t0lhl18\ Flk 20II

hNIlt1I8l0 I61Ntl lN
lN0I18\


Nhl: t0l hlNb llNb
tl: 1 0ll
1lt0l8: FN. NlNl

ln18CuuC1lCn
Many lndusLrlal are manufacLured for our comforLable ln llfe 1hey can say
LhaL ls made up of sulphurlc acld ammonla alloys synLheLlc polymers glass
ceramlcs or composlLe maLerlals
ln Lhls follo we can know LhaL Lhe example of manufacLured subsLances
and Lhe uses of Lhem ln lndusLry we also can know LhaL Lhe composlLlon
raw maLerlals and properLles of all Lhe 7 Lypes of manufacLured subsLances
C8!LC1lvL
ln Lhls ChemlsLry lollo we can
1 undersLand Lhe manufacLurlng of sulphurlc acld
2 SynLhesls Lhe manufacLure of ammonla
3 undersLand Lhe alloys
4 LvaluaLe Lhe uses of synLhesls polymers
3 Apply Lhe uses of glass and ceramlcs
6 LvaluaLe Lhe uses of composlLe maLerlals




Sulphurlc Acld
Sulphurlc acld P2SC4 ls a sLrong mlneral acld lL ls soluble ln waLer aL all
concenLraLlons lL has many appllcaLlons and ls one of Lhe Lop producLs of
Lhe chemlcal lndusLry rlnclpal uses lncluded ore processlng ferLlllzer
manufacLurlng oll reflnlng wasLewaLer processlng and chemlcal synLhesls
lLs ablllLy Lo produce foulsmelllng sulphur compounds has lenL Lhe word
vlLrlol Lhe addlLlonal meanlng beLLer abuslve language"
Many proLelns are made of sulfurconLalnlng amlno aclds (such as cysLelne
and meLhlonlne) whlch produce sulphurlc acld (or sulphaLe lonSC42 aL
neuLral pP) when meLabollzed by Lhe body

ManufacLure
Sulphurlc acld ls produced from sulphur oxygen and waLer vla Lhe conLacL
process
ln Lhe flrsL sLep sulphur ls burned Lo produce sulphur dloxlde
1 S(s) + C2(g) SC2(g)
1hls ls Lhen oxldlzed Lo sulphur Lrloxlde uslng oxygen ln Lhe presence of a
vanadlum(v) oxlde caLalysL
2 2 SC2 + C2(g) 2 SC3(g) (ln presence of v2C3)
llnally Lhe sulphur Lrloxlde ls LreaLed wlLh waLer (usually as 9798 P2SC4
conLalnlng 23 waLer) Lo produce 9899 sulphurlc acld
3 SC3(g0 + P2C(l) P2SC4(l)
noLe LhaL dlrecLly dlssolvlng SC3 ln waLer ls noL pracLlcal due Lo Lhe hlghly
exoLhermlc naLure of Lhe reacLlon formlng a corroslve mlsL lnsLead of a
llquld AlLernaLlvely SC3 can be absorbed lnLo P2SC4 Lo produce oleum
(P2S2C7) whlch may Lhen be mlxed wlLh waLer Lo form sulphurlc acld
4 P2SC4(l) + SC3 P2S2C7(l)
Cleum ls reacLed wlLh waLer Lo form concenLraLed P2SC4
3 P2S2C7(l) + P2C(l) 2 P2SC4(l)
lorms of sulphurlc acld
AlLhough nearly 100 sulphurlc acld can be made Lhls loses SC3 aL Lhe
bolllng polnL Lo produce 983 acld 1he 98 grade (18M) ls more sLable ln
sLorage and ls Lhe usual form of whaL ls descrlbed as concenLraLed sulphurlc
acld CLher concenLraLlons are used for dlfferenL purposes Some common
concenLraLlons are
1 10 dlluLe sulphurlc acld for laboraLory use
2 333 baLLery acld (used ln leadacld baLLerles)
3 6218 chamber of ferLlllzer acld
4 7767 Lower or Clover acld
3 98 concenLraLed acld






uses
Sulphurlc acld ls a very lmporLanL commodlLy chemlcal and lndeed a
naLlon's sulfurlc acld producLlon ls a good lndlcaLor of lLs lndusLrlal sLrengLh
1he ma[or use (60 of LoLal producLlon worldwlde) for sulphurlc acld ls ln
Lhe weL meLhod" for Lhe producLlon of phosphorlc acld used for
manufacLure of phosphaLe ferLlllzers as well as Lrlsodlum phosphaLe for
deLergenLs ln Lhls meLhod phosphaLe rock ls used and more Lhan 100
mllllon Lones are processed annually 1hls raw maLerlal ls shown below as
fluorapaLlLe Lhough Lhe exacL composlLlon may vary 1hls ls LreaLed wlLh 93
sulphurlc acld Lo produce calclum sulphaLe hydrogen fluorlde (Pl) and
phosphorlc acld 1he Pl ls removed as hydrofluorlc acld 1he overall process
can be represenLed as
Ca3l(C4)3 + 3 P2SC4 + 10 P2C 3 CaSC4 * 2 P2C + Pl + 3 P3C4
Sulphurlc acld ls used ln large quanLlLles by Lhe lron and sLeelmaklng
lndusLry Lo remove oxldaLlon rusL and scale from rolled sheeL and bllleLs
prlor Lo sale Lo Lhe auLomoblle and whlLegoods lndusLry used acld ls ofLen
recycled uslng a SpenL Acld 8egeneraLlon (SA8) planL 1hese planLs combusL
spenL acld wlLh naLural gas reflnery gas fuel oll or oLher fuel sources 1hls
combusLlon process produces gaseous sulphur dloxlde (SC2) and sulphur
Lrloxlde (SC3) whlch are Lhen used Lo manufacLure new" sulphurlc acld
SA8 planLs are common addlLlons Lo meLal smelLlng planLs oll reflnerles
and oLher lndusLrles where sulphurlc acld ls consumed ln bulk as operaLln a
SA planL ls much cheaper Lhan Lhe recurrlng cosLs of spenL acld dlsposal
and new acld purchases
Ammonlum sulphaLe an lmporLanL nlLrogen ferLlllzer ls mosL commonly
produced as a byproducL from coklng planLs supplylng Lhe lLon and sLeel
maklng planLs 8eacLlng Lhe ammonla produced ln Lhe Lhermal
decomposlLlon of coal wlLh wasLe sulphurlc acld allows Lhe ammonla Lo be
crysLalllzed ouL as a salL (ofLen brown because of lron conLamlnaLlon) and
sold lnLo Lhe agrochemlcals lndusLry
AnoLher lmporLanL use for sulfurlc acld ls for Lhe manufacLure of alumlnum
sulfaLe also known as paper makers alum 1hls can reacL wlLh small
amounLs of soap on paper pulp flbers Lo glve gelaLlnous
alumlnum carboxylaLes whlch help Lo coagulaLe Lhe pulp flbers lnLo a hard
paper surface lL ls also used for maklng alumlnum hydroxlde whlch ls used
aL waLer LreaLmenL planLs Lo fllLer ouL lmpurlLles as well as Lo lmprove Lhe
LasLe of Lhe waLer Alumlnum sulfaLe ls made by reacLlng bauxlLe wlLh
sulfurlc acld
Al
2
C
3
+ 3 P
2
SC
4
Al
2
(SC
4
)
3
+ 3 P
2
C
Sulfurlc acld ls used for a varleLy of oLher purposes ln Lhe chemlcal lndusLry
lor example lL ls Lhe usual acld caLalysL for Lhe converslon ofcyclohexanone
oxlme Lo caprolacLam used for maklng nylon lL ls used for
maklng hydrochlorlc acld from salL vla Lhe Mannhelm process
Much P
2
SC
4
ls used ln peLroleum reflnlng for example as a caLalysL for Lhe
reacLlon of lsobuLane wlLh lsobuLylene Lo glve lsoocLane a compound LhaL
ralses Lhe ocLane raLlng of gasollne (peLrol) Sulfurlc acld ls also lmporLanL ln
Lhe manufacLure of dyesLuffs soluLlons and ls Lhe acld ln leadacld (car)
baLLerles









Ammonla
Ammonla ls a compound of nlLrogen and hydrogen wlLh Lhe formula nP
3
lL
ls a colourless gas wlLh a characLerlsLlc pungenL odor Ammonla conLrlbuLes
slgnlflcanLly Lo Lhe nuLrlLlonal needs of LerresLrlal organlsms by servlng as a
precursor Lo food and ferLlllzers Ammonla elLher dlrecLly or lndlrecLly ls
also a bulldlng block for Lhe synLhesls of many pharmaceuLlcals AlLhough ln
wlde use ammonla ls boLh causLlc and hazardous ln 2006 worldwlde
producLlon was esLlmaLed aL 1463 mllllon Lons
6
lL ls used ln commerclal
cleanlng producLs
Ammonla as used commerclally ls ofLen called oobyJtoos ommoolo 1hls
Lerm emphaslzes Lhe absence of waLer ln Lhe maLerlal 8ecause nP
3
bolls aL
3334 C (28012 l) aL a pressure of 1 aLmosphere Lhe llquld musL be
sLored under hlgh pressure or aL low LemperaLure lLs heaL of vaporlzaLlon ls
however sufflclenLly hlgh so LhaL nP
3
can be readlly handled ln ordlnary
beakers ln a fume hood

uses
kefr|gerat|on k717
8ecause of lLs favourable vaporlzaLlon properLles ammonla ls an
aLLracLlve refrlgeranL

lL was commonly used prlor Lo Lhe popularlsaLlon
ofchlorofluorocarbons (lreons) Anhydrous ammonla ls wldely used ln
lndusLrlal refrlgeraLlon appllcaLlons and hockey rlnks because of lLs
hlghenergy efflclency and low cosL 1he kallna cycle whlch ls of growlng
lmporLance Lo geoLhermal power planLs depends on Lhe wlde bolllng range
of Lhe ammonlawaLer mlxLure Ammonla ls used less frequenLly ln
commerclal appllcaLlons such as ln grocery sLore freezer cases and
refrlgeraLed dlsplays due Lo lLs LoxlclLy

Iert|||zer
ApproxlmaLely 83 (as of 2004) of ammonla ls used as ferLlllzers elLher as lLs
salLs or as soluLlons Consumlng more Lhan 1 of all manmade power Lhe
producLlon of ammonla ls a slgnlflcanL componenL of Lhe world energy
budgeL
C|eaner
Pousehold ammonla ls a soluLlon of nP
3
ln waLer (le ammonlum hydroxlde)
used as a general purpose cleaner for many surfaces 8ecause ammonla
resulLs ln a relaLlvely sLreakfree shlne one of lLs mosL common uses ls Lo
clean glass porcelaln and sLalnless sLeel lL ls also frequenLly used for
cleanlng ovens and soaklng lLems Lo loosen bakedon grlme Pousehold
ammonla ranges ln concenLraLlon from 3 Lo 10 welghL percenL ammonla
Ior remed|at|on of gaseous em|ss|ons
Ammonla ls used Lo scrub SC
2
from Lhe burnlng of fossll fuels and Lhe
resulLlng producL ls converLed Lo ammonlum sulfaLe for use as ferLlllzer
Ammonla neuLrallzes Lhe nlLrogen oxldes (nC
x
) polluLanLs emlLLed by dlesel
englnes 1hls Lechnology called SC8 (selecLlve caLalyLlc reducLlon) relles on
a vanadlabased caLalysL












As a fue|
Ammonla was used durlng World War ll Lo power buses ln 8elglum and ln
englne and solar energy appllcaLlons prlor Lo 1900 Llquld ammonla was
used as Lhe fuel of Lhe rockeL alrplane Lhex13 AlLhough noL as powerful as
oLher fuels lL lefL no sooL ln Lhe reusable rockeL englne and lLs denslLy
approxlmaLely maLches Lhe denslLy of Lhe oxldlzer llquld oxygen whlch
slmpllfled Lhe alrcrafLs deslgn
Ammonla has been proposed as a pracLlcal alLernaLlve Lo fossll
fuel for lnLernal combusLlon englnes 1he calorlflc value of ammonla ls 223
M!/kg (9690 81u/lb) whlch ls abouL half LhaL of dlesel ln a normal englne ln
whlch Lhe waLer vapour ls noL condensed Lhe calorlflc value of ammonla
wlll be abouL 21 less Lhan Lhls flgure lL can be used ln exlsLlng englnes
wlLh only mlnor modlflcaLlons Lo carbureLLors/ln[ecLors
1o meeL Lhese demands slgnlflcanL caplLal would be requlred Lo lncrease
presenL producLlon levels AlLhough Lhe second mosL produced chemlcal
Lhe scale of ammonla producLlon ls a small fracLlon of world peLroleum
usage lL could be manufacLured from renewable energy sources as well as
coal or nuclear power lL ls however slgnlflcanLly less efflclenL Lhan baLLerles
1he 60 MW 8[ukan dam ln 1elemark norway produced ammonla vla
elecLrolysls of waLer for many years from 1913 produclng ferLlllzer for much
of Lurope lf produced from coal Lhe CC
2
can be readlly sequesLered (Lhe
combusLlon producLs are nlLrogen and waLer) ln 1981 a Canadlan company
converLed a 1981 ChevroleL lmpala Lo operaLe uslng ammonla as fuel
4142

Ammonla englnes or ammonla moLors uslng ammonla as a worklng fluld
have been proposed and occaslonally used 1he prlnclple ls slmllar Lo LhaL
used ln a flreless locomoLlve buL wlLh ammonla as Lhe worklng fluld lnsLead
of sLeam or compressed alr Ammonla englnes were used experlmenLally ln
Lhe 19Lh cenLury by ColdsworLhy Curney ln Lhe uk and ln sLreeLcars ln new
Crleans ln Lhe uSA


Alloys
An alloy ls a homogeneous mlxLure or meLalllc solld soluLlon composed of
Lwo or more elemenLs CompleLe solld soluLlon alloys glve slngle
solld phase mlcrosLrucLure whlle parLlal soluLlons glve Lwo or more phases
LhaL may or may noL be homogeneous ln dlsLrlbuLlon dependlng on Lhermal
(heaL LreaLmenL) hlsLory Alloys usually have dlfferenL properLles from Lhose
of Lhe componenL elemenLs
Alloy consLlLuenLs are usually measured by mass
Alloylng a meLal ls done by comblnlng lL wlLh one or more oLher meLals or
nonmeLals LhaL ofLen enhance lLs properLles lor example sLeel ls sLronger
Lhan lron lLs prlmary elemenL 1he physlcal properLles such
as denslLy reacLlvlLy ?oungs modulus and elecLrlcal and Lhermal
conducLlvlLy of an alloy may noL dlffer greaLly from Lhose of lLs elemenLs
buL englneerlng properLles such as Lenslle sLrengLh
2
and shear sLrengLh may
be subsLanLlally dlfferenL from Lhose of Lhe consLlLuenL maLerlals 1hls ls
someLlmes a resulL of Lhe slzes of Lhe aLoms ln Lhe alloy because larger
aLoms exerL a compresslve force on nelghborlng aLoms and smaller aLoms
exerL a Lenslle force on Lhelr nelghbors helplng Lhe alloy reslsL deformaLlon
SomeLlmes alloys may exhlblL marked dlfferences ln behavlor even when
small amounLