifice 3, 4, i 5 vor fi acceptate. Discuii i limite ale cercetrii Din calculele statistice analizate anterior s-a putut observa c tipul de Leadership are ntr-adevr un rol considerabil n prezicerea evoluiei comportamentelor deviante, prosociale, satisfaciei cu superiorul, eficienei procesului de leadership i a msurii n care subalternii sunt dispui sa depun efort suplimentar n realizarea sarcinilor, cei mai puternici predictori n acest sens fiind Leadershipul Transformativ i cel LaissezFaire. Leadershipul Tranzacional s-a dovedit a avea o influen instabil asupra evoluiei criteriilor mai sus menionate. Astfel, putem afirma c n mare parte ipotezele de cercetare tiinifice stabilite la nceputul cercetrii se confirm, cele nule putnd fi respinse. ntr-adevr un leader Transformativ este benefic pentru organizaie, deoarece acesta joac rolul de model cu care subalternii se identific i dovedete un interes veritabil pentru problemele cu care se confrunt angajaii, ceea ce duce la inhibarea manifestrii de ctre angajai a comportamentelor contraproductive organizaionale att cele orientate spre individ ct i cele orientate spre organizaie. De asemenea, prin moralitatea i grija manifestat vizavi de subalterni, superiorul ncurajeaz manifestarea comportamentelor ceteneti organizaionale de ajutor. Distana fa de putere mica n organizaiile unde superiorii manifest un astfel de leadership i atmosfera mai degrab de colaborare dect de concuren, sunt stimulative pentru manifestarea comportamentelor prosociale de exprimare, aceasta i datorit faptului c subalternii se identific nu numai cu managerul ci ntr-o oarecare msur i cu organizaia. n schimb, un stil de leadership care manifest predominant comportamente de iresponsabilitate, evitarea lurii deciziilor, indiferen fa de trebuinele subordonailor, etc., va stimula apariia comportamentelor contraproductive din partea angajailor i va duce la o diminuare a celor prosociale n mediul organizaional. Contrar ipotezelor stabilite la nceputul cercetrii, Leadershipul tranzacional pare a

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avea un efect nensemnat asupra comportamentelor manifestate de ctre subalterni la locul de munca, att n cazul celor de tip deviant ct i n cazul celor prosociale. Acest lucru ns s-ar putea datora coeficientului de consisten intern a scalei Leadership Tranzacional care este destul de redus ( =.53), i care are ca efecte rezultate inconsistente dintre LTz i variabilele criteriu incluse n studiul de fa, rezultate similare au obinut i ali cercettori n studii anterioare (Judge & Piccolo, 2004). O alt explicaie posibil ar fi c efectele LTz n cazul de fa sunt ceva mai subtile, dect ale celorlalte tipuri de leadership. Ne referim aici la faptul c, majoritatea organizaiilor n care s-a realizat studiul sunt de tip privat, iar comparativ cu alte organizaii de stat cu acelai profil remunerarea este satisfctoare, ca rezultat s-ar putea ca acest aspect s fie mai puin important. De asemenea, subalternii ar putea fi suficient de experimentai n sarcinile de munc, n consecin acetia ar avea nevoie de mai puin supraveghere din partea managerilor. De asemenea, Leaderhipul Transformativ se formeaz pe baza celui Tranzacional. Acesta din urm, integreaz funciile de baz pe care le are de realizat un manager. Leadershipul Transformativ are ntradevr specifice anumite comportamente care mbuntete nivelul de eficien al unui manager, avnd un rol major n satisfacia angajailor cu superiorul i cu munca (Judge & Piccolo, 2004, Judge et al., 2004), dar acesta nu este suficient pentru ca organizaia sa lucreze la parametri normali sau chiar s supravieuiasc. n aceast ordine de idei, putem oferi motivaii inspiraionale, consideraii individualizate, etc., la nesfrit, dac nu vom oferi recompense materiale dup merit, feedback obiectiv vizavi de ndeplinirea sarcinilor, supraveghearea suficient a mersului produciei, controlul calitii, etc., rezultatele vor fi departe de cele ateptate, mai ales n cazul unor corporaii mari, unde anonimatul este mai specific. Ca urmare, manifestarea stilului Tranzacional este o condiie absolut necesar pentru supravieuirea unei organizaiei dar nu i suficient pentru ca aceast s se dezvolte, s se adapteze cu succes la mediul extern, etc. n ceea ce privete, celelalte 3 variabile dependente i anume Efortul suplimentar, eficien i Satisfacia cu managerul, n acord, cu ipotezele de la

nceputul cercetrii, LTf are un impact mai puternic n comparaie cu celelalte dou tipuri de leadership (LLf i LTz). Mai specific, subalternii ce beneficiaz de un leadership transformativ manifest o disponibilitate mai mare de a depune efort suplimentar n realizarea sarcinilor (sau dincolo de expectanele managerului), dect n cazul angajailor unde managerul manifest predominant comportamente laissez-faire sau specifice leadershipului tranzacional. Totui nu trebuie uitat faptul c aceasta nu este o msurtoare obiectiv, ca urmare ar putea fi interpretat ca disponibilitatea subalternilor de a depune eforturi suplimentare n realizarea obiectivelor organizaionale, iar tipul de Leadership ar influena aceast disponibilitate. Subalternii unor astfel de superiori sunt mai mulumii de comportamentul efului lor, lucru care s-a demonstrat i n alte studii (Pearce & Sims, 2002; Bono, et al., 2007; Bono & Judge, 2003; etc.). De asemenea, managerii ce manifest LTf sunt percepui ca fiind mai eficieni dect acei superiori ce manifest LTz sau LLf. Aceste rezultate sunt n acord cu rezultatele din cercetri anterioare (Bono et al., 2007). Factorii de personalitate, n studiul de fa, au fost introdui cu scopul de a le controla rolul acestora asupra variabilelor criteriu. Conform rezultatelor noastre acetia au un rol semnificativ n prezicerea evoluiei CCO i CCp, s-au remarcat n special factorii Agreabilitate i Stabilitate Emoional. Nivelul de Stabilitate Emoional a subalternilor s-a dovedit un predictor puternic pentru comportamentele deviante la locul de munc att cele orientate asupra indivizilor ct i cele orientate asupra organizaiei. Ca urmare un nivel ridicat al instabilitii emoionale determin ntr-o oarecare msur deviana de la locul de munc. Astfel de subalterni sunt mai nclinai spre a se comporta nepoliticos sau a-i jigni colegii sau dac este cazul - clienii, precum i faptul c acetia sunt mai predispui a manifesta comportamente duntoare nsi organizaiei (tergiversarea ndeplinirii sarcinilor, furturi, ntrzieri, etc.). Factorul Agreabilitate explic i el ntr-o oarecare msur astfel de comportamente, doar c ceva mai puin, n schimb acesta din urm are un rol considerabil n explicarea comportamentelor prosociale din mediul organizaional. Ca urmare angajaii ce manifest scoruri nalte la acest nivel sunt predispui spre a manifesta ntr-o mai mare msur comportamente civic participative

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dect cei ce obin scoruri mai joase la aceast trstur. Factorul Contiinciozitate are un impact nsemnat asupra comportamentelor civic- participative de exprimare i parial asupra comportamentelor deviante orientate asupra organizaiei. Altfel spus, subalternii ce manifest scoruri nalte la aceast trstur au tendina de a manifesta comportamente prosociale de exprimare, n schimb un scor redus la acest factor determin comportamente deviante orientate asupra organizaiei. Ca i limite ale cercetrii putem meniona faptul c procedura de eantionare este neprobabilist, deoarece alegerea participanilor la studiu s-a fcut pe baz de voluntariat (Trochim, 2004). De asemenea, dat fiind faptul c datele au fost culese prin intermediul chestionarului, nu este exclus ca rezultatele s fie distorsionate datorit celor trei mari dezavantaje pe care le implic utilizarea chestionarelor, i anume: dezirabilitate social sau opusul acesteia (ncercarea participanilor de a se pune ntr-o lumin mai puin favorabil, fa de cercettor) precum i rspunsurile date la ntmplare. Rspunsurile subordonailor la chestionare au fost strict confideniale i anonime, deci nu se poate afirma c rezultatele au fost obediente fa de superiori. Concluzii i direcii noi de cercetare n concluzie putem afirma c n mare msur, ipotezele stabilite la nceputul cercetrii se confirm. Astfel teoria leadership-ului transformaional explic ntr-o proporie semnificativ comportamentele ceteneti organizaionale i cele contraproductive manifestate de ctre subalterni. Factorul leadership transformaional contribuie cel mai mult la explicarea variabilitii criteriilor. Leadershipul laissez-faire are o influen pozitiv asupra manifestrii comportamentelor contraproductive i negativ asupra celor ceteneti organizaionale. n plus, angajaii ce beneficiaz de un stil de leadership transformativ sunt mai satisfcui de relaia lor cu superiorul, sunt mai dispui de a manifesta efort suplimentar pentru realizarea sarcinilor, i percep managerul ca fiind mai eficient n atingerea obiectivelor organizaionale. Acestea sunt n acord cu rezultatele din studiilor anterioare pe teoria transformaional, de ctre ali cercettori

(Keller, 2006; Kark, et al., 2003; Bass & Avolio, 1999, etc.). Factorii de personalitate explic ntr-o proporie foarte semnificativ comportamentele manifestate la locul de munc. Astfel dintre cei trei mari factori de personalitate introdui ca variabile de control n cercetare, doi dintre acetia (Agreabilitate i Stabilitate Emoional) explic consistent manifestarea comportamentelor contraproductive i ceteneti organizaionale. Ca i direcii ulterioare de cercetare putem sugera studierea msurii n care emoiile mediaz relaia dintre leadershipul transformaional i comportamentele manifestate n mediul organizaional din partea angajailor, n spe cele deviante i prosociale, deoarece o alt cauz a comportamentelor deviante i prosociale, aa cum s-a afirmat n mai multe cercetri, sunt tipurile de emoii manifestate de ctre subalterni (Offerman i Hellman,1996). De asemenea, modul n care tipul emoiilor prezente la locul de munc sunt influenate de superiori sau predominana unui anumit tip de leadership (Cobia & Boes, 2000; Bono, et al., 2007; Bruk-Lee & Spector, 2006).
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Studii i Cercetri Transactional Leadership. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 2, 207-218. Bennett, R.J., & Robinson, S.L. (2000). Development of a Measure of Workplace Deviance. Journal of Applied Psychology. 85,3, 349-360. Bono, J.E., Foldes, H.J., Vinson, G., & Muros, J.P. (2007). Workplace emotionas: the role of supervision and leadership. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 5, 1357-1367. Bono, J.E., & Judge, T.A. (2004). Personality and Transformational Leadership and Transactional Leadership, a Meta-Analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology. 89, 5, 901910. Bono, J.E., & Judge, T.A. (2003). Self-concordance at work : toward understanding motivational effects of transformational leaders. Academy of Management Journal, 46, 554571. Borman, W. C., & Motowidlo, S. J. (1997). Task performance and contextual performance: The meaning for personnel selection research. Human Performance, 10, 99109. Bruk-Lee, V., & Spector, P.E. (2006). The Social StressorsCounterproductive Work Behaviors Link: Are Conflicts With Supervisors and Coworkers the Same? Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 2006, 11, 2, 145156. Bycio, P., Hackett, R.D., & Allen J.S. (1995). Further Assessments of Basss (1985). Conceptualization of Transactional and Transformational Leadership. Journal of Applied Psychology. 80, 4, 468-478. Caprara, G. V., Barbaranelli, C., Borgogni, L., Pitariu, H. D., Vercellino, D., & Iliescu, D. (2008). Manual tehnic si interpretativ al BFQ pentru Romania. Cluj-Napoca: Odiseea. Chemers M.M. (2000). Leadership Research an Theory: A Functional Integration. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 4, 1, 27-43. Cobia, D. C, & Boes, S. R. (2000). Professional disclosure statements and formal plans for supervision: Two strategies for minimizing the risk of ethical conflicts in post-master's supervision. Journal of Counseling and Development, 78, 293-296. Colbert, A.E., Mount, M.K., Harter, J.K., Witt, L.A., & Barrick, M.R. (2004). Interactive Effects of Personality and Perceptions of the Work Situation onWorkplace Deviance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89, 4, 599609. Dalal, R.S. (2005). A Meta-Analysis of the Relationship Between Organizational Citizenship Behavior and Counterproductive Work Behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology,90, 6, 1241-1255. Den Hartog, D.N., Van Muijen, J.J., & Koopman, P.L. (1997). Transactional versus Transformational leadership: an analysis of the MLQ. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology. 1, 2, 19-34. Dierendonck, D., Haynes, C., Borrill, C., & Stride, C. (2004). Leadership Behavior and Subordonate Well-Being. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology. 9(2), 165175. Dilchert, S., Ones, D.S., Davis, R.D., & Rostow, C.D., (2007). Cognitive Ability Predicts Objectively Measured Counterproductive Work Behaviors. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 3, 616627. Epitropaki, O., & Martin R. (2005) From Ideal to Real: A Longitudinal Study of the Role of Implicit Leadership Theories on Leader Member Exchanges and Employee Outcomes. Journal of Applied Psychology. 90, 4, 659 676. Fuqua, D.R., & Newman (2005). Integrating Structural and Behavioral Leadership Strategies. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 57, 2, 126-132. Hogan, R., & Kaiser, R.B. (2005). What we know about Leadership. Review of central Psychology. 9,2, 169-180. Howell, J.M., & Avolio, B.J. (1993). Transformational Leadership, Transactional Leadership, Locus of Control and Support for Innovation: Key Predoctors of Consolidated Business Unit Performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 6, 891-902. Hurz, G. M., & Donovan, J. J. (2000). Personality and job performance: The Big Five revisited. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85, 869879. Jackson C.L. & LePine J.A. (2003) Peer Responses to a Teams Weakest Link: A Test and Extension of LePine and Van Dynes Model. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 3, 459475. Judge, T.A., & Piccolo, R.F. (2004). Transformational and Transactional Leadership A Meta-Analytic Test of Their Relative Validity. Journal of Applied Psychology. 89, 5, 755-768. Judge, T.A., Piccolo, R.F., & Ilies, R. (2004). The Forgotten Ones? The Validity of Consideration and Initiating Structure in Leadership Research. Journal of Applied Psychology. 89(1), 3651.

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Kara, A.A., Turner, N., Barling J., Kelloway, E.K., & McKee, M. (2007). Tranformational leadership and psychological well-being : the mediating role of meaningful work. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 12,3, 193-203. Kark, R., Shamir, B., & Chen, G. (2003). The Two Facets of Transformational Leadership: Empowerment and Dependency. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 2, 246-255. Keller, R.T. (2006). Transformational Leadership, Initiating Structure, and Substitutes for Leadership: A Longitudinal Study of Research and Development Project Team Performance. Journal of Applied Psychology. 91, 1, 202210. Kelloway, E., Mullen, J., & Francis, L. (2006). Divergent Effects of Transformational and Passive Leadership on Employee Safety. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology. 11, 1, 76-86. Levine, & Xu, Xian, (2005). Development and validation of the State-Trait Emotion Measure (STEM). Paper presented at the 20th Annual Conference of the Society Industrial and Organizational Psychology, April. Liao, H., & Chuang, A. (2007). Transforming service employees and climate: a multilevel, multisource examination of transformational leadership in building long-term service relationships. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 4, 1006-1019. Lim, B.C., & Ployhart, R.E. (2004). Transformational Leadership Relation to the Five/Factor Model and Team Performance in Typical and Maximum Context. Journal of Applied Psychology. 89, 4, 610-621. Lowe, K.B., Kroeck, K.G., & Sivasubramanian, N. (1996) Effectiveness corelates of transformation and trasational leadership: A meta-analytic review of the MLQ literature. Leadership Quarterly, 7, 1, 385425. McCarthy Veach, P. (2001). Conflict and Counterproductivity in SupervisionWhen Relationships Are Less Than Ideal: Comment on Nelson and Friedlander (2001). and Gray et al. (2001) Journal of Counseling Psychology, 48, 4, 396-400. Moorman, R. (1991). Relationship Between Organizational Justice and Organizational Citizenship Behaviors: Do Fairness Perceptions Influence Employee Citizenship? Journal of Applied Psychology, 76, 6, 845-855.

Northouse, P.G. (2001). Leadership: Theory and practice. California: Saje Publication. Offerman, L.R., & Hellman, P.S. (1996). Leadership behavior and subordonate stress. A 360 view. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 1, 382390. Pearce, C.L., & Sims, H.P.jr. (2002). Vertical Versus Shared Leadership as Predictors of the Effectiveness of Change Management Teams: An Examination of Aversive, Directive, Transactional, Transformational and Empowering Leader Behaviors. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 6, 2, 172-197. Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Paine, J. B., & Bachrach, D. G. (2000). Organizational citizenship behaviors: A critical review of the theoretical and empirical literature and suggestions for future research. Journal of Management, 26, 1, 513561. Rioux, S.M., & Penner, L.A. (2001). The causes of organizational citizenship behavior: A motivational analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology. 86, 6, 1306-1314. Rotundo, M., & Sackett, P.R. (2002). The Relative Importance of Task, Citizenship, and Counterproductive Performance to Global Ratings of Job Performance: A PolicyCapturing Approach, Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 1, 6680. Salgado, J.F. (2002). The Big Five Personality Dimensions and Counterproductive Behaviors International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 10, 1, 117-125 Sava, F., (2004). Analiza datelor n cercetarea psihologic. Metode statistice complementare. Cluj-Napoca: Editura ASCR. Sntion, F., & Iliescu, D. (2007). Teoriile leadershipului. Anexa teoretica la manualul MLQ. Cluj-Napoca: Odiseea. Schaubroeck, J., Lam, S.S., & Cha, S.E. (2007). Embracing Transformational Leadership: Team Values and the Impact of Leader Behavior on Team Performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 4, 10201030. Sosik, J. J., Avolio, B.J., & Kahai, S.S. (1997). Effects of leadeship Styles and Anonymity on Group Potency and Effectiveness in a Group Decision Support System Environment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82, 1, 89-103. Spector, P. E., & Fox, S. (2002). An emotioncentered model of voluntary work behavior: Some parallels between counterproductive work behavior and organizational

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Studii i Cercetri citizenship behavior. Human Resource Management Review, 12, 269292. Sy, T., Cote, S., & Saavedra, R.(2005). The contagious leader: impact of the leaders mood of group members, group affective tone, and group processes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90, 2, 295-305. Tepper, B.J. (2000) Consequences of abusive supervision. Academy of Management Journal, 43, 178-190. Tepper, B.J. Lockhart, D., & Hoobler, J. (2001). Justice, citizenship, and role definition effects. Journal of Applied Psychology. 86, 4, 789-796. Trochim, W.M. (2004). Sampling, n Trochim W.M. Research Methods Knowledge Base. Cornell University; gsit la adresa: http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/s ampling.htm. Van Dyne, L., & LePine, J.A. (1998). Helping and voice extra-role behavior: Evidence of construct and predictive validity. Academy of Management Journal, 41, 108-119. Viswesvaran, C., & Ones, D.S. (2000). Perspectives on models of job performance. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 8, 216226.

D&D Consultants, Bucureti www.ddconsultants.ro

Instrumente psihometrice publicate de D&D Consultants/TestCentral CPI (California Psychological Inventory (462, 434, 260)) NPQ (Nonverbal Personality Questionnaire) FFNPQ (Five-Factor Nonverbal Personality Questionnaire) SWS (Survey of Work Styles) STAXI-2 (State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory) FPI (Freiburg Personlichkeitsinventar (Formele G i R)) LSI (Learning Styles Inventory) MLQ (Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Forma 5X)) STAI (State-Trait Anxiety Inventory) STAIC (State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children) JVIS (Jackson Vocational Interest Survey) AMI (Achievement Motivation Inventory) FJAS (Fleishman Job Analysis Survey) Instrumente psihometrice n curs de apariie: ASSET (A Shortened Stress Evaluation Tool) EPQ-R (Eysenck Personality Questionnaire, Revised) IVE (Eysenck's Impulsiveness Questionnaire) BFQ-2 (Big Five Questionnaire) BFA (Big Five Adjectives) GAMA (General Ability Measure for Adults) MAB-II (Multidimensional Aptitude Battery) NEO-PI-R (Revised NEO Personality Inventory) BASC-2 (Behaviour Assessment System for Children, Second Edition) MSCEIT (Mayer Salovey Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test) EO-I (Emotional Quotient Inventory) TEDE6 (Test dvaluation dynamique de lducabilit) DDDI (Dula Dangerous Driving Index)

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Aspects of the relationship between the processing of stimuli in the peripheral perceptual field and in the perceptual central field
1

Mihai Aniei Cornel Laureniu Mincu Mihaela Chraif Bucharest University

Abstract As humans have limited information processing abilities and rely on three fallible mental functions: perception, attention and memory, the driving error is easy to appear. The purpose of this paper is to highlight the male/female differences in processing the perceptive information from the external stimuli in the peripheral visual field and to demonstrate that the mean of the estimate errors in evaluating the speed and distances in the central visual perceptual field is in inverse ratio to the reaction time value at the visual stimuli from the peripheral driving tasks simulation. Between the variables number of wrong reactions and number of omissions there has been obtained a relatively high negative correlation (r=-0.728, p<0.001). The result has a strong implication in visual stimuli processing during driving tasks. Key words: peripheral stimuli processing, gender differences, perceptual visual central field, central visual stimuli processing.

Rezumat Datorit faptului c fiinele umane au o capacitate limitat de procesare a informaiilor, iar n realizarea acestor procese se bazeaz pe funcii mentale imperfecte: percepia, atenia i memoria, erorile pe parcursul condusului apar relativ uor. Scopul acestei lucrri este de a sublinia diferene dintre brbai i femei aa cum apar n procesarea informaiei perceptive furnizat de stimulii externi din cmpul vizual periferic i de a demonstra c media erorii estimate n evaluarea vitezei i distanelor n cmpul vizual perceptiv central este n raport invers cu valoarea timpului de reacie la stimulii vizuali din simulatorul de conducere. ntre numrul reaciilor greite i numrul omisiunilor s-a obinut o corelaie negativ ridicat (r=-0.728, p<0.001). Rezultatele au implicaii puternice pentru procesarea stimulilor vizuali n timpul sarcinii de ofat. Cuvinte cheie: procesarea stimulilor periferici, diferene de gen, cmpul vizual perceptiv central, procesarea stimulilor vizuali centrali.

Introduction

In this article, we provide an overview of human information processing limitations and explain how they can interact with situational factors, to contribute to road accidents. This represents an approach to accident investigation because it draws on knowledge of basic human psychological processes, in particularly the cognitive processing of peripheral perception in driving.

Adresa de coresponden: anitei_mihai@yahoo.com

Instead of looking at the driver from the outside, we try to understand the mental processes and how they interact with the environment. Furthermore, gender differences in the peripheral perceptive field represent an important objective concerning the driving of a vehicle, for this articles debate. During driving a vehicle, people interact with a steady flow of informational stimuli. Most of the information represents visual input such as: other vehicles, pedestrians, the road, traffic signs and the passing scenery, and auditory input like talking on a cell phone, CD-player, radio, a conversation with the passengers, etc. As long as the visual information stimuli flow is

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low, there is enough mental resource to carry out all tasks simultaneously, and to execute the driving procedures safely. Whereas, a higher level of information may appear under the following circumstances: driving at a high speed, poor visibility, a car driver stopping his car ahead, the driver's capacity being lowered by age, drugs, alcohol or tiredness. Thus, the driver should only attend to a subset of the available information, which could be used to make decisions and to respond, and the rest of the information can be ignored. Driving and traffic accidents The drivers as human beings are able to see motion by registering the movement of an object image projected on the retina, the light-sensitive portion of the eye. When a driver looking ahead on the road is on a collision course with an object approaching from the side, there is no retinal image motion (Green, 2000). In his studies, Green (2000, 2001) revealed that if a vehicle driver is moving forward towards a collision course with a train while the train is in a leftward motion, three situations may occur: 1)The driver arrives before the train (in this case, the angle increases, and the retinal image moves further to the periphery); 2) The train arrives before the driver (in this case, the angle decreases, and the retinal image moves toward the fovea); 3)The driver and the train arrive at the same moment. The car and train movements cancel out, and the angle remains constant. There is no retinal image motion, so the speed is more difficult to judge accurately. In order to better understand the driver behavior and the sources of driver distraction, researchers have attempted to develop integrated driver models that capture driver behavior in a computational manner (Aasman, 1995). These models provide insight into the sources of distraction by elucidating the processes by which a driver attends to the external environment, cognitively processes this information, and then reacts to the information stimuli and manipulates the environment. Thus, IT architectures could provide an opportunity to handle multitasking at the software level through new models implemented as production rules and at the hardware level through changes to the architectures inner mechanisms. The short-term memory (working memory) plays a very important role for the drivers in collecting information (visual,

auditory, and knowledge stored in the permanent long-term memory) during interpreting the sensorial input and taking decisions. The working memory has two severe limits that often play a role in vehicle accidents: the information remains in the working memory for a short time, if it is not used or refreshed; older information may be flushed out at any time by some newer input (Smith, Fredrickson, Loftus, NoelenHoeksema, 2004). Since working memory records all sorts of information, stimuli received from CD-player, radio or cell phone, it can also be filled up and cause the ignorance of important stimuli from the environment (traffic signs, pedestrians, vehicles speeding). The minimum contrast necessary to see an object in a given set of circumstances is affected by many factors. These can be divided into two classes, environmental and driver-related (Green, 1992). The environmental class of factors is represented by: the size (size as in visual angle, rather than inches or centimeters, which gives the size of the retinal image); distance (the closer it is, the more visible it becomes - it has a bigger visual angle); the visual field location (vision is best when objects are imaged in the fovea, the part of the eye with the highest resolution); shape (objects are easier to see when they are solid simple figures such as blobs, disks, rectangles, etc); duration (visibility increases with longer duration); Motion/Flicker (these can make an object more visible, the influence of motion on visibility depends on size and velocity); masking and camouflage (objects are also harder to be seen when the background has shapes or textures, and easiest when the background isnt changing); glare (when a very bright light, one that is far above the current adaptation level, suddenly appears, it reduces visibility); weather (rain, snow and fog all decrease visibility). The drivers class factors are: the age (contrast sensitivity decreases with age); adaptation status (visibility is best when the driver is adapted to the same lighting as the background); optical status (visibility decreases when the driver is not wearing optical correction for the viewing distance); arousal level (alcohol, drugs and other medication can affect arousal level); uncertainty (visibility is the best when he knows when and where the object will be located, any spatial or temporal uncertainty raises threshold); expectation

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(viewers can be greatly affected by their expectations). Research shows that some of the objects properties make them pop out and automatically attract attention ((Wang, Cavanagh & Green 1994). Green (1992) highlighted that objects are more likely to popout and be conspicuous if they: are large, have high brightness contrast, move or flicker rapidly or suddenly appear, are meaningful and if they are expected. This automatic attraction of attention is important in driving. Research shows that drivers spend half or more of their time looking directly ahead to the point where the road meets the horizon (Green 1992). Usually by driving performance, the psychologists refer to the driver's knowledge, skill, and perceptual and cognitive abilities. This vision is distinct from the drivers vision as the individual driving a car through the traffic towards the destination. The driving task represents a closedloop compensatory feedback control process, meaning that the driver makes control inputs (to the steering wheel, brakes, and accelerator pedal), receives feedback by monitoring the consequences of the inputs, and in response to these consequences, makes additional inputs (Wang, Cavanagh & Green 1994). Broken up into fine details, the driving task is very complex, involving the simultaneous control of lateral and longitudinal position through the use of the steering wheel, accelerator, and brakes, together with many pattern recognition and other higher level cognitive skills, such as estimating future situations based upon the present information. While the basic skills required for driving a vehicle are usually learned quickly and easily, some of the higher-level skills that affect safety can be acquired only after many years of experience. Numerous studies (HakamiesBlomqvist, 2002, Green 1992, 2000, 2001) over many decades have failed to show any clear relationship between the most basic measure of visual performance, visual acuity, and crash risk. Crash rates decline to a minimum at about 45 years of age, by the time which the visual acuity and contrast sensitivity have already begun to decrease, such as other visual capabilities relevant to driving, such as the ability to withstand glare (HakamiesBlomqvist, 2002). Changes in the higher-level visual characteristics, in particular the useful field of

view, the area from which useful visual information can be extracted in a single glance, have been shown to be related to the crash involvement risk. Pattern recognition skills are essential to the driving task. From a stimuli-rich visual environment, the driver must select the information that is relevant from all the information that is not relevant in any way. During driving, each time a driver consults the speedometer, the perceived speed can be compared to the actual speed. Those operations are additionally motivated by the need to respect speed limits (traffic rules). The repetitive practice, with feedback, of this task might suggest that drivers can become very good at estimating their speed. The main cue for speed is related to peripheral vision. When the peripheral vision is eliminated, leaving only the central field of view to determine speed, estimates become inaccurate because the vehicle's forward movement produces little change at the edge of the visual field. The reaction times play an important role in safely driving. Reaction times are influenced by many factors, but, for driving, the two most important are first: the number of stimuli and possible responses and second: expectancy. Reaction times in driving involve identifying a variety of events in a complex environment, so it is not surprising that reaction times bear little resemblance to the minimum possible in laboratory tests. Furthermore, age or body damages or deficiencies can impact the driving ability. Murray-Leslie (1991) highlighted in research that arthritic drivers suffering of chronic joint pains or deformed joints have problems with driving. Many studies and researches have shown that perceptual and psychological mechanisms exist, in order to compensate for the functional losses of auditory or visual paths. Looms (1998), Klatzky (1990) and Manton (1989) conducted different experiments investigating the visual and sound distance perception under full-cue conditions and reduced-cue conditions. After examining navigation ability in the absence of the sight, Klatzky and collaborators (1990) concluded that cognitive motor coordination performance was quite accurate for simple paths. Manton (1989) indicated that the acceptance of age-related functional losses can negatively impact actual abilities and recommended a more active approach to preserving functional abilities in order to be

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adopted at later ages by reinforcing a positive self-image to the elderly people. Considering the technological explosion within the last decade, the human factor can easily compensate the physical and physiological deficiencies using vehicle design adaptation while driving. Many changes could be made to standard vehicles including: seating, seat and door dimensions, handles, knobs, anti-glare adaptation, steering wheels, and mechanical driving control. Thus, the antiglare adaptation provides non-glare panels and day/night rearview and side mirrors. Haigh (1993), based on the ideas of Pirkl and Babic (1988), proposed design guidelines to improve the visibility of the vehicle control panels and dials: to ensure an adequate light level on text and controls; to select appropriate color, size and chromatic intensity for the symbols; to eliminate the irrelevant information and considering the advanced technologies many others improvements could be made to aid disabled drivers during driving: auditory information systems, visual enhancement devices, in-vehicle information, support systems (developed to address decline in perceptual, cognitive and physical performance) and emergency aid networks. Perceptual processing of the stimuli in the peripheral and central visual fields in driving A person, interacting with others, watches the others eyes for signs of attention and understanding, for clues and indications. Brebner and Welford (1980) reviewed literature that shows that visual stimuli perceived by different portions of the eye produce different reaction times. The fastest reaction time comes when a stimulus is seen by the cones (when the person is looking right at the stimulus). If the stimulus is picked up by rods (around the edge of the eye), the reaction is slower. Ando, Kida, and Oda (2002, 2004) found that practicing a visual stimulus in the central vision shortened the reaction time to a stimulus in peripheral vision, and vice versa. Pylyshyn (1998) suggested that many of the apparent spatial and directional properties of images could derive from real space, providing a mechanism for associating features or objects in images with corresponding objects in real space. This view has been developed in connection with a theory of visual indexes, which provides a

mechanism for preconception links to objects in the world (Pylyshyn, 2000, 2001a). Some of the cortical activity observed during both motor performance and the mental transformation of visual images, may reflect the fact that posterior parietal cortex area compute higher-level functions required for extrapolating trajectories, for tracking, for planning, and for visual-motor coordination (Anderson, Snyder, Bradley, & Xing, 1997). The visual field is the area of extent of physical space visible to an eye in a given position, measured by plotting the ability of the eye to discern motion, form or color at differing angles from the eye (Anderson & Holliday, 1995). There are significant individual differences in the peripheral threshold for motion, and there is more variability at the extreme points of the periphery (at a greater peripheral angle). A peripheral vision limitation occasionally represents a problem with the particularly complex junctions where the number of directions from which traffic can potentially approach is more than normal. Peripheral vision is relied upon to a greater extent in these situations and the safety of cyclists, motorcyclists and pedestrians at junctions often depends upon the drivers peripheral vision, as the focus of his or her attention will often be on other motor vehicles in the main stream of traffic. Levi, Klein and Hariharan (2002) highlighted in their research that peripheral crowding is not scale invariant nor is it attributable to simple contrast masking. Rather, the results suggested that inhibitory spatial interactions in peripheral crowding extend over larger distances than in the fovea for targets of the same size. In the peripheral vision, the critical distance for crowding is approximately 0.1 times the target eccentricity. Observers can easily detect the features that compose the authors targets (Gabor patches) under conditions of intense crowding (Levi, Klein, Hariharan, 2002). Loke and Song (1991) reported faster detection times for peripheral, visual stimuli for deaf than for hearing individuals. Thus, the little available evidence raises the possibility that peripheral processing is modified after early deafness. In his study, Gilden, Blake and Hurst (1995) used visual motor adaptation to study how the visual system is involved in the creation of mental images. This study was very important considering that the motor adaptation is retinotopic and because of this, appears in the primary visual system. Thus, when a region of the visual field receives an

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extended motor stimulation, an object in that region is seen as moving in the opposite way from the inductive movement (the waterfall illusion) and a mobile object is seen as if it moved slower. The researchers have conceived their study with the intention of demonstrating that the movement of an imaginary object is affected by the ulterior effect of the moving field. Thus, they discovered that when the point was imagined as moving in the same direction as the inductive moving field (contrary to the ulterior moving effect), this appears to have slowed down (it took it a long time to reach the other part of the region). Moreover, the point appeared to gain speed and reached the other side in less time when the point was imagined to move in the opposite direction from the moving inductive field (in the same direction with the ulterior moving effect). The conclusion was that in the visual moving adaptation, the moving seems to slow down in spite of the direction in which the inductive moving field is moving, probably because all the receptors sensitive to movement have been made tired. In another research, Pylyshyn and Cohen (1999) asked their subjects to extrapolate a small squares movement, which disappeared behind an apparently opaque surface. The subjects were asked to imagine the slight movement of the square in a dark room. At a certain unexpected time, the square would appear again, as if from a crack of the opaque surface, then disappear again through another space, and the subjects would then be told to indicate if the square reappeared before or after their imagined square reached the space. This task took place in several different conditions. In one of them, the placement of the space where the square was due to appear and disappear was unknown (the spaces were invisible). Both the discoveries confirmed the idea that the subjects, when reporting the image of the squares slow movement, actually select places to calculate the time until contact and they barely think that the imaginary moving square is at the designated places at the designated time. According to this opinion, the subjects think that here is now repeatedly for the different moving objects and synchronized with the arrival times calculated. Bavelier and collaborators (2000) used the functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) technique to test the hypothesis that allocating attention to the peripheral visual space is specifically enhanced after auditory

deprivation. They used structural equation modeling to characterize how this modulation arises within the visual pathway. The participants included hearing and deaf individuals who viewed alternating blocks of static dots and flowing fields of moving dots. Visual attention was engaged by requiring participants to monitor the display for luminance changes. Changes in visual attention with eccentricity were tested by contrasting runs in which subjects had to monitor luminance changes in the periphery with those in which subjects had to monitor the luminance changes in the center of the visual field. Taken together, these results demonstrate specific changes in the organization of the motion pathway in congenitally deaf individuals. In all viewing conditions, deaf individuals, unlike hearing subjects, displayed left lateralized MT/MST activation. When attending to the periphery, deaf individuals displayed a larger recruitment of the motion pathway than hearing individuals, whereas no population differences were noted when attending to the center. This result implies that peripheral space representation is more dependent on, and modifiable by, early auditory deprivation than is the representation of central visual space. Other studies and research were focused on highlighting if crowding in foveal and peripheral vision appears to differ in two important ways (Levi, Klein & Carney, 2000). This view is consistent with the finding that crowding in foveal and peripheral vision is qualitatively different (Hess, Dakin, Kapoor, & Tewfik, 2000). The perceptual processing: Bottomup and top-down approaches The top-down effects play a crucial role in processing sensorial information. Therefore, several effects have been demonstrated by many anatomical and psychophysical studies: priming (Stins & van Leeuwen, 1993), stimulus context (Bar & Ulma, 1996), expectancy (Downing, 1988) and object centered attention (Lavie & Driver, 1996; Driver & Spence, 1998). All these results suggested that the processing and subjective perception of external stimuli to a passive bottom-up process depending on the actual stimulus are also determined by internal states like expectation, attention or past experience. Siegel et al. (2000) proposed a model describing the interaction of bottom-up and

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top-down signals on a cellular level, leading to experimental predictions. The results of the experimental research evidenced that the model demonstrates how computational properties of somato-dendritic interactions could play an important role in the integration of bottom-up and top-down processing. Based on further research and studies revealing that in the hierarchy of areas in the visual system, neurons have increasingly complex receptive fields which establish an elementary form of knowledge (Siegel et al., 2000) even if the system receives no additional external topdown signals, the reciprocal connectivity leads to top-down signals based on the knowledge of the higher areas. The gender influences in stimuli processing in the peripheral perceptual field There is considerable controversy over both the existence and the magnitude of gender differences in special abilities. Thus, many studies and research have found no gender differences (Caplan, MacPearson & Tobin, 1985), while other studies have revealed gender differences favoring males versus female that have persisted across development (Linn, Petersen & Sorby 1998). There are several theories that attempt to explain gender differences in spatial abilities using both biologically based and nonbiologically based perspectives. Eals and Silverman (1994) presented the HunterGatherer theory of spatial gender differences based on the result of human-evolution. According to this explanation, males were hunters and therefore, they excelled in tasks that used spatial abilities and females were gatherers and they excelled in tasks related to foraging, such as peripheral perception. In order to support the biologically based explanation, there are research and studies showing different brain activation for males and females. Aside from external anatomical and primary and secondary sexual differences, scientists know also that there are many other subtle differences in the way the brains from men and women process language, information, emotion and cognition. One of the most interesting differences appear in the way human male and female estimate time, judge the speed of objects, carry out mental mathematical calculations, direct themselves in space and visualize objects in 3D. In all these tasks, human male and female

are strikingly different, as they also are in the way their brains process language (Smith et all, 2004). On the other hand, females are better than males in human relations, recognizing emotional overtones in others and in language, emotional and artistic expressiveness, aesthetic appreciation, verbal language and carrying out detailed and preplanned tasks (Kimura, 1999). Left hemisphere versus right hemisphere in peripheral and central visual field stimuli processing during driving tasks The hemispheres of the cerebrum are specialized for different tasks. The left hemisphere is regarded as the verbal and logical brain, and the right hemisphere is thought to govern creativity and spatial relations, among other things. Also, the right hemisphere controls the left hand, and the left hemisphere controls the right hand. This has made researchers think that the left hand should be faster at reaction times involving spatial relations (such as pointing at a target). The results of Bartlmy and Boulinquez (2001, 2002) all supported this idea. Dane and Erzurumluoglu (2003) found that in handball players, the left-handed people were faster than right-handed people when the test involved the left hand, but there was no difference between the reaction times of right handers and lefthanders when using the right hand. Finally, although right-handed male handball players had faster reaction times than right-handed women, there was no such gender difference between left-handed men and women. The authors concluded that lefthanded people have an inherent reaction time advantage. Bryden (2002), using right-handed people only, found that the difficulty of the task did not affect the reaction time difference between the left and right hands. Analyzing Central versus Peripheral Vision, Brebner and Welford (1980) cite literature that shows that visual stimuli perceived by different portions of the eye produce different reaction times. According to these findings, the fastest reaction time comes when a stimulus is seen by the cones (when the subject is looking right at the stimulus) and when the stimulus is picked up by rods (around the edge of the eye), the reaction is slower. Ando et al. (2002) found that practice on a visual stimulus in central vision shortened the

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reaction time to a stimulus in the peripheral vision, and vice versa. In driving, the space-time coordination is very important from a practical perspective. A very important element is the ability to estimate the speed and distance in a correct manner, which is influenced by several variables: visual, acoustic, kinesthetic and emotional according to the width and the length of the movement field, the size of the moving object, the environment structure, the approximate direction to the observer, the light within the moving field, etc (Barthelemy & Boulinguez 2001, 2002). Objectives The research objectives are the followings: Outlining the differences between genders in processing the perceptive information from the external stimuli in the peripheral visual field; Studying the association between the peripheral visual field stimuli processing and the central visual field processing stimuli during simulated driving tasks; Hypothesis 1. The gender differences influence the performances of stimuli processing tasks in the perceptive peripheral field in different ways. We assume that male subjects will have better performances than female subjects, considering the reaction time in responding to the stimuli and the number of stimuli detected at the peripheral perception task. 2. The mean of the estimate errors in appreciation of the speed and distances will be in inverse ratio to the reaction time value at the visual stimuli from the peripheral driving tasks simulation. Methodology Participants The participants were 164 students at the Faculty of Electronics, Automatics, Psychology and Educational Science (84 females and 80 males), the age between 21 and 27 years old (m= 24 SD= 3). The first step of selection used the criteria of selection: driving license for 1 year minimum and 5 years maximum. Using this criterion, a group of 463 subjects were able to participate to the

research. We randomly selected 164 participants (84 female and 80 male), from the subjects having a drivers license. These subjects represented the group for testing the first hypothesis regarding the gender differences in visual peripheral field processing stimuli. A second group of subjects (43 subjects, males and females) was randomly selected from the first group of 164 participants in order to test the second hypothesis of the research. Experimental designs The experimental design for the first hypothesis: between subjects design, two groups male (80) and females (84), in one experimental condition (processing visual stimuli in peripheral field) during simulated driving tasks. The experimental design for testing the second hypothesis: within subjects design, one group (43 subjects) in two visual stimuli processing simulated driving situations. The first simulated driving situation was the peripheral visual field processing stimuli task and the second simulated driving situation was the central visual field processing stimuli task. Instruments 1. The peripheral perception test (Schuhfried, 1992) is destined to evaluate ones abilities to perceive and process the visual peripheral information, and mostly on the rapid perception of the stimuli that enter the visual field through the lateral sides. The test can be administered as a unique test or as a background test simultaneously with a foreground test. In both the testing versions, the subjects visual attention is centered on the monitor, either on the globe appearing in the center of the screen, or on the foreground test. The test is presented with a special testing machine, incorporating a peripheral exposure consisting in light-emitting diodes that are arranged on horizontal and vertical and allow the luminous stimuli to move from the edges to the center of the visual field. The foreground test or the globe is presented on the machines screen. The DEST test (Schuhfried, 1992) studies the subject's ability to estimate the speed and distance, displaying a small rectangle on the monitor that moves with a constant speed from the left side to the right, in a horizontal manner and represent a driving

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simulation task regarding the central visual field stimuli processing. The central role of the DEST test is played by the white spot (small rectangle) which disappears after a certain distance behind an invisible barrier. The subject has to push a button when he thinks the rectangle would reach the edge of the barrier, which is signaled with a vertical line at the edge of the screen. Procedure At the beginning of the Peripheral Perceptual Test, the examiner verbally informed the subjects in a different manner, depending on the chosen test: a) for PPT as a unique test: On the central screen of the machine you will see a globe that you have to gaze at during the whole test. During this time, the luminous stimulus will move from the edge of the machine to the center. Once you see this type of light stimulus, push the yellow pedal or b) for PPT as a background test The text instructions appeared on the middle screen of the machine. Go through the instructions and once you understood everything you can start the test. From the moment the test has begun and while you work with it, a light stimulus will move from time to time from the edge of the screen to the center.

Once you are able to see such luminous stimuli with the corner of your eye, press the yellow pedal. The participants are informed that they have to focus on a white spot (small rectangle) which disappears after a certain distance behind an invisible barrier. The participants have to push a button when he thinks the rectangle would reach the edge of the barrier, which is signaled with a vertical line at the edge of the screen. Following the procedures carrying out, the results from both tests were computed using t- test for independent groups (male/female) in order to confirm the first hypothesis and the Pearson correlation in order to confirm the second hypothesis. Results and discussion Considering the first experimental design (for the first hypothesis): between subjects design (male and female), in one experimental condition (processing visual stimuli in peripheral field) during simulated driving tasks it was applied t-test for independent groups. The results can be observed in table 1.

Table 1. The mean, Std. deviation, Std. Error mean and statistical significance of gender differences The task response Correct Wrong Omitted Left average reaction time Right average reaction time Total average reaction time Left std. dev. Right std. dev. Total std. dev. Gender Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male N 84 80 84 80 84 80 84 80 84 80 84 80 84 80 84 80 84 80 Mean 47.13 48.99 5.78 3.18 2.87 1.02 1.97 1.54 2.05 1.60 2.01 1.57 0.73 0.54 0.76 0.56 0.75 0.56 Std. Deviation 4.41 2.15 6.78 3.39 4.41 2.16 0.45 0.46 0.44 0.48 0.43 0.46 0.21 0.18 0.20 0.19 0.19 0.17 t -3.42 3.10 3.38 6.05 6.37 6.30 5.94 6.41 6.83 p-value 0.001 0.002 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.0001

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Following the data from the table 1 we have made a few findings: Women, as well as men have obtained a smaller medium reaction time for the stimuli entering the visual field from the left side, comparative to the ones coming from the right side. The processing of the stimuli entering the visual field is done differently according to gender. Thus, the perceptive-peripheral processing occurs faster at men (m=1.57), then it does at women (m=2.01), regarding the stimuli entering the visual field from the right side as well as the ones entering from the left side; The value of the t test for independent samples (t=6.30, p<0.001) indicates the fact that the difference is significant; Right average reaction time (female/male) = 2.05/1.60, statistically significant results (t=6.366, p<0.001) and for Left average reaction time (female/male) = 1.97/1.54, statistically significance results (t= 6.053, p<0.001). Giving an interpretation to the results, we concluded that: The gender differences influence the performances of the processing stimuli tasks in the perceptive peripheral field in a different way had been confirmed.

Furthermore, the assumption the male subjects will have better performances than female subjects, considering the time reaction response to the stimuli and the number of stimuli detected at the peripheral perception task. it has been statistically confirmed by the obtained results. Considering the experimental design for testing the second hypothesis: within subjects design, one group (43 subjects) in two visual stimuli processing simulated driving situations; we used for analyzing the results the t-test for paired groups and for the correlative study the Bravais-Pearson linear correlation coefficient. The first simulated driving task situation was the peripheral visual field processing stimuli task and the second simulated driving situation was the central visual field processing stimuli task. The peripheral perception tests results in processing visual stimuli during a driving task simulation. The shapes of the both empirical distributions are quite normal (figure 1) thus, we applied the parametric statistic for significance tests.

Table 2. Central tendency and standard deviation values for the PP test indicators (N=43) Mean 1.87 1.99 1.93 0.66 0.68 0.69 Standard Deviation 0.487 0.511 0.492 0.194 0.200 0.168

Left average reaction time Right average reaction time Total average reaction time Left standard deviation Right standard deviation Total standard deviation

12

10

10

Frequency

Frequency

4
4

2
2 Mean = 1.9993 Std. Dev. = 0.51061 N = 43 0 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50

Mean = 1.8702 Std. Dev. = 0.48663 N = 43 0 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50

Right average reaction time

Left average reaction time

Figure 1 The histograms of left and right average reaction time

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Considering the dependent variable Left average reaction time and Right average reaction time, a t-test for paired groups tested the statistically significant differences. The results of t-test (t=4, 9, p>0.01) confirm no significant difference between the two variables. The peripheral processing reflected by the subjects reactivity to imperative stimuli is differentiated in connection to the area in which the stimuli are being administered. The subjects reactivity for the stimuli entering the visual field from the left side is significantly (p<0.05) better (m=1.87) than the ones entering from the right side (m=1.99) (table 2). The DEST Tests results for the appreciation of speed and distances in central visual field driving simulation tasks Considering DEST test as a visual task driving simulation for the central field stimuli processing, the descriptive statistics of the dates obtained from the subjects performed tasks can be seen in table 3.

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Number of underestimations

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15.00

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0.00

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Incorrect reactions

Figure 2 The relationship between the number of underestimations (DEST test) and the number of wrong reactions (Peripheral perception), N=43

Table 3. Central tendency and standard deviation for the DEST test indicators (N=43) Mean Number of Correct Estimations Number of underestimations The tendency of estimations The mean of estimation error 2.26 16.02 -4.86 30.01 Standard Deviation 21.39 11.03 20.98 12.72

The graphic representation of the bivariate distribution (figure 2) indicates a medium negative correlation. The correlation coefficients value (r = - 0.40, p<0,05) indicates the fact that in the peripheral field (left and right), the more wrong reactions to the peripheral stimuli in driving simulation tasks, the more the number of speed underestimates tends to be reduced providing better stimuli processing in the central visual perceptive field.
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The tendency of estimations

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Measures of central tendency and variability are basic descriptive statistics that summarize the distribution of the variables. In order to test the second hypothesis which assumes that the mean of the estimate errors in evaluating the speed and distances in central visual perceptual field will be in inverse ratio to the time reaction value at the visual stimuli from the peripheral driving tasks simulation, the Bravais-Pearson linear correlation coefficient was used.

-10.00

-20.00

-30.00

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Incorrect reactions

Figure 3 The relationship between the estimation tendency variable (DEST test) and the number of incorrect reactions (peripheral perception), N=43

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Considering the estimation tendency (in the speed and distance estimation test represents the absolute difference between the number of overestimation and underestimations) and the number of incorrect reaction to the peripheral stimuli (peripheral perception test), the correlation coefficient Pearson-Bravais (r=0.42, p<0.005), (N=43) does not indicates a strong correlation between the two variables. The graphic representation (Figure 3) of the scatter plot indicates the fact that the more errors in the peripheral processing (between 0 and 10), there is a tendency for a correct estimation of the cinematic parameters on the basis of the descending processing. Still, after passing a certain number of peripheral errors (between 10 and 20), we can notice a significant increase of the overestimating tendency for the stimulis moving speed in the central perceptive field. In this situation, the error is present at the periphery and also in the processing made by the central perceptive field. This fact can be caused by the field difference in which the perception is being made, as well as other motivational, temperamental etc. factors (there is not a homogenous distribution of the scores). Between the variables number of wrong reactions and number of omissions there has been obtained a relatively high negative correlation (r=-0.728, p<0.001), (N=43). It has to be said that for this correlation, only the dates from the subjects that omitted reactions in the speed estimation test have been used. Conclusions Driving represents a multitasking activity that requires drivers to focus their attention towards environmental stimuli either in peripheral visual field or in the central visual field. The driving accidents are explained by the cognitive processing of the peripheral and central visual field stimuli in particular and by the human psychological processes in general as the reviewed research and studies were presented in this paper. Analyzing the results the mean of the estimate errors in appreciation of speed and distances has been confirmed as being in inverse ratio to the time reaction value at the visual stimuli from the peripheral driving tasks simulation (between the variables number of wrong reactions and number of omissions it

has been obtained a relatively high negative correlation (r=-0.728, p<0.001), (N=43)). Testing the influence of subjects gender on the peripheral visual stimuli processing, statistically significant difference has been obtained using t-test for independent groups (table 1). Based on previous studies (Anitei, Buzea, Chraif 2007 Anitei, Chraif 2007) the present study highlights the importance of the reaction time in peripheral processing visual stimuli during driving task. During driving simulation tasks were being carried out, the subjects interact with the simulated environment (external stimuli in peripheral and central field as light stimuli) throw pedals and buttons producing behavioral protocols similar to those of the subjects during driving. Nevertheless, we demonstrated in this study that increasing the errors in peripheral visual field correlate in inverse ratio with decreasing the speed and distances appreciation in the central visual field during driving simulation tasks. Furthermore, obtaining the Pearson negative correlation, it has been confirmed that the mean of the estimate errors in evaluating the speed and distances in central visual field are in inverse ratio to the time reaction value at the peripheral visual stimuli driving simulation tasks. Thus the results obtained could help the subjects learn to focus their attention on the peripheral/central visual field stimuli that need attention during driving tasks. Also, they can exercise responses to both stimulations (from external stimuli) in central and peripheral visual fields preventing the traffic accidents based on stimuli detection in peripheral and central visual field.
References Aasman, J. (1995). Modeling driver behavior in Soar. Leidschendam, the Netherlands: KPN Research. Anderson, S.J., & Holliday, I.E. (1995). Night driving: effects of glare from vehicle headlights on motion perception. Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics, 15, 545-551. Anderson, R. A., Snyder, L. H., Bradley, D. C., & Xing, J. (1997). Multimodal representation of space in the posterior parietal cortex and its use in planning movements. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 29, 303-330. Ando, S., Kida, N., & Oda., S. (2002). Practice effects on reaction time for peripheral and

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Pylyshyn, Z.W. (2000). Situating vision in the world, Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4, 5, 197-207. Pylyshyn, Z.W. (2001a). Connecting vision and the world: Tracking the missing link. In J. Branquinho (Ed.), The Foundations of Cognitive Science. Oxford, UK: Claredon Press. Schuhfried, G. (1992). Wienna Test System, GmB Austria. Shute, R.H. and Woodhouse, J.G. (1990) Visual fitness to drive after stroke or head injury. Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics . 10, 327-332. Siegel, M., Kording, P.K., & Kording, P. (2000). Integrating Top-Down and Bottom-Up Sensory Processing by Somato-Dendritic Interactions. Journal of Computational Neuroscience, 8, 161-173. Smith, E., Fredrickson, B., Loftus, G. R., & NoelenHoeksema, S., (2004). Introduction to Psychology, Bucureti: Ed. Tehnic. Stins, J.F., & van Leeuwen, C. (1993). Context influence on the perception of figures as conditional upon perceptual organization strategies. Percept. Psychophysics. 53, 3442. Wang, Q., Cavanagh, P., & Green, M. (1994). Familiarity and pop-out in visual search. Perception & Psychophysics, 56, 495-500.

D&D Consultants, Bucureti www.ddconsultants.ro

Instrumente psihometrice publicate de D&D Consultants/TestCentral CPI (California Psychological Inventory (462, 434, 260)) NPQ (Nonverbal Personality Questionnaire) FFNPQ (Five-Factor Nonverbal Personality Questionnaire) SWS (Survey of Work Styles) STAXI-2 (State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory) FPI (Freiburg Personlichkeitsinventar (Formele G i R)) LSI (Learning Styles Inventory) MLQ (Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Forma 5X)) STAI (State-Trait Anxiety Inventory) STAIC (State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children) JVIS (Jackson Vocational Interest Survey) AMI (Achievement Motivation Inventory) FJAS (Fleishman Job Analysis Survey) Instrumente psihometrice n curs de apariie: ASSET (A Shortened Stress Evaluation Tool) EPQ-R (Eysenck Personality Questionnaire, Revised) IVE (Eysenck's Impulsiveness Questionnaire) BFQ-2 (Big Five Questionnaire) BFA (Big Five Adjectives) GAMA (General Ability Measure for Adults) MAB-II (Multidimensional Aptitude Battery) NEO-PI-R (Revised NEO Personality Inventory) BASC-2 (Behaviour Assessment System for Children, Second Edition) MSCEIT (Mayer Salovey Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test) EO-I (Emotional Quotient Inventory) TEDE6 (Test dvaluation dynamique de lducabilit) DDDI (Dula Dangerous Driving Index)

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Managementul Resurselor Umane n Practic

Industrial/Organization Consultancy in the United States: A Few of the Challenges Barbara Nett Angie Rosenbaum
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As Industrial/Organizational (I/O) consultants, we are normally hired by a human resources department (e.g., staffing, talent management) within a large organization or the legal department. We are typically brought in to deal with an organizational issue that the internal staff cannot handle because they lack the necessary staff, time, and/or technical expertise. That means we are viewed as people who have all the answers needed to get the job done, and can get it done quickly. By the time we are brought on board, the clients are eager to get the project underway and are thrilled to be able to ask their questions and listen to our advice. However, as the projects progress, any number of challenges may arise. Credibility. It is not unusual for the clients project staff to be curious about our credibility. Our Chief Executive Officer speaks to their figure head to secure the contract, and then we come in to assist with the work. We may have met the executive staff and gained their acceptance, but when we first meet the project staff, they are inquisitive. They quiz us with questions such as, How long have you been doing this type of work? How many similar projects have you worked on? What other clients have you worked for? and so on. Once we explain we have worked in the field for a dozen or more years and have an impressive list of clients, they feel they have sufficiently vetted us and they become more at ease partnering with us. We imagine this establishes for them that we not only have the necessary technical expertise, but that we have also actually used it successfully and we may actually be able to help them! Eventually, a funny thing happens. Once we have earned their trust and confidence, the clients become so comfortable relying on us to provide advice regarding their dilemmas and answers to their questions that they become reluctant to make routine decisions for themselves even the decisions they were making regularly before they engaged us. For instance, after developing a
1

new selection process for a client, they asked us Where should we post our openings? Noting that recruitment had never been an issue for them, we responded with Where have you posted them in the past? As another example, we often recommend that clients use banding rather than selection based on strict rank order. After developing a new selection system for a large public safety organization we recommended they band the test scores. The client asked us to then suggest how they should decide which candidates to select from within the bands. We advised that they could make selections from within the bands using any number of jobrelated criteria such as seniority, top-down based on interview score, geographic preference, etc. as long as the criteria were consistently applied. Yet, the client kept pressing us for a firm recommendation and we kept insisting that it was ultimately their decision to make based on what fit the needs of their business. Setting Limits. Our impression is that organizations are slow to pull the trigger on hiring external consultants. And once they do they want the work completed at lightning speed. The organizational issue at hand has probably been lingering for some time and now needs immediate attention. So in their haste to accomplish the project clients try to push the limits sometimes wanting to sacrifice sound scientific methodology in the name of cost containment and quick results. We try to be amenable to making logistic concessions and rearranging our schedules, but never bend to the pressure if it means sacrificing unassailable methodological practices. Additionally, client questions frequently segue into requests beyond the scope of the initial work, with no mention of additional compensation or flexibility of deadline. Clients are tempted to sweep peripheral organizational issues under the rug of our contract agreement. We have to be willing to say no sometimes and remain vigilant not to be taken advantage of while not compromising our relationship with the client.

Adresa de coresponden: blnett@comcast.net

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Packaging Technical Expertise. Hired for our expertise, challenges arise in conveying that expertise to the client in an understandable fashion. Issues such as banding, setting effective and defensible cutoff scores, why to use compensatory vs. multiplehurdle testing systems, and even what constitutes a test can be surprisingly difficult for clients to comprehend. One client, when asked what type of test they used for selecting clerical staff, said We dont use a test instead, we just have them come in to provide a typing sample. Many clients do not understand that any mechanism used in a pass/fail or recommend/not recommend fashion is considered a test. Its also not uncommon to encounter clients who still do not understand that an interview is a test. We also encounter clients who do not understand that selection is an imperfect science and that testing for each and every competency may be both cost-prohibitive and inefficient. They have trouble recognizing that a parsimonious selection system is preferable, and beyond incorporating those competencies with the most predictive value, there is likely a point of diminishing returns. Similarly, clients may ask us to include selection measures for competencies that either do not survive the job analysis or that may be related to broad business initiatives but arent necessarily jobrelated for the job in question. Just this week a client asked us to include measures for initiative and leadership in a selection procedure for an entry-level manufacturing position two competencies not supported by the job analysis undertaken for the position. Organizational Dynamics. Recently, we were hired by a large retailer to undertake a massive job analysis and selection project. We negotiated and agreed to an aggressive timeline for the ambitious project. Then, following disappointing quarterly results for the retailer, they received pushback from the executives to minimize costs. Their first reaction was to try to persuade us to limit the scope of the project implying we could cut corners (by considerably reducing the job analysis sample) and still achieve the same results. We disagreed, citing the importance of a solid job analysis for any subsequent development of selection instruments. We then renegotiated the project and agreed to a modified fixed-price contract for the work. Again, just before the project was set to launch, they halted our efforts in favor of having a sister group within the organization help with the travel-intensive project in order to further control costs.

Sometimes this on-again off-again work is related to individuals, not resources. Occasionally, an executive who brings us on for a project exits the organization and support for the project disappears as well. We have learned to enjoy down-time and lenient schedules when we can, because we can never count on how long it will last and need to be prepared to change gears on a moments notice. Schedules at the Mercy of the Client. Given how quickly our projects may come and go, we are required to be exceedingly flexible in terms of schedule. A project may arise quickly and have a very tight deadline. In those instances, it may be necessary to work weekends and holidays to accomplish the project. Many of our projects are also extremely labor-intensive and require long and arduous hours at the client site. We have spent as many as six consecutive weeks at a client site (in another state) in order to meet project deadlines. And on one particular job analysis project, we worked 20-hour shifts in order to adequately sample all shifts in the 24/7 production facility. The unpredictability of our work and the frequent work/life imbalance some of the greatest obstacles we encounter in retaining staff. Consulting requires tremendous dedication and commitment to the work and many dont want the occasionally demanding lifestyle. Long-Term Client Relationships. Ideally, we aim to secure the trust and confidence of our clients so that we can establish a long-term relationship and gain repeat business with them. It is generally advantageous for all parties involved. Familiarity generally breeds efficiency in that the parties involved already know one another, we understand the organizational culture and protocol, and we may be able to build on earlier project work. One of the most professionally gratifying feelings is to gain repeated business with a client thats when we know we have delivered solid work and managed to successfully overcome any challenges along the way.

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PowerStaTim 1.0 un nou program statistic de calcul a mrimii efectului i a puterii statistice Florin A. Sava Laureniu P. Maricuoiu Universitatea de Vest din Timioara
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Abstract The present paper presents the main characteristics of a new software for computing effect size and statistical power indicators: PowerStaTim 1.0 (Maricuoiu & Sava, 2007). The first part of the present paper presents the rationale for computing effect size and statistical power in psychological research. The second part of the article introduces the reader to the technical characteristics of PowerStaTim 1.0 and to the processing options of this software. Key words: statistical power, effect size, sample size, software

Rezumat Lucrarea de fa prezint principalele caracteristici ale unui nou program statistic de calcul al indicatorilor mrimii efectului i puterii statistice: PowerStaTim 1.0 (Maricuoiu & Sava, 2007). Prima parte a articolului prezint argumentele care explica necesitatea calculrii mrimii efectului i a puterii statistice n cercetarea psihologic. A doua parte familiarizeaz cititorul cu caracteristicile tehnice ale PowerStaTim 1.0 i cu opiunile de procesare oferite de acest program statistic. Cuvinte cheie: puterea statistic, mrimea efectului, dimensiunea eantionului, program statistic

Introducere

Probabil fiecare dintre cei care citesc acest text s-a confruntat, n contexte de cercetare, cu o serie de ntrebri fireti de genul De ci participani am nevoie n studiu?; De ce rezultatele mele sunt nesemnificative statistic, dei literatura de specialitate susine contrariul?; Ct de eficient din punct de vedere practic este intervenie psihologic studiat?; Care tratament este mai bun?, Ce anse am s obin un rezultat semnificativ statistic? etc. n acest moment, practica editorilor din reviste de specialitate de a ne pune ntrebri legate de mrimea efectului sau de puterea statistic a studiului (APA, 2001) este din ce n ce mai rspndit. Dac n calitate de autori nu ne-am pus nc asemenea ntrebri, cu siguran o vor face aceti editori. Pentru a rspunde la aceste ntrebri va trebui s apelm la programe specializate de genul G-Power (Faul & Erdfelder, 1992) sau
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Power and Precision (Borestein, Rothstein & Cohen, 2001), care ns prezint o serie de neajunsuri detaliate n lucrri anterioare (Sava & Maricuoiu, 2007). Prin urmare, scopul lucrrii de fa este de a prezenta succint principalele caracteristici ale PowerStaTim 1.0 (Maricuoiu & Sava, 2007), ce se constituie ntr-o alternativ viabil la programele menionate anterior. Principalul avantaj al PowerStaTim 1.0 asupra competitorilor este orientarea spre nevoile utilizatorilor i flexibilitatea input-ului. Astfel, spre deosebire de celelalte software-uri, acest program permite utilizatorilor posibilitatea de a opta pentru una dintre urmtoarele trei variante: (1) lucrul cu date primare (ex.: outputuri oferite de programe precum SPSS-ul); (2) lucrul cu date secundare complete (ex.: utilizatorul gsete n articole de specialitate informaiile necesare); (3) lucrul cu date secundare incomplete (ex.: utilizatorul are acces la informaii incomplete prezentate n articole de specialitate).

Adresa de contact: afsava@socio.uvt.ro

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Alte avantaje care merit reinute sunt: posibilitatea pentru a opta pentru indicatorul mrimii efectului preferat; posibilitatea de a consulta o serie de indicatori ajustai, ce permit comparaii indiferent de tipul de design al studiului, numrul de variabile implicate etc.; cerina de a introduce informaii statistice elementare (N, medii etc.) spre deosebire de alte programe care necesit cunotine avansate de metodologie. Module de calcul ale PowerStaTim 1.0

Pentru oricare dintre aceste tehnici statistice exist un formular pentru calculul a posteriori a mrimii efectului i a puterii statistice (pe baza rezultatelor obinute de utilizator sau gsite n literatura de specialitate), un formular pentru estimarea a priori a numrului de subieci necesari (pe baza efectului ateptat i a puterii statistice vizate) i un formular de estimare a priori a puterii statistice (pe baza efectului ateptat i a numrului de subieci disponibili). Caracteristici de utilizare a PowerStaTim 1.0 nc din stadiul de proiectare, PowerStaTim 1.0 s-a dorit a fi un software educaional. Pentru atingerea acestui obiectiv, o atenie special a fost acordat design-ului aspectelor legate de input-ul i output-ul acestui software, precum i a fiierelor de asisten asociate software-ului (vezi Figura 1).

Din punctul de vedere al procesrii, PowerStaTim 1.0 acoper toate tehnicile statistice parametrice de baz: - Corelaii i regresii liniare; - Testele t; - Testele ; - Testul F (pentru toate formele de ANOVA i ANCOVA)

Figura 1. Sumar al caracteristicilor PowerStaTim 1.0

Caracteristici ale input-ului Deoarece se adreseaz unor utilizatori cu cunotine minime n ceea ce privete mrimea efectului i puterea statistic, designul input-ului se dorete a fi familiar studenilor ce au parcurs un curs de statistic introductiv. Astfel, PowerStaTim 1.0 nu solicit dect informaii de baz precum: medii, abateri standard, numr de subieci, valori ale testelor statistice (t, r, F, beta) i gradele de libertate ale acestor teste (df). Pornind de la aceste valori, PowerStaTim 1.0 calculeaz automat indici mai puin familiari precum abaterea standard combinat a mai multor grupe (pooled standard deviation n englez) sau media armonic a numrului de subieci.

Aceti indici sunt solicitai de programe similare (Gpower, Power and Precision) deoarece intr n formulele de calcul a indicatorilor de mrimea efectului. Pentru a uura introducerea datelor, fiecare fereastr PowerStaTim 1.0 pornete de la informaii de baz ale design-ului (numrul de variabile/grupe experimentale/predictori), apoi solicit informaii privind numele grupurilor (de exemplu: experimental vs. control), al predictorilor sau al variabilelor dependente. Odat introduse aceste informaii, formularul n care trebuie introduse rezultatele obinute se adapteaz design-ului definit anterior, oferind utilizatorului indici privind locul specific n care ne ateptm s introduc anumite informaii (vezi Figura 2).

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Figura 2. Exemplu de formular din PowerStaTim 1.0

n situaia n care utilizatorul are nevoie de asisten, formularele PowerStaTim 1.0 conin unul sau mai multe butoane marcate cu simbolul ?, precum i un buton marcat cu textul Ajutor. Apsarea acestor butoane deschide o pagin web care conine informaii despre: tehnica statistic respectiv; modul n care se completeaz formularul din PowerStaTim 1.0; modul n care se pot interpreta rezultatele oferite. Fiierele de asisten sunt sub forma unui website local, care este copiat la instalare. Odat accesat, acest website permite navigarea fr restricii prin toate topicile abordate prin accesarea hyperlink-urilor specifice. Caracteristici ale output-ului n cazul modulelor a posteriori, rezultatele analizei sunt prezentate ntr-un fiier MS Word. n momentul n care toate calculele sunt realizate, PowerStaTim 1.0 deschide o fereastr de dialog care permite utilizatorului s selecteze locaia i (eventual)

numele fiierului. Odat salvat, fiierul este deschis automat de PowerStaTim 1.0. Oferirea rezultatelor n acest mod prezint dou mari avantaje, dup cum urmeaz: este uor de utilizat, chiar i pe calculatoare care nu au instalat PowerStaTim 1.0; permite transferul rezultatelor n alte documente de tip MS Word: tabelele pot fi transferate uor, fr riscul unor conflicte de formatare. De asemenea, rezultatul preia datele introduse n formular i le ofer ntr-o manier sintetic. n cazul exemplului din Figura 2, dup completarea datelor legate de N, m i , acestea vor fi prezente n fiierul de rezultate alturi de rezultatele legate de mrimea efectului i puterea statistic. Mrimea fiierelor poate varia de la 1 pagin pn la 3 pagini (n cazul regresiei ierarhice). n cazul modulelor a priori rezultatele analizei sunt prezentate n cadrul aceleiai ferestre, sub forma unui text. Am optat pentru aceast variant deoarece rezultatul poate fi exprimat n cel mult o fraz, ceea ce nu ar fi justificat crearea unui fiier MS Word.

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Caracteristici tehnice ale PowerStaTim 1.0. PowerStaTim 1.0 a fost programat n Visual Basic.NET 2005, construit pe tehnologia Microsoft .Net Framework 2.0 . Din aceste considerente, nu poate fi instalat dect pe sisteme de operare Windows NT (Windows 2000, XP, Vista) care au instalat aceast tehnologie. n plus, pentru funcionarea PowerStaTim 1.0 este nevoie de MS Office XP pentru a putea accesa funcii din MS Excel i pentru a putea realiza fiierele de raport n MS Word. Calcularea indicatorilor de mrimea efectului i putere statistic Deoarece demonstraia este adesea cel mai bun mijloc de exemplificare a utilitii unui produs, n final ne vom focaliza asupra unui exemplu relevant pentru utilitatea PowerStaTim. Dou departamente din cadrul aceleiai firme desfoar o activitate similar, singura diferen fiind tipul de management practicat. n departamentul A s-a adoptat un sistem de salarizare variabil n funcie de performanele angajailor, n timp ce n departamentul B se practic un sistem de salarizare fix. Un psiholog este interesat s-i fac disertaia pe acest subiect, fiind convins c cel de-al doilea stil produce un nivel mai ridicat de satisfacie printre angajai. Prin intermediul PowerStaTim 1.0, psihologul ar putea rspunde la o serie de ntrebri att nainte de efectuarea studiului (ex. De ci angajai am nevoie n studiu? modulul N a priori din PowerStaTim; Dac am acces doar la 40 de angajai ce anse am s obin un rezultat semnificativ statistic? modulul Power a priori), ct i dup finalizarea studiului (Ct de important din punct de vedere practic este diferena observat? sau Ce probabilitate exist de a fi comis o eroare n testarea ipotezei? modulul a posteriori). n continuare sunt oferite rspunsurile PowerStaTim 1.0 la cele patru ntrebri ridicate. 1. De ci angajai este nevoie s fie inclui ca participani n studiu? Din datele problemei rezult cazului testului t pentru 2 eantioane independente i al unei ipoteze unilaterale. Din literatura metodologic tim c un studiu optim configurat ar trebui s aib o putere statistic de .80, iar mrimea efectului de o intensitate cel puin medie are valoarea de .50 n cazul indicatorului d al lui Cohen. Introducnd aceste

date n PowerStaTim 1.0, rezult c am avea nevoie de 50 de participani din fiecare departament, ceea ce nseamn 100 de angajai n total. 2. Dac am acces doar la 40 de angajai, n total, ce anse am s obin un rezultat semnificativ statistic? Rspunsul la aceast ntrebare este dependent de tipul de efect cutat. De pild, pentru un efect de intensitate medie precum d = .50 i pstrnd aceleai condiii prezentate anterior, cu excepia numrului de participani, vom observa o putere statistic a studiului de .46 dac cei 40 de angajai sunt mprii n dou grupe egale. O asemenea valoare indic faptul c sunt ceva mai puin de 1 la 1 anse (.46 / .54) de a obine un rezultat semnificativ statistic chiar dac ar exista o diferen de intensitate medie ntre cele dou departamente cu privire la satisfacia n munc. Dup finalizarea studiului, prin PowerStaTim se poate rspunde la alte ntrebri. S presupunem c au fost implicai n studiu 60 de angajai, 27 din departamentul A i 33 din departamentul B, iar indicatorii descriptivi privind satisfacia au fost (mA = 12.23, sA = 4,28, respectiv mB = 14,56 i sB = 4,71). 3. n aceste condiii, diferena sesizat este important din punct de vedere practic? PowerStaTim ofer o serie de indicatori ai mrimii efectului ce pot fi interpretai n variate forme. De pild, valoarea lui d Cohen este .52, ceea ce indic un efect vizibil, de intensitate medie n plan practic (Cohen, 1988), ce nu poate fi neglijat. O asemenea valoare, transpus n termeni de percentile, indic faptul c persoanele cu un nivel mediu de satisfacie din departamentul B au un nivel al satisfaciei similar cu cele din departamentul A aflate n percentilul 70, ceea ce indic faptul c majoritatea persoanelor din A (70 de persoane dintr-o 100) au un nivel de satisfacie sub nivelul mediu resimit n departamentul B. O alt interpretare posibil prin apelul la PowerStaTim este oferit prin intermediul r BESD. Astfel, utilizarea unui sistem de salarizare fix fa de unul flexibil, induce o cretere a ratei de succes cu privire la satisfacia resimit n munc de la 37% la 63%. n sfrit, o alt interpretare clasic, bazat pe procentul de dispersie explicat, este posibil prin intermediul PowerStaTim 1.0. Astfel, deoarece r = .0636, rezult c aproximativ 6,36% din modul n care a variat

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satisfacia angajailor din cele dou departamente poate fi asociat diferenelor existente n sistemul de salarizare. 4. Ce probabilitate exist de a fi comis o eroare n testarea ipotezei? Pornind de la rezultatele descriptive prezentate mai sus, PowerStaTim 1.0 ofer, o dat cu indicatorii de mrime a efectului, valoarea a posteriori a puterii statistice a studiului efectuat. n cazul dat, puterea statistic, la un prag de .05 este .65, o valoare considerat satisfctoare, dar nc sub nivelul optim standard de .80 (Cohen, 1988). Din perspectiva ntrebrii puse rezult c exist o probabilitate de .35 (1 - .65) de a comite o eroare de tip II, care transpus n termeni simpli ar fi cazul n care am concluziona greit c nu exist diferene semnificative statistic ntre cele dou departamente. n termeni de ans, acest lucru indic c avem 2 din 3 anse (.65 / .35) de a trage concluzii corecte i 1 din 3 anse de a comite o eroare de tip II. Cititorii interesai de aceste aspecte pot gsi mai multe detalii n manualul de utilizare a programului (Sava & Maricuoiu,

2007), ct i n fiierele de asisten ce pot fi instalate o dat cu PowerStaTim 1.0. Nu ne rmne dect s v invitm s le citii!
Bibliografie APA (2001). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (5th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Borenstein, M., Rothstein, H., & Cohen, J. (2001). Power and Precision. Disponibil la: www.poweranalysis.com. Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale: Erlbaum. Faul, F., & Erdfelder, E. (1992). GPOWER: A priori, post hoc, and compromise power analyses for MS-DOS [Computer program]. Bonn University, Dept. of Psychology, Bonn. Maricuoiu, L.P, Sava, F.A. (2007). PowerStaTim 1.0 Analiza puterii statistice i a mrimii efectului. Disponibil la: www.psihologietm.ro ncepnd cu data de 1.07.2008. Sava, F.A, & Maricuoiu, L.P. (2007). PowerStaTim 1.0. Manualul utilizatorului. Timioara: Editura Universitii de Vest.

Organizational Diagnosis & Development Brand Research Academic & Institutional Evaluation Organizational Simulation & Gaming Focus on people and opportunities. For reliable outcomes contact@aphorme.ro; www.aphorme.ro

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Corelaii, corelaii, corelaii ... perspectiva SEM asupra msurrii n psihologie Balzsi Rbert Universitatea Babe-Bolyai, Cluj Napoca
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Msurarea a reprezentat i reprezint n continuare o problem esenial att a cercetrii n psihologie, ct i a psihologiei aplicate, astfel construcia unor instrumente de msur, respectiv teste, standardizate reprezint un imperativ al ambelor domenii. Calitatea msurrii (implicit calitatea testelor) se reflect n indicatorii de validitate i fidelitate a instrumentelor de msur. Exist i alte caracteristici importante ale unui instrument de msur, oferite de exemplu de analiza de itemi, dar n discuia din acest numr ne vom limita doar la validitate i fidelitate pentru c ele se bazeaz n general pe valoarea indicilor de corelaie calculat ntre dou sau mai multe variabile observate (sau proceduri mai complexe bazate pe analiza corelaional). ntrebarea la care ncercm s oferim un rspuns este, n ce msur interpretarea efectuat n cadrul conceptual tradiional al unor indici de corelaie ntre dou variabile observate pot oferi, sau nu, informaiile necesare n acest sens. Ceea ce ne face s ne ndoim de eficiena practicilor efectuate n spiritul psihometriei clasice este perspectiva, relativ nou oferit de metodologia SEM. Nu ne propunem s punem sub semnul ntrebrii psihometria clasic n ntregimea ei (n acest sens vezi asumpiile Teorie Rspunsului la Item, Embretson & Hershberger, 1999), dar vom discuta dou aspecte care s arate clar cum modelarea prin ecuaii structurale, care i ea se bazeaz pe analiza corelaiilor sau a covarianelor, nuaneaz problematica validitii i fidelitii. SEM reprezint o modalitate de analiz structural a covarianelor, avnd ca scop verificarea ipotezei conform creia matricea de covariane a populaiei variabilelor observate este o funcie a parametrilor liberi necunoscui ai modelului teoretic structurat (Breckler, 1990; Joreskog & Sorbom, 1984).
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Modelul teoretic structurat practic specific relaii ntre diferite variabile msurate i variabile latente. n general modelul SEM presupune dou componente: componenta de msurare i componenta structural. Componenta de msurare specific relaiile existente ntre variabilele latente i indicatorii acestora (variabilele msurate), n timp ce componenta structural specific relaiile existente ntre variabilele latente (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988). De asemenea, se face o distincie ntre variabile exogene i variabile endogene. Variabilele exogene reprezint acele variabile spre care nu indic nici o sgeat unidirecionat n graficul modelului testat. Variabilele endogene sunt cele spre care sunt orientate sgei unidirecionate. n esen sgeile unidirecionate n model sugereaz faptul c variabilele exogene determin variabilele endogene care la rndul lor pot, sau nu, determina alte variabile endogene (Cohen & Cohen, 1983). Primul model, cel de msurare este de obicei specificat prin urmtoarele dou ecuaii: x = + x reprezentnd vectorul variabilelor exogene msurate, fiind matricea coeficienilor ce indic influena variabilelor latente exogene asupra variabilelor msurate. reprezint matricea erorilor de msurare a variabilelor exogene msurate. A doua ecuaie: y = + surprinde aceleai relaii n cazul variabilelor endogene. y reprezint matricea variabilelor msurate endogene, matricea coeficienilor ce indic influena variabilelor latente endogene, notate cu , asupra variabilelor endogene msurate. = + +

SEM (Structural Equation Modeling) se traduce Modelare prin Ecuaii Structurale. 2 Adresa de coresponden: robertbalazsi@psychology.ro

unde i reprezint influena variabilelor latente endogene (notate cu ) i exogene

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(notate cu ) asupra variabilei latente endogene i marcheaz prezena altor variabile externe care afecteaz variabila latent endogen (Bollen, 1989). Demersul SEM const n structurarea unui model, stabilirea parametrilor liberi i setai al acestuia urmnd ca pe baza matricei de covarian a datelor i a matricii ipotetice elaborate pe baza modelului structurat s se calculeze valorile parametrilor modelului i indicii de potrivire (Bentler & Bonett, 1980). S vedem n continuare cum acest demers schimb perspective noastr asupra demersului de validare relativ la construct i a demersului de evaluare a consistenei interne ca indice al fidelitii testului. Conform definiiei oferite de Anastasi (1976) validitatea reprezint msura n care un test msoar ntr-adevr ceea ce i propune s msoare. Aceeai surs bibliografic ofer o descriere detaliat a principalelor modaliti de validare a unui instrument de msur. Printre cele propuse un rol important l are validarea relativ la construct. O procedur, larg acceptat, de validare relativ la construct o reprezint cea propus de Campbell i Fisk (1959), validarea convergent i discriminant. Cel mai frecvent aceasta presupune derularea 3 unui studiu MTMM ce presupune msurarea a mai multor variabile latente cu metode diferite de evaluare (la nivel general am putea spune c se msoar mai multe constructe prin scale sau itemi diferii). Ulterior n matricea de corelaie, dac testele implicate au validitate convergent i discriminant, se observ corelaii mai mari ntre diferitele msurri ale aceluiai construct (ntre diferitele metode aplicate aceleiai variabile latente) fa de corelaiile nregistrate ntre aceeai metod aplicat diferitelor trsturi (ntre aceeai metod aplicat diferitelor variabile latente). Criteriile de interpretare a matricii oferite de Campbell i Fiske (1959) au fost intens combtute ntr-o serie de articole (Althauser & Heberlein, 1970; Alwin, 1974; Widaman, 1985). n principal problema major o reprezint faptul c valoarea calculat a unui coeficient de corelaie este afectat n mare msur de fidelitatea scalei. Or, aceste erori de msurare, respectiv impactul acestora asupra concluziilor studiului, nu pot fi detectate printr-o singur inspecie a matricei de corelaii. O alt problem semnalat de Bollen i Lennox (1991) este c analiza doar a
MTMM (Multi Trait Multi Method) se traduce Metoda Trsturilor Multiple i Metodelor Multiple.
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coeficienilor de corelaie nu ine cont de relaia existent ntre diferitele modaliti de operaionalizare ale aceluiai construct, respectiv de relaiile existente ntre variabilele latente implicate n studiu. Ca i criteriu general este acceptat c diferitele msurtori al aceluiai construct trebuie s coreleze mai mult dect valorile pentru msurtorile prin aceeai metod a dou constructe diferite. n termeni formali putem afirma c, y1 = 111 + 1 y2 = 211 + 2 scorul la o variabil msurat a unui construct (ex. un item al unei scale de inteligen) este determinat de puterea relaiei dintre item i construct (111 i 121) i eroarea de msurare asociat acelui item (1 i 2). Conform psihometriei clasice media erorilor de msurare este zero i acestea nu coreleaz cu nivelul de abilitate (1 i 2) fiind independente i ntre ele (Nunnally, 1978). Aceeai formul poate fi scris i pentru un al doilea construct (2). y3 = 322 + 3 y4 = 422 + 4 n acest context corelaia dintre y1 i y2 este determinat de produsul dintre 1121; acest produs va determina valoarea corelaiilor ce indic validitatea convergent. n schimb corelaia dintre trsturile aparinnd de dou variabile latente diferite (y2 i y3) este determinat de produsul 213221, adic depinde de puterea relaiei fiecrui item cu constructul care l determin dar i de puterea relaiei dintre cele dou constructe (21). n aceste condiii prescripia iniial a psihometriei clasice, corelaii mari ntre diferite metode de msurare ale aceluiai construct i corelaii mici ntre valorile rezultate n urma aplicrii aceleiai metode de msurare la constructe diferite, este discutabil. Dac 11 este mai mic dect 3221 atunci inevitabil corelaia dintre diferitele msurtori ale aceluiai construct va fi mai mic dect corelaia dintre dou msurtori, cu aceeai metod, ale unor constructe diferite. S presupunem c ntre cele dou variabile latente 1 i 2 exist o corelaie redus 21 = 0.1 i c ncrcarea pe factor a itemilor este 11 = 0.6, 21 = 0.6, respectiv 32 = 0.6, 42 = 0.6. n acest caz va fi adevrat afirmaia, r12 > r23. ns dac valoarea lui

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crete (de ex. 21 = 0.5) i ncrcarea diferitelor msurtori pe factori difer foarte mult 11 = 0.3, 21 = 0.3 i 32 = 0.8, 42 = 0.8 afirmaia r12 > r23 nu va mai fi adevrat. Aceasta nu se datoreaz faptului c testul nu are validitate convergent, ci se datoreaz legturii existente ntre cele dou constructe. Este clar c exemplul prezentat opereaz cu valori extreme, valorile din cercetrile reale situndu-se undeva ntre aceste dou extreme. Ceea ce este important de reinut este c asumpia psihometriei clasice funcioneaz perfect doar n cazul n care variabilele latente sunt necorelate (Bollen, 1984). Referindu-ne la constructele vizate prin cercetrile psihologice ne este greu de acceptm aceast asumpie, deoarece n psihologie exist o oarecare corelaie ntre marea majoritate a variabilelor (puine variabile pot fi considerate perfect ortogonale). Eroarea pe care o risc un cercettor limitndu-se doar la analiza vizual a unei astfel de matrici de corelaie depinde de fidelitatea msurtorilor i de valoarea corelaiei existente ntre variabilele latente. Din pcate niciuna dintre aceste dou componente nu sunt direct prezente n matricea de corelaie. Fidelitatea reprezint gradul de consisten al unui scor (Anastasi, 1976). Dac azi msurm inteligena cuiva, ne ateptm ca la o reluare a msurrii s obinem un scor similar, asta n condiiile n care trstura evaluat este una stabil. Exist mai multe modaliti de estimare a fidelitii, printre care cel mai frecvent utilizat este indicele de consisten intern (Cronbach & Meehl, 1955). Bollen i Lennox (1991) arat c premisele procedurii de calcul i modul de interpretare a indicelui de consisten intern, reflect prescripiile psihometriei clasice i, ca urmare, acord itemilor doar statutul de variabile efect. Adic singura posibilitate luat n considerare este ca variabila latent s determine variabilele msurate. n acest sens, exist o serie de studii care arat c, n anumite situaii variabilele msurate determin nivelul variabilei latente. Pentru a oferi un exemplu pentru ambele situaii, s ne nchipuim dou variabile latente: inteligena i predispoziia spre discriminare (Bollen & Lennox, 1991). n primul caz capacitatea subiectului de a rezolva anumite probleme de un anumit grad de dificultate se datoreaz cantitii variabilei latente. Cu ct o persoan este mai inteligent cu att este mai probabil c va putea rezolva i itemii cu un grad ridicat de dificultate. Aceasta este imaginea general a psihometriei clasice asupra relaiei existente

ntre construct i diferitele modaliti de operare a acestuia. n schimb variabilele care determin predispoziia spre discriminare, ras, vrst, gen i disabiliti nu sunt determinate de variabila latent. Din contr, acestea sunt cele care determin probabilitatea de a fi victima unui act discriminator. Analiznd exemplul de mai sus nu ne este greu de acceptat c indicele de fidelitate are sens doar n cazul n care toate variabilele msurate (itemii testului) reprezint indicatori efect al constructului investigat. Dac n schimb unele dintre ele reprezint indicatori cauzali ai constructului, n cazul lor nu ne putem atepta s existe corelaii prea ridicate, aa cum nici ntre variabilele constructului predispoziie spre discriminare nu ne ateptm s existe corelaii. n cercetrile reale este foarte probabil s apar i variabile msurate care reprezint efectul constructului (de ex. singurtatea ca msur a depresiei) dar intervin i ca indicatori cauzali (de ex. izolarea ca i cauz a depresiei). n cazul acestor variabile latente modelul de msurare ce urmeaz a fi supus confirmrii trebuie astfel configurat nct s reflecte i acest aspect al fenomenului (Bollen, 1984). Concluzii n acest studiu ne-am propus s oferim o imagine foarte sumar asupra metodologiei SEM i asupra modului n care aceast metodologie schimb (sau trebuie s schimbe) perspectiva noastr asupra procesului de msurare n psihologie. Marele avantaj al metodologie SEM este c impune specificarea i testarea unui model explicit de msurare. n psihometria clasic n majoritatea cazurilor acest aspect este doar unul asumat, fr a fi verificat. Din pcate utilizarea doar a coeficienilor de corelaie nu ne ofer informaii asupra relaiei existente ntre variabilele latente (aspect ce influeneaz indicii validitii de construct) i nici asupra naturii relaiei dintre indicatori i variabil latent (ce va afecta interpretarea indicelui de consisten intern). n ambele cazuri specificarea unui model de msurare i verificarea acestuia n cadrul metodologiei SEM va duce la mbuntirea msurrii i la creterea validitii concluziilor cercetrii.

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Despre metod

Bibliografie Anastasi, A. (1976). Psychological testing. New York: MacMillan Publishing. Alwin, D.F. (1974). Approaches to the interpretation of relationships in the multitrait-multimethod matrix. In H. L. Costner(Ed.), Sociological methodology 1973-1974 (pp. 79-105). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Althauser, R.P, & Heberlein, T.A. (1970). A causal assessment of validity and the multitraitmultimethod matrix. In E. Borgatta (Ed.), Sociological methods (pp. 151-169). San Francisco: Jossey- Bass. Anderson, J.C., & Gebing, D.W. (1988). Structural Equation Modeling in Practice: A Review and Recommended Two-Step Approach. Psychological Bulletin, 103, 3, 411-423. Bentler, P.M., & Bonett, D.G. (1980). Significance tests and goodnessof-fit in the analysis of covariance structures. Psychological Bulletin,88, 588-606. Bollen, K.A. (1984). Multiple indicators: Internal consistency or no necessary relationship? Quality and Quantity, 18, 377-385. Bollen, K. A. (1989). Structural equations with latent variables. New York: Wiley. Bollen, K.A. & Lennox, R. (1991). Conventional Wisdom on Measurement: A Structural Equation Perspective. Psychological Bulletin, 110, 2, 305-314.

Breckler, S.J. (1990). Applications of Covariance Structure Modeling in Psychology: Cause for Concern? Psychological Bulletin, 107, 2, 260273. Campbell, D.T., & Fiske, D.W. (1959). Convergent and discriminant validation by the multitraitmultimethod matrix. Psychological Bulletin, 56, 81-105. Cohen, J. & Cohen, P. (1983). Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis foe the behavioral sciences. London: Lawrence Elrbaum Associates. Cronbach, L.J. & Meehl, P.E. (1955). Construct validity in psychological tests. Psychological Bulletin, 52,281-302. Embretson, S.S., & Hershberger, S.L. (1999). The New Rules of Measurement What Every Psychologist and Educator Should Know. London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Joreskog, K.G., & Sorbom, D. (1984). LISREL vi: Analysis of linear structural relationships by the method of maximum likelihood. Chicago: National Educational Resources. Nunnally, J.C. (1978). Psychometric theory (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. Widaman, K.F (1985). Hierarchically nested covariance structure models for multitraitmultimethod data. Applied Psychological Measurement, 9, 1-26.

Organizational Diagnosis & Development Brand Research Academic & Institutional Evaluation Organizational Simulation & Gaming Focus on people and opportunities. For reliable outcomes contact@aphorme.ro; www.aphorme.ro

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INTERVIUL PSIHOLOGILOR PRACTICIENI SUB SUPERVIZARE PENTRU TRECEREA LA STADIUL DE PSIHOLOG PRACTICIANT AUTONOM

Perioada de supervizare are ca obiectiv consolidarea cunotinelor teoretice i a deprinderilor practice din domeniul psihologiei muncii, industriale i organizaionale. Psihologii care parcurg acest stagiu pe o perioad de un an sunt n final supui unui interviu dup care, ca psiholog practician autonom, poate s-i exercite competenele n domeniul pentru care a optat. Setul de subiecte pe care este organizat interviul, conine o problematic general pe care orice psiholog practician trebuie s o cunoasc. Ea este extras din standardele de competen elaborate de Colegiul Psihologilor, Comisia de Psihologia Muncii, Transporturilor i Serviciilor (Psihologia Resurselor Umane. 4(1), 2007, p.102-111). n cele ce urmeaz oferim psihologilor practicieni n supervizare, dar i supervizorilor, subiectele asupra crora se concentreaz interviul la care vor fi supui. Totodat, aceste ntrebri, plus standardele de competen la care am fcut referire, trebuie s stea i n atenia supervizorilor responsabilizndui pentru activitatea la care s-au angajat.

TEMATICA EXAMENULUI DE CUNOTINE PENTRU PROMOVAREA LA O TREAPTA DE COMPETEN SUPERIOAR A PSIHOLOGILOR DIN DOMENIUL PSIHOLOGIEI MUNCII I SERVICIILOR

ANALIZA MUNCII 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 1 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. Analiza psihologic a muncii - domenii de aplicare. Clasificarea ocupaiilor din Romnia; profile ocupaionale. Planificarea unui program de analiz a muncii principalele etape i metode. Analiza muncii centrat pe postul de munc (metode i utilizri). Analiza muncii centrat pe deintorul postului de munc (metode i utilizri). Analiza muncii elaborarea fiei postului (structura). RECRUTAREA I SELECIA PERSONALULUI

Recrutarea personalului surse interne i externe de recrutare. Metode i tehnici de recrutare. Selecia personalului principii etice. Etapele unui proces de selecie a personalului. Evaluarea n selecia personalului procedee bazate pe informaia biografic (valoare i limite). Evaluarea n selecia personalului testarea aptitudinilor cognitive Evaluarea n selecia personalului testarea aptitudinilor psihomotorii/noncognitive. Evaluarea n selecia personalului chestionare de personalitate. Evaluarea n selecia personalului interviul (valoare i limite). Principalele caliti psihometrice ale metodelor de evaluare (validitatea, fidelitatea, standardizarea). Strategii de validare a testelor psihologice (concurent, predictiv, de coninut, de construct, de aspect). Modaliti de determinare a fidelitii testelor. Etapele unei proceduri de validare a testelor de selecie a personalului. Etalonarea/standardizarea testelor. Reprezentarea performanelor la teste sub forma unui profil psihologic. 20. Utilizarea testelor n evaluarea psihologic exigene privind alegerea, administrarea, interpretarea i raportarea rezultatelor (cerine deontologice). 21. Construcia unui tabel de expectaie. 22. Calculul utilitii unei proceduri de selecie psihologic. EVALUAREA PERFORMANELOR PROFESIONALE

23. Evaluarea performanelor obiective, motivaie, deficiene n practicile cotidiene.

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Legislaie n domeniul psihologiei 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 2 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. Etape n proiectarea unei proceduri de evaluare a personalului. Surse de eroare n evaluarea performanelor profesionale i tehnici de corectare. Metode de evaluare a performanelor profesionale scale de evaluare. Metode de evaluare a performanelor profesionale metode de comparare a persoanelor. Metode de evaluare a performanelor profesionale scale cu descrieri comportamentale. Calculul utilitii unei proceduri de evaluare a performanelor profesionale. OBOSEALA, STRESUL I ACCIDENTELE
DE MUNC

Oboseala n munc cauze, prevenire i combatere. Accidentele de munc cauze, prevenire i combatere a accidentelor. Stresul ocupaional modele i factori determinani. Diagnoza stresului ocupaional. Prevenie i intervenie n managementul stresului ocupaional.

FORMAREA I DEZVOLTAREA PROFESIONAL 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. Noiuni privind formarea continu i dezvoltarea personalului. Proiectarea unui curs de formare profesional. Metode de instruire profesional. Cariera profesional. Proiectarea unui plan de carier. Instrumente pentru informare i consiliere privind cariera clasificarea ocupaiilor, utilizarea profilelor ocupaionale i a chestionarelor de interese profesionale. 40. Instrumente psihologice de evaluare pentru orientarea carierei baterii de teste pentru evaluarea aptitudinilor i chestionare de interese. 3 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. PSIHOLOGIA APLICAT N SERVICII Cultur organizaional modele ale culturii organizaionale i diagnoza lor. Proceduri de schimbare. Climatul organizaional modele i diagnoz. Proceduri de schimbare. Diagnoza organizaional modele. Planificarea unui studiu de diagnoz organizaional. Instrumente de diagnoz organizaional. Redactarea i prezentarea unui raport de diagnoz. Planificarea forei de munc ntr-o organizaie studiul fluctuaiei personalului. Modele de schimbare organizaional. Planificarea schimbrii organizaionale. Managementul schimbrii organizaionale. Satisfacia cu munca prestat diagnoz i metode de intervenie i comunicare a rezultatelor. Probleme juridice ale exercitrii profesiei de Psiholog cu drept de liber practic 52. Sectoarele de activitate n care este necesar obinerea atestatelor de liber practic eliberate de ctre Colegiul Psihologilor din Romnia, pentru desfurarea activitilor psihologice 53. Calitatea de furnizor ai serviciilor psihologice n Romnia. Societile comerciale autorizate in domeniul seleciei resurselor umane i activitilor de sntate uman. 54. Calitatea de beneficiar al serviciilor psihologice n Romnia. 55. Psihologul cu drept de liber practic salariat. Funcionarea structurilor de psihologie. 56. Condiiile realizrii activitii de supervizare profesional a psihologilor cu drept de liber practic. 57. Obinerea certificatului de agreere pentru evaluarea psihologic a personalului cu funcii care concur la sigurana circulaiei rutiere. Condiii i proceduri de obinere. 58. Examinarea psihologic i controlul psihologic periodic a personalului potrivit dispoziiilor Legii nr. 319/2006 privind securitatea i sntatea n munc. 59. Drepturile i obligaiile psihologilor cu drept de liber practic. Interdicii i incompatibiliti n exercitarea profesiei de psiholog cu drept de liber practic.

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BERNARD M. BASS
(1925-2007)

Bernard M. Bass, unul dintre cei mai de seam autori din sfera psihologiei industrialorganizaionale, a decedat pe 11 Octombrie 2007, n vrst de 82 de ani. Bernard Bass a fost distinguished professor emeritus la coala de Management a Universitii Binghamton, parte din universitatea de stat din New York. A fost membru al Academy of Senior Professionals, din cadrul Colegiului Eckerd din Florida, precum i director fondator al Centrului pentru studii de leadership din cadrul Universitii Bighamton i editor fondator al revistei tiinifice The Leadership Quarterly. Bernard Bass a primit titlul de doctor n psihologie industrial n 1949 la Ohio State University. Ulterior a predat n cadrul mai multor universiti din Louisiana, California (Berkley), Pittsburgh, Rochester i Binghamton. n lunga sa carier, a publicat peste 400 de articole tiinifice, capitole n cri, rapoarte tehnice, a fost autorul a 21 de cri i a editat alte 10. A fost consultant pentru multe din cele mai prestigioase companii americane. A fost cunoscut i pentru munca sa pro bono, depus pentru multe organizaii nonprofit, sub form de workshopuri i cursuri. Opera lui este extrem de citat. A fost tradus ntr-un mare numr de limbi, printre care francez, german, spaniol, portughez, italian, japonez i, mai nou, romn. Atunci cnd a primit din partea SIOP (Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology) premiul pentru contribuii deosebite (Distinguished Scientific Contributions Award), cuvntul de decernare a menionat peste o duzin de contribuii majore n psihologia industrial-organizaional, printre care munca lui n domeniul discuiei de grup fr lider, a feedbackului ulterior evalurii, a ntririi contingente, a educaiei manageriale participative etc. Cele mai marcante contribuii ale sale sunt ns n domeniul leadershipului, de care

numele su este legat indisolubil. n acest domeniu a dezvoltat noi modele teoretice, cel mai celebru dintre toate fiind cel al leadershipului transformaional. Numeroi autori consider, n mod eronat, c ntoarcerea la liderul carismatic, la calitile sale, este iniiat de lucrarea politologului J. Burns, Leadership (New York, Harper and Row, 1978). n 1976, la unul din primele simpozioane contemporane de leadership, inut la Carbondale, Southern Illinois University, ale crui lucrri au fost publicate n 1977 (J.G.Hunt, L.L.Larson Leadership. The cutting edge, Southern Illinois University Press) R. J. House se refer la A 1976 Theory of Charismatic Leadership (p.189-207) i propune operaionalizarea conceptului. ns operaionalizarea conceptului de lider carismatic era n gestaie, unul din cei care pregteau noul tip de abordare n conducere fiind Bernard Bass. nc din 1960, n Leadership, psychology and organizational behavior, fr a folosi explicit termenul, Bass se refer la liderul cu capaciti deosebite, capabil s-i motiveze extraordinar adepii, s-i mobilizeze n direcia unor scopuri majore, realizabile pe termen lung. Interesant este faptul c Bass citeaz un autor romn, G. Popa, care n 1935 public un studiu de circa 100 de pagini intitulat Inteligena social i psihologia conductorului (Cluj, Ed. Revistei Satul i coala). n mod special afirmaia lui Popa, conform creia adevratul conductor, a crui nrurire se resimte n mod efectiv, trebuie s fie bine ancorat n realitile sociale, s se adapteze n chip desvrit i s proiecteze, peste capul societii, aspiraiile si idealurile de mai bine (p. 55), a fost reinut de Bernard Bass, iar peste ani, Avolio i Bass vor dezvolta scalele Comportamente idealizate i Motivaie inspiraional n chestionarul MLQ.

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Figuri de psihologi

ntr-una din lucrrile sale (Transformational leadership, 1977) Bass se refer la impactul teoriei respective n mediile industrial, militar i educaional, avnd marele merit de a cobor liderul transformaional de la nivelul macro la cel micro al organizrii sociale. Aa cum se arta ntr-un studiu recent (H. Pitariu, F. Sntion, Psihologia lupttorului, 2003): asistm la schimbarea paradigmei n psihologia conducerii, inclusiv cea militar. Liderul transformativ, carismatic, strategic renun la aura sa mistic, ezoteric i ptrunde n organizaii, fiind caracterizat de aciuni i comportamente uor definibile (p. 14) ncercrile de uniformizare/ universalizare a unui tip anume de conductor fcnd abstracie de nivelul de conducere i de caracteristicile organizaionale au avut n timp consecine uneori dramatice. Astfel, specialitii militari consider c teoriile contingente mai mult au amgit dect au folosit n aceast instituie. Pentru o organizaie care opereaz cu valori netranzacionabile patriotismul, spiritul altruist, datoria sunt necesare alte raporturi lider-subaltern, o alt viziune asupra conducerii. Or, tocmai aceast alternativ o

ofer Bass. n timp ce liderii tranzacionali induc conformism n schimbul unor stimulente concrete, liderii transformativi inspir adepii s treac peste interesele personale n interesul unei cauze comune, prin abilitile lor de a induce mndrie i tenacitate, stimulare intelectual, consideraie individualizat. Munca lui Bernard Bass a fost recunoscut de comunitatea tiinific printr-un mare numr de premii, decernate de mai multe organizaii profesionale. Cele mai importante dintre acestea sunt Premiul pentru Contribuii tiinifice (Distinguished Scientific Contributions Award), primit din partea SIOP n 1994 i premiul pentru activitatea sa n domeniul leadershipului (Eminent Leadership Scholar Award), primit n 2006 din partea Leadership Network of the Academy of Management. Putem aprecia c Bass, alturi de precursorii citai, este autor de paradigm n leadershipul contemporan i viitor. Moartea sa este o pierdere i un moment trist pentru domeniul psihologiei industrial-organizaionale. Conf. dr. Drago Iliescu

D&D Consultants, Bucureti www.ddconsultants.ro

Instrumente psihometrice publicate de D&D Consultants/TestCentral CPI (California Psychological Inventory (462, 434, 260)) NPQ (Nonverbal Personality Questionnaire) FFNPQ (Five-Factor Nonverbal Personality Questionnaire) SWS (Survey of Work Styles) STAXI-2 (State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory) FPI (Freiburg Personlichkeitsinventar (Formele G i R)) LSI (Learning Styles Inventory) MLQ (Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Forma 5X)) STAI (State-Trait Anxiety Inventory) STAIC (State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children) JVIS (Jackson Vocational Interest Survey) AMI (Achievement Motivation Inventory) FJAS (Fleishman Job Analysis Survey) Instrumente psihometrice n curs de apariie: ASSET (A Shortened Stress Evaluation Tool) EPQ-R (Eysenck Personality Questionnaire, Revised) IVE (Eysenck's Impulsiveness Questionnaire) BFQ-2 (Big Five Questionnaire) BFA (Big Five Adjectives) GAMA (General Ability Measure for Adults) MAB-II (Multidimensional Aptitude Battery) NEO-PI-R (Revised NEO Personality Inventory) BASC-2 (Behaviour Assessment System for Children, Second Edition) MSCEIT (Mayer Salovey Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test) EO-I (Emotional Quotient Inventory) TEDE6 (Test dvaluation dynamique de lducabilit) DDDI (Dula Dangerous Driving Index)

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Mr Lszl (2007). Logica (I)raionalitii: Teoria jocurilor i psihologia deciziilor umane. Cluj Napoca: Editura RTS (320 pagini). Un eveniment editorial deosebit este apariia crii doctorului Mr, de la Universitatea Etvs Lornd din Budapesta, care are ca tem central raionalitatea, sau, mai bine spus i susinut pe larg de argumentarea autorului pe tot cuprinsul crii, iraionalitatea decidenilor umani. Este meritoriu faptul c doctorul Mr, de formaie academic matematician, a dezvoltat interes pentru cogniia uman i a obinut pe baza cercetrilor sale n acest domeniu un titlu de Doctor n Psihologie din partea Universitii Etvs Lornd din Budapesta. Cartea doctorului Mr prezint teoria jocurilor n decizie, o tem care preocup matematicieni i specialiti n econometric, ntr-o form accesibil i celor mai puin instruii n formalismul matematic. Teoria jocurilor este un subdomeniu al matematicii aplicate care se folosete frecvent n tiinele sociale. Principala sa contribuie se refer la ncercarea de a prezice din formule matematice comportamentul unei persoane n situaii strategice, n care succesul unei alegeri individuale depinde de alegerile altora. Cei care au introdus teoria jocurilor sunt John von Neumann i Oskar Morgenstern, n 1944. Ca dovad a impactului major pe care l-a avut aceast teorie, n special n economie, menionm faptul c cel puin opt adepi ai teoriei jocurilor au fost laureai ai Premiului Nobel pentru economie. Dei teoria jocurilor putea fi prezentat de autorul acestei cri ntro form arid, care s pun n dificultate numeroi cititori, doctorul Mr a reuit cu mult miestrie s evite formulele i raionamentele matematice complicate, pstrnd, ns, perspectiva tiinific a acestei lucrri. Aadar, avem n fa o carte despre lucruri complicate, spuse ntr-un limbaj de interfa. Considerm c cel mai mare merit al acestei cri se refer la abundena exemplelor din viaa noastr cotidian, menite s ilustreze situaii decizionale complexe. De pild, autorul prezint o situaie decizional numit rzboiul sexelor n care doi parteneri au preferine diferite pentru petrecerea unui interval de timp, prioritar fiind, totui, s petreac timpul mpreun. n acest caz particular, autorul surprinde modalitatea prin care teoria jocurilor ar soluiona acest conflict, n cel mai

convenabil mod cu putin pentru ambii parteneri. Un alt merit major al acestei cri implic referirile la comportamentele speciilor infraumane, care sunt n egal msur raionale sau iraionale. Autorul aduce n discuie animalele care apeleaz la pozare pentru a soluiona eventuale conflicte legate de teritoriu sau femele. Realitatea i concluzia logic se suprapun: Nu e recomandat s se pozeze mai mult dect valoarea ctigului, acesta ducnd n mod sigur la pierdere; dar nu merit nici s pozm exact durata corespunztoare valorii reale a acestuia sau mai mult dect att. (pag 14) Analogiile fcute ntre comportamentul decizional uman i cel animal cresc validitatea ecologic a datelor prezentate n cartea doctorului Mr i pun decizia ntr-o perspectiv evoluionist. Autorul structureaz textul acestei cri n trei pri principale. Prima parte prezint, ntr-o manier plin de umor i cu exemple inedite, inspirate din regnul animal, noiuni de baz din teoria jocurilor (de exemplu: strategie simpl sau mixt, joc cu sum zero, echilibru Nash), precum i o serie de jocuri decizionale care i pun pe decideni n situaii dificile. Jocurile decizionale modeleaz situaii decizionale care au soluii normative simple i permit testarea unor predicii. Psihologia economic, un domeniu multidisciplinar ce presupune cunotine din psihologie i economie i al crei promotor a fost Herbert Simon, are ca metod principal de studiu jocurile economice. Jocul cu care autorul deschide cartea este licitaia dolarului: n jocul lui Martin Shubik se liciteaz un dolar. Preul de pornire este de un cent. Cel care ofer un cent ctig licitaia, dar asta doar n cazul n care nu se gsete altcineva care s ofere mai mult. Regulile jocului sunt identice cu cele ale oricrei licitaii, cu o singur excepie. Nu doar cel care a ctigat licitaia trebuie s achite preul licitat, ci i penultimul ofertantAbsurd sau nu, oameni maturi, inteligeni, au intrat n acest joc de bunvoie, pe baza unei decizii contiente, fiind dispui s plteasc pn i 3-4 dolari pentru bancnota de un dolar. (pag 4) De asemenea, interesul cititorului poate fi provocat de dezvoltarea strategiei de cooperare n dilema prizonierului, autorul fcnd referiri la comportamentul plevutilor-

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ghimpoase, care seamn surprinztor de mult cu cel al oamenilor sau programelor de calculator. Astfel, simulnd o situaie de explorare a unui duman posibil, o plevucghimpoas care se vede reflectat ntr-o oglind execut, de cele mai multe ori, micarea pe care partenerul din oglind a executat-o anterior, comportamentul su fiind comparabil cu cel al unui program de calculator care este menit s dezvolte cooperare sau cu cel al oamenilor care joac dilema prizonierului n mai multe runde. n a doua parte a crii, autorul se oprete asupra implicaiilor teoriei jocurilor n diferite domenii, cum ar fi psihologie, economie, mecanic cuantic. n aceast seciune, fr a face apel la formule matematice, autorul reuete s prezinte cititorilor baza matematic a teoriei jocurilor i introduce cititorul n disputa de natur evoluionist ntre teoria seleciei de grup, a lui Vero Copner Wynne-Edwards i teoria genei egoiste, propus de Richard Dawkins, n dezvoltarea i meninerea cooperrii. Ultima parte a crii este dedicat exclusiv psihologiei, dup spusele autorului. n aceast seciune doctorul Mr prezint, printre altele, tehnicile de meditaie ca surs de raionalitate n decizie pentru c: amelioreaz funcionarea fireasc a forelor luntrice, ale psihicului nostru i ne servesc, pur i simplu, rspunsul care s uureze decizia noastr. (pag 237) Autorul i propune s modeleze sub forma unui eseu un discurs tiinific care se leag de un domeniu multidisciplinar marcat de formalism. Considerm c autorul reuete acest lucru, pentru c textul este uor de urmrit i captivant. Noiunile de specialitate din diferite domenii sunt introduse treptat i definite n aa fel nct, indiferent de pregtirea teoretic a cititorului, textul s poat fi parcurs fr dificultate i s nu necesite o baz de cunotine anterioar. De prea multe ori citim cri pentru care trebuie s ne ntindem zeci de dicionare pe mas. Nu este cazul acestei cri! Traducerea este meritorie pentru c pstreaz calitatea metaforelor i analogiilor. n concluzie, infuzia de elemente din economie, psihologie, evoluionism i mecanic cuantic face din aceast carte o surs preioas de informaie n aceste domenii. Aceast carte are puterea de a-i fascina pe toi cei care sunt interesai de aportul matematicii la condiia uman. n plus, sperm c aceast carte va atrage atenia i

celor care ar fi interesai de dezvoltarea psihologiei economice n ara noastr i va deschide oportuniti de colaborare internaional i interdisciplinar n vederea studierii deciziei. Drd. Renata M. Heilman

Filaret Sntion (2007). Introducere n psihologia social. Constana: Editura Ovidius University Press (436 pag.)

Psihologia social reprezint un important domeniu de interes al cercetrii actuale si o modalitate tiinific de abordare a varietii evenimentelor care se produc la nivel social. Se impune ns necesitatea, ndeosebi n literatura tiinific din Romnia, ca aceste fenomene sociale s fie tratate n detaliu de ctre experii n domeniu, astfel nct natura complex a realitii sociale s poat fi surprins i analizat n toate aspectele sale. Manualul Introducere n psihologia social de conf. dr. Filaret Sntion i propune s abordeze n detaliu o serie de tematici specifice nivelului intraindividual de analiz al psihologiei sociale. Ca structur, manualul este alctuit din ase capitole care trateaz problematici diverse, dar n acelai timp relaionate din perspectiva nivelului de analiz menionat mai sus. Astfel, primul capitol este alocat definirii domeniului mai larg al psihologiei sociale, enunrii relaiilor care exist ntre aceasta i alte discipline precum i enumerrii i descrierii celor mai importante perspective teoretice din acest sector al cercetrii psihologice. Urmeaz un scurt istoric care are rolul de a oferi informaii n privina procesului de apariie i formare a acestei discipline i de a evidenia cercetrile din domeniu care au impulsionat progresul ei. Nu n ultimul rnd, n acest capitol, autorul prezint o difereniere a nivelelor de analiz n psihologia social. Cel de-al doilea capitol abordeaz tematica percepiei interpersonale i debuteaz prin separarea cunoaterii tiinifice de cunoaterea empiric. Particularitile specifice cunoaterii din domeniul psihologiei personalitii i conceptul percepiei interpersonale sunt tratate pe larg pentru stabilirea unei baze de informaii creia s i poat fi asimilate informaiile oferite ulterior. Tot aici sunt prezentate pe larg acele variabile i dimensiuni de la nivel individual care

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influeneaz percepia interpersonal precum i modul n care se structureaz efectiv imaginea pe care o avem despre o alt persoan cu specificarea procedeelor prin care noi obinem informaii despre ceilali, a tendinelor specific umane n percepia celuilalt i a surselor de influen relevante n acest sens. Factorilor de influen deja menionai, le sunt adugate n cadrul urmtorului subcapitol erorile care afecteaz modul n care noi i percepem pe ceilali. n capitolul al treilea, autorul prezint conceptul de atribuire alturi de teoriile relevante legate de acesta. Sunt menionate acele variabile psihoindividuale i psihosociale aflate n strns relaie cu procesul de atribuire. Prezentarea conceptului este continuat prin enumerarea erorilor care apar n procesul de atribuire, teoria canalizndu-se pe dou direcii principale n funcie de obiectul atribuirii: sinele (autoatribuirea) i ceilali (heteroatribuirea). O tem important abordat n cadrul acestui capitol se refer la consecinele pe care atribuirea le are n planul comportamentului interpersonal. De asemenea, autorul prezint n acest capitol o serie de teorii legate de conceptul de autoatribuire detaliind printre altele problema autoatribuirii succesului i eecului, a modului n care este atribuit performana n funcie de gen, autoatribuirea efectului i sentimentul controlului etc. Autoprezentarea constituie un alt aspect important pentru nivelul intraindividual al psihologiei sociale. n acest capitol, cititorii au ocazia s afle mai mult despre semnificaia acestui termen, despre strategiile utilizate de oameni pentru a face o bun impresie legat de propria persoan, despre stilurile diferite de autoprezentare abordate de fiecare dintre noi. Alte aspecte relaionate cu tema capitolului sunt legate de semnificaia ideii de identitate dezirabil, diferenierea ntre managementul impresiei ca i comportament calculat (atunci cnd performana este important pentru autor) i managementul impresiei ca i comportament automat (realizat fr controlul cognitiv al individului). n capitolul Stima de sine autorul prezint ntr-o parte introductiv conceptul de sine, modul n care sinele se dezvolt i dimensiunile sale. n cele ce urmeaz, sunt stabilite unele delimitri conceptuale privitoare la stima de sine, cititorul are ocazia s afle mai multe despre teoriile care ncearc s ofere o explicaie n privina conceptului stimei de sine i a modului n care apare i se dezvolt

aceasta. Un alt aspect important la acest nivel este reprezentat de sursele evalurii de sine i de manifestrile comportamentale specifice pentru un nivel ridicat, respectiv pentru un nivel sczut al stimei de sine mpreun cu avantajele i dezavantajele asociate cu nivele diferite ale acesteia. n final, autorul prezint unele argumente tiinifice legate de modalitile cele mai eficiente de meninere a unui nivel ridicat al stimei de sine. Ultima tem luat n discuie n cadrul acestui manual este problematica locului controlului, fiind oferit definiia acestei noiuni precum i relaiile ntre locul controlului i diverse variabile (munca, starea de sntate, sport, educaie etc.). Introducere n psihologia social ofer cititorului o imagine clar i detaliat despre ceea ce reprezint psihologia social i despre conceptele cele mai semnificative pentru nivelul intraindividual de analiz al acestui domeniu. Toate aspectele teoretice abordate, sunt analizate ntr-un mod complet, cuprinztor. Astfel, pe lng definirea i delimitarea conceptual a principalelor noiuni luate n discuie, autorul trateaz ntr-un mod elaborat o gam larg de teme i informaii conexe noiunilor generale specifice nivelului de analiz intraindividual al psihologiei sociale (diferitele teorii, tipologii, dimensiuni). Din acest punct de vedere, manualul respect angajamentul iniial, de a oferi o introducere detaliat n acest vast i complex domeniu al psihologiei. Pentru cei angajai n studierea fenomenelor de psihologie social, acest manual ofer posibilitatea stabilirii unor noi conexiuni ntre concepte, reprezentnd o surs de inspiraie i n acelai timp un fundament teoretic pentru viitoare cercetri tiinifice adecvate nivelului avansat la care se situeaz cunoaterea actual a diverselor fenomene i procese sociale. Temele abordate sunt interesante i de mare actualitate, accentul fiind setat pe modul n care oamenii se percep pe sine i pe ceilali, modul n care ei doresc i ncearc s fie percepui de ctre ceilali, modul n care ei se autoapreciaz i cauzele pe care ei la atribuie comportamentului propriu. Toate aceste concepte sunt puternic interrelaionate. Astfel, putem observa dou direcii majore n tratarea nivelului de analiz intraindividual: percepia de sine i percepia celorlali. Capitolele referitoare la stima de sine, locul controlului i autoprezentare sunt strns relaionate problematica percepiei sinelui, aceasta din urm putnd fi considerat a fi un concept global care le cuprinde i pe

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cele enumerate anterior. Atribuirea, ca i noiune, este relaionat att cu modul n care individul se autopercepe, ct i cu modul n care el i percepe pe ceilali. Prin aceast structur, lucrarea de fa ofer posibilitatea unei cunoateri de nivel superior a proceselor sociale asociate nivelului intraindividual de analiz n psihologia social. Utilitatea acestui manual introductiv pentru cercetarea i cunoaterea actual n domeniu nu poate fi pus sub semnul ntrebrii. Este necesar ns o completare a acestui demers cu elaborarea unor lucrri similare care s abordeze ntr-o msur exhaustiv celelalte nivele de analiz din domeniul psihologiei sociale. Ioana Vasiu

Eugen Avram (coordonator) (2007). Psihologie organizaional-managerial perspective aplicative. Bucureti: Editura Universitar (432 pagini). n zilele noastre, activitatea de management a unei organizaii ocup un loc tot mai important n agenda cercettorilor, dovad fiind publicarea a tot mai multe lucrri pe aceast tem i conturarea unei noi ramuri a psihologiei, i anume psihologia organizaional-managerial. Contribuii importante, mai ales din perspectiva aplicativ, la dezvoltarea acestei noi tiine sunt aduse de volumul coordonat de Eugen Avram, volum ce reunete o serie de studii i lucrri realizate de cadre didactice universitare, cercettori tiinifici, practicieni i specialiti aflai n stagii de pregtire n instituii de renume din Europa i SUA. mbinnd aspectele teoretice cu cele metodologice, n cele 432 de pagini ale cri sunt abordate diverse problematici, cum ar fi angajamentul organizaional, climatul organizaional, tcerea organizaional, satisfacia muncii, relaia angajat-angajator, reciprocitate social, conflicte interpersonale, echipe virtuale, emoii la locul de munc, stres organizaional, burnout, decizie, diagnoz organizaional, managementul carierei, dezvoltarea organizaional, precum i managementul calitii totale. Cartea este structurat n trei seciuni majore, prima dintre ele reunind 13 capitole. Fiecare capitol reprezint cte un studiu efectuat n organizaii din domeniul sntii, afacerilor, industriei administraiei aprrii i educaiei.

Utiliznd analiza documentelor, conversaia, observaia, ancheta pe baza de chestionar, autorul, Eugen Avram, contureaz direciile dezvoltrii managementului n departamentele de neurochirurgie din ara noastr, insistnd pe distincia ntre dezvoltarea organizaional i dezvoltarea managementului. Realizat n Frana, studiul lui Liliane Rioux, evideniaz dou mari categorii de predictori ai angajamentului organizaional n cazul persoanelor care i desfoar activitatea ntr-o organizaie din domeniul sntii. Gelul Moraru abordeaz tema riscurilor implicite n relaia angajat-angajator, discutnd despre perspectivele teoretice explicative ale acestei relaii, respectiv despre dinamica relaiilor de ncredere dintre angajat i angajator. Pornind de la o excelent sintez a definiiilor, concepiilor fundamentale privind conceptul de calitate, precum i a cercetrilor n acest domeniu, Ruxandra Alexandru a investigat relaia dintre stilul de management i orientarea managementului spre clieni i nevoile angajailor. Pe baza rezultatelor acestui studiu, au fost realizate o serie de sugestii privind managementul calitii totale n domeniul bancar. Dup prezentarea unui scurt istoric al evoluiei studiilor despre climatul organizaional, al definiiilor i caracteristicilor acestuia, autoarea, Ioana Nicolau, insist pe distinciile ntre climatul organizaional i alte concepte, cum sunt: cultura organizaional, satisfacia n munc i stilul de conducere. Sunt trecute n revist i principale direcii de studiu privind formarea climatului organizaional, dimensiunile i efectele acestuia, precum i aspecte ale muncii sub presiune. Bazndu-se pe astfel de aspecte teoretice, scopul principal al studiului a fost acela de a evidenia modul n care percepiile climatul organizaional i fiecare dintre dimensiunile sale se modific n condiiile de presiune a timpului. Rezultatele studiului sunt discutate extensiv din perspectiva teoriilor i rezultatelor cercetrilor existente n literatura de specialitate. Rzvan Stan evideniaz, n capitolul ase, consecinele socio-psihologice izbitoare ale procesului dezindustrializrii postcomuniste, prezentnd cazul regiunii miniere din Valea Jiului. Studiind relaia dintre activitile de management i tcerea organizaional, autoarea, Cristina Mihil, ofer o imagine destul de clar a ceea ce nseamn tcerea organizaional, direciilor de studiu, factorilor care explic tcerea organizaional i a consecinelor acesteia asupra procesului organizaional de luare a

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deciziilor, proceselor de schimbare, cogniiilor, atitudinilor i comportamentelor angajailor. Angajamentul organizaional n instituiile de stat i private este abordat n capitolul opt. Paginile urmtorului capitol ilustreaz un model al procesrii informaiilor sociale complexe mass-media i a modalitilor de reprezentare a cunotinelor, oferind i o perspectiv privind modalitatea n care modelele culturale sunt asimilate de indivizi sau grupuri i impactul lor asupra reprezentrilor formate ulterior. Autoarea, Ioana David, prezint pe larg, n seciunea Consideraii finale, implicaiile teoretice i practice ale abordrii unei astfel de teme. Alte aspecte abordate n prima parte a crii sunt reprezentate de satisfacia muncii n relaie cu personalitatea militarilor activi din cadrul Jandarmeriei Romne, iritarea la locul de munc i burnout-ul n cazul profesorilor. Ultimele dou capitole ale primei prii a crii se refer la managementul carierei, abordnd incertitudinea fa de viitorul profesional n cazul studenilor din anul nti, ca un factor de stres (capitolul 12) i motivaia opiunii pentru cariera de psiholog (capitolul 13). Urmtoarele trei capitole alctuiesc partea a doua a crii referitoare la noi metode i tehnici de cercetare organizaional. Primul dintre ele prezint o nou metodologie de studiere a reciprocitii sociale n organizaii. O alt metod cu aplicaii organizaionale este prezentat de ctre Conel M. Mincu care consider c noul instrument, Testul Configuraiei Tematice, depete dificultile ntmpinate de teoria i practica tehnicilor proiective. Autorii bulgari, Borislav Slachov i Stanislava Stoyanova propun un instrument de evaluare a tipurilor motivaionale de carier, avnd la baz cele 8 tipuri motivaionale identificare de B. Moses (2003). Noile concepte i teorii moderne aprute n domeniul psihologiei manageriale sunt ilustrate n cea de-a treia parte a lucrrii. Daniela Boone i Eugen Avram pun problema emoiilor la locul de munc, prezentnd aspecte ale revoluiei emoionale, cadrele fundamentale, provocri i controverse n abordarea emoiilor la locul de munc, precum i o serie de implicaii ale emoiilor n practica organizaional. De un mare interes pentru practica n domeniul managementului este i abordarea unei teme precum echipele n organizaiile virtuale. Autoarea lucrrii, Irina Cozma, prezint sintetic delimitrile conceptuale ale organizaiilor virtuale, evideniaz clar

diferenele existente ntre comunicarea mediat de computer i comunicarea fa n fa. Prezentarea continu cu reliefarea caracteristicilor echipelor virtuale, aspectelor legate de formarea ncrederii i modelelor mentale n cadrul acestor echipe i modaliti de optimizare a lor. Nelipsit din orice lucrare de management i considerat nc subiect tabu pentru societate, conflictul organizaional este abordat i n aceast carte sub aspectul surselor de conflict i a consecinelor care le produce. n finalul studiului, autorul, Marius Milcu, evideniaz o serie de efecte cu caracter constructiv ale conflictelor interpersonale la nivelul individului, grupului de munc i organizaiei n ansamblu. n capitolul 20, Puiu M. Mihai propune o nou viziune n teoria i practica organizaional numit smart management, prezentnd detaliat cadrul i necesitatea apariiei unui astfel de viziuni asupra managementului, principiile de baz i specificul acestui nou sistem de management. Totodat, se discut, pe larg, despre smart psychology n calitate de ax sau element de sprijin al managementului de tip smart. Sunt dezbtute statutul epistemologic i practic, precum i viitorul unui astfel de management ntr-o societate n rapid schimbare. Stresul organizaional a fost mult timp n atenia cercettorilor, dovad fiind multitudinea de teorii i modele elaborate, prezentate pe scurt i de Annemari Moise, cea care a propus i dezbtut pe larg modelul tablei de ah al stresului organizaional. Contribuia acestui nou model const n faptul c surprinde aspectul dinamic al stresului organizaional, aspect neglijat de celelalte teorii i modele propuse pn n prezent. Dar cu toate acestea modelul tablei de ah prezint o serie de limite. Ultimul capitol al crii prezint unele aplicaii ale psihologiei conduitelor elective/decizionale n organizaii. Autorul, Vlad P. Gveanu ofer un fundament psihologic al alegerilor fcute de oameni dintr-o perspectiv structural, funcional i genetic. ntreaga lucrare militeaz pentru stabilirea psihologiei lurii de decizii ca ramur distinct a psihologiei i relaioneaz alegerile cu activitile umane prin evidenierea multicauzalitii lor, a mecanismelor i finalitilor specifice i prin analiza formelor lor de o complexitate crescut. Sunt prezentate i alte aspecte precum definiia, caracteristicile i

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clasificarea alegerilor, propunndu-se un nou model al lurii deciziilor. Cartea nu cuprinde o seciune de concluzii generale care s integreze contribuiile studiilor incluse n ceea ce privete dezvoltarea psihologiei manageriale, rmnndu-i cititorului posibilitatea de a extrage aceste concluzii. Trecnd peste acest aspect, lucrarea i propune oferirea a noi oportuniti de dezvoltare pentru specialitii din domeniul managementului, oferind modele explicative practicienilor pui n faa unor probleme la care doresc a gsi explicaii, interpretri i remedii. n ce msur reuete acest lucru, v invitm s apreciai .... Claudia Rus

Mihaela Stoica (2007). Elemente de psihologie managerial. Cluj-Napoca: Editura Risoprint, Cluj-Napoca (267 pag.) Supravieuirea sau dezvoltarea unei organizaii n jungla competitiv a pieei i are originile n crearea i implementarea unui sistem de management adecvat care s-i permit obinerea unor performane superioare. Managementul sau conducerea a fost prezent nc din cele mai vechi timpuri ale omenirii, existnd n orice moment al istoriei condui i conductori. Termenul de management i are originile n latinescul manum agere care nseamn a conduce cu mna. n literatura de specialitate pot fi identificate mii de lucrri care abordeaz conceptul de management. Una dintre aceste lucrri este cartea doamnei Mihaela Stoica, ce prezint elementele fundamentale ale unei noi tiine care abordeaz o anumit metodologie modern de conducere care se numete management. Noua tiin aprut, psihologia managerial, are un caracter preponderent aplicativ. Structurat n apte capitole, lucrarea abordeaz ntr-o manier clar i concis aspecte variate ale procesului managerial i ale persoanei managerului, mbinnd aspectele teoretice cu rezultatele unor cercetri din literatura de specialitate. n cele 267 de pagini sunt dezbtute teme precum personalitatea managerului, conducerea organizaional, motivarea angajailor, construirea echipei, stresul managerial, cultura i schimbarea organizaional. Cu toate c aceste teme au fost prezentate i n alte lucrri, cartea de fa de remarc prin

caracterul structurat al informaiilor prezentate. Domeniul managementului este vast i nu poate fi prezentat pe larg n cteva pagini. n acest context, lucrarea de fa i propune prezentarea unor elemente de psihologie managerial. Pornind de la descrierea unui scurt cadru istoric al fenomenului conducerii, n primul capitol, autoarea definete conceptul de psihologie managerial i prezint obiectul de studiu al noii ramuri a psihologiei. Pentru a oferi o imagine mai clar a ceea ce nseamn psihologia managerial, se prezint legtura cu alte tiine din domeniul psihologiei, politologiei i economiei i se clarific conceptual noiunea de consultan organizaional managerial. Nu se poate discuta de psihologia managerial fr a face referire la persoana managerului. Personalitatea acestuia este dezbtut pe larg n cel de-al doilea capitol al lucrrii. Paginile acestui capitol schieaz profilul psihologic i trsturile de personalitate ale managerului eficient pe baza teoriei i a cercetrilor existente n literatura de specialitate. Sunt trecute n revist i tipurile de personalitate ale managerilor, studiate din perspectiva tipului psihologic dezvoltat de Carl Jung. Datorit particularitilor funciei de conducere, selecia managerilor este una diferit de cea pentru alte posturi, implicnd metode diferite. Lucrarea de fa aduce un aport important n ceea ce privete aceast tem, prezentnd pe scurt metodele folosite n selecia persoanelor n poziii de management i oferind, la finalul capitolul, nite exemple de instrumente de evaluare a aspectelor despre care s-a discutat pe parcursul capitolului. Managementul unei organizaii nseamn implicit conducerea ei. Acest fenomen este surprins de autoare n cel de-al treilea capitol al lucrrii. Demersul de abordare al conducerii organizaionale pornete de la definirea unor noiuni precum conducere, tip de manager, stil de managerial i se continu cu enumerarea i descrierea sarcinilor i rolului conductorului, a stilurilor de conducere. Acest capitol are anexat la sfritul su trei instrumente de evaluare a stilurilor de conducere, unele dintre ele fiind consacrate n literatura de specialitate. Managementul unei organizaii implic managementul resurselor, inclusiv a celor mai preioase dintre ele, resursele umane. Unul dintre aspectele resurselor umane l reprezint motivarea acestora, aspect abordat n cel de-al patrulea capitol al lucrrii. Iniial este definit

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noiunea de motivare, autoarea sugernd faptul c pentru a realiza o motivare performant este important s se cunoasc formele motivrii personale. Pe lng acestea sunt prezentate comparativ i o serie de teorii, precum i modaliti concrete de motivarea profesional la care s poat s fac apel un manager dintr-o organizaie. Aspectele teoretice descrise pe parcursul capitolului sunt ilustrate cu diverse studii de caz realizate de studentele autoarei. Dup o prezentare a ceea ce nseamn construirea echipei de munc (team building), spre deosebire de alte lucrri de management, cartea de fa prezint pe larg metodele prin care poate fi construit echipa de munc, prezentndu-se detaliat coninutul lor i scopurile pentru care se realizeaz. Un alt aspect al psihologiei manageriale adus n discuie este cel reprezentat de stresul ocupaional. Sunt prezentate foarte structurat informaii privind definirea, teoriile, cauzele i consecinele stresului managerial. Un atu al acestui capitol, la fel ca n cazul formrii echipei de munc, este oferirea unor metode practice de intervenie n stresul managerial. Aceeai structurare a cunotinelor poate fi regsit i n capitolul dedicat culturii i

schimbrii organizaionale. n acest capitol se prezint aspecte legate de apariia i definirea conceptului de cultur organizaional, elementelor i tipurilor acesteia. Este ilustrat clar relaia dintre cultura i schimbarea organizaional care poate avea mai multe forme. La fel ca n alte lucrri care abordeaz cultura organizaional, autoarea discut despre rezistena la schimbare i etapele care se parcurg ntr-un proces de schimbare organizaional. Cunotinele exprimate de autoare privind cultura organizaional sunt completate de cele ale studenilor si, referitoare la managementul schimbrii i importana culturii organizaionale. Autoarea consider c aceast carte se adreseaz n primul rnd studenilor ei la Psihologie, ca viitori manageri resurse umane i managerilor de organizaii n sperana de a le fi de ajutor n rezolvarea problemelor organizaionale pe care le ntlnesc n munca lor i pentru a le asigura succes organizaiei conduse. Meritele unei astfel de lucrri pot fi evaluate numai prin ncercarea de a citi pagin cu pagin informaiile transmise de autoare. Claudia Rus

Organizational Diagnosis & Development Brand Research Academic & Institutional Evaluation Organizational Simulation & Gaming Focus on people and opportunities. For reliable outcomes contact@aphorme.ro; www.aphorme.ro

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CONFERINA NAIONAL DE PSIHOLOGIE INDUSTRIAL I ORGANIZAIONAL Ediia a VIII-a 10-13 Aprilie 2008, Cluj Napoca

Asociaia de Psihologie Industrial i Organizaional (APIO), n colaborare cu Facultatea de Psihologie i tiine ale Educaiei, Catedra de Psihologie, organizeaz n perioada 10 -13 aprilie 2008, la Cluj Napoca, Ediia a VIII-a a Conferinei Naionale de Psihologie Industrial i Organizaional. Seciunile conferinei sunt urmtoarele: Managementul Resurselor Umane Cultur, Schimbare i Dezvoltare Organizaional Ergonomie Cognitiv Psihologie Militar Psihologia Reclamei i Consumatorului Emoii n Organizaii n afara acestor sesiuni de lucrri, conferina va include o zi de prelegeri susinute de nume mari n psihologia internaional. O parte dintre invitaii notri sunt: Ivan Robertson, Leeds University Business School & Manchester Business School, UK Rmi Kouabenan, Universit Pierre Mends, Grenoble, France Thomas Oakland, University of Florida Acetia vor susine prelegeri pe teme precum stresul ocupaional i implicaiile acestuia asupra performanelor profesionale, analiza riscurilor i accidentelor ocupaionale, ergonomie cognitiv i utilizarea testelor psihologice. Conferina va include i o seciune de workshopuri, cu durat de 4-8 ore la care avei posibilitatea de a v nscrie n limita locurilor disponibile. Tematica workshopurilor este anunat pe site-ul APIO, www.apio.ro, pe care v invitm s-l accesai pentru a obine mai multe detalii despre conferin i alte evenimente organizate de asociaia noastr. Participarea la conferin precum i la workshopurile din cadrul acesteia este creditat de ctre Colegiul Psihologilor din Romnia. V ateptm cu drag!

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CURSURI DE FORMARE PROFESIONAL

APIO anun lansarea programului de formare a psihologilor cu drept de liber practic. Programul este avizat de ctre Colegiul Psihologilor din Romnia i cuprinde urmtoarele cursuri: Recrutarea, Selecia i Inseria Noilor Angajai Managementul i Evaluarea Performanelor Profesionale Diagnoza Organizaional Managementul Schimbrii Organizaionale Stresul ocupaional. Tehnici de diagnoz i intervenie

Informaii generale despre cursuri:

Creditare: 10 credite recunoscute de ctre Colegiul Psihologilor din Romnia Locuri disponibile: 30 de locuri Beneficiari: Psihologi care activeaz n domeniul Psihologiei Industrial-Organizaionale Durata: 20 de ore Locaia: Cluj-Napoca Cost: 60 euro/persoan

Primul dintre aceste cursuri a fost deja lansat n noiembrie 2007. Urmeaz ca n lunile viitoare s fie lansate i celelalte cursuri de formare. Pentru mai multe informaii cu privire la desfurarea acestora v invitm s accesai site-ul APIO, www.apio.ro.

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Condiii de publicare a articolelor: Revista Psihologia Resurselor Umane public articole n limba romn, englez i francez. Lucrrile tiinifice trimise spre publicare trebuie s ndeplineasc urmtoarele condiii: 1. Manuscrisele trebuie pregtite n conformitate cu standardele de publicare din Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, ed.4. Manuscrisele trebuie s fie elaborate ntr-un stil clar. Lucrrile vor fi trimise redactorului ef n dou exemplare: un exemplar listat pe foaie A4, la un 1 rnd, cu caractere Times New Roman, 12, respectndu-se urmtoarele margini: sus-3cm., jos-2.5cm., la stnga-2.5cm., la dreapta-2.5cm. i un alt exemplar pe un CD (atenie documentele trebuie s fie format WORD). Pe eticheta CD-ului vor fi trecute: numele i prenumele autorului, numele articolului i o adres de e-mail unde poate fi contactat autorul. Lucrrile pot fi trimise i pe adresa de e-mail: office@apio.ro. Lungimea studiilor teoretice, experimentale, ale cercetrilor aplicative i metaanalizelor poate fi de maximum 25 pagini, scrise la un 1 rnd, inclusiv tabelele, graficele i referinele bibliografice. Comentariile i interviurile nu pot depi 10 pagini. Pentru recenzii lungimea maxim este de 3-4 pagini. Lungimea articolelor din seciunea MRU n practic nu poate depi 10 pagini scrise la un 1 rnd. Referinele bibliografice din interiorul textului se vor face prin indicarea autorului citat i a anului de publicaie a sursei citate. Exemplu: Roca, 1963; Cureu & Bu, 2002. Bibliografia de la finalul articolului va avea urmtorul format: Pentru articol publicat ntr-o revist: Armenakis, A.A., & Bedeian A.G. (1992). The role of metaphors in organizational change. Group and Organizational Management, 17, 242-248.

Conditions requises pour publier les articles La revue Psychologie des Ressources Humaines publie des articles originaux en anglais, franais et en roumain. Les travaux scientifiques soumis doivent remplir les conditions suivantes: 1. Les manuscrits doivent tre conformes aux standards de publication quon trouve dans Le manuel de publication de lAPA, dition numro 4. Les manuscrits manire claire. doivent tre labors dune

2.

2.

3.

3.

Les travaux scientifiques seront envoys au rdacteur en chef de la revue en deux exemplaires: un exemplaire en format A4, interligne 1, caractres Times New Roman, 12, les bordures: de haut 3 cm, du bas - 2,5 cm, du gauche 2,5 cm, du droit 2,5 cm, et un autre exemplaire sur CD (faire attention: les documents doit tre en format WORD). Sur ltiquette de CD seront enregistrs: le nom et le prnom de lauteur, le nom de larticle et ladresse e-mail de lauteur. Les travaux scientifiques seront aussi envoys par e-mail: office@apio.ro La longueur des tudes thoriques, exprimentales, dinvestigations appliques et des mta-analyses sera de 25 pages maxim, crites avec un interligne de 1, y compris les tableaux, les figures et les rfrences bibliographiques. Les commentaires et les interviews ne seront pas plus longs que de 10 pages. Pour les critiques, la longueur sera de 3-4 pages. La longueur des articles prnant des MRU en practique ne peut pas excder 10 pages. Les rfrences bibliographiques doivent indiquer lauteur cit et lanne de la rfrence. La bibliographie doit respecter le format suivant: Pour un article publi dans une revue: Armenakis, A.A., & Bedeian A.G. (1992). The role of metaphors in organizational change. Group and Organizational Management, 17, 242-248.

4.

4.

5.

5.

Pentru carte: Katzenbach, J.R., & Smith, A. (1993). The Wisdom of Teams. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Pour un livre: Katzenbach, J.R., & Smith, A. (1993). The Wisdom of Teams. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Pentru capitol sau studiu din cadrul unei cri: Harrison, R. (1974). Role negotiation: a tough-minded approach to team development. In P.J. Berger (Ed.), Group Training Techniques. Essex: Gower Press.

Pour un chapitre ou une tude cite dun livre: Harrison, R. (1974). Role negotiation: a tough-minded approach to team development. In P.J. Berger (Ed.), Group Training Techniques. Essex: Gower Press.

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Article publishing requirements

Psihologia Resurselor Umane is written according to the American Psychological Standards set for articles. The following conditions are a must in order that an article be published:

1.

Manuscripts should follow the publication standards existing in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, fourth ed.

2.

All manuscripts should be clear and readable

3.

Articles must be sent to the newspaper office in two copies: one of the copy must be printed on A4 format, 1 line spaced, in Times New Roman characters, font no. 12 and the paper format must have the following dimensions: top: 3cm; bottom: 2.5cm; left: 2.5 cm and right: 2.5cm. The other copy must be sent on a floppy-disk (Word format). On the floppy-disk label it must be specified the authors name, the title of the article and an email address where the author can be contacted. The papers can be sent by email to the following address: office@apio.ro

4.

Theoretical and experimental papers, applied research and metaanalysis should be of maximum 25 pages, 1 line spaced (including tables, graphics and biographical references). Comments and interviews cannot exceed 10 pages. Books reviews must not exceed 3-4 pages. Articles for the Human Resources Management in Practice must not be longer than 10 pages, at 1 line spaced.

5.

Biographical references in the text must be noted as following:

For an article published in a magazine: Armenakis, A.A., & Bedeian A.G. (1992). The role of metaphors in organizational change. Group and Organizational Management, 17, 242-248.

For a book: Katzenbach, J.R. & Smith, A. (1993). The Wisdom of Teams. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

For a chapter or study included in a book:

Harrison, R. (1974). Role negotiation: a tough-minded approach to team development. In P.J. Berger (Ed.), Group Training Techniques. Essex: Gower Press.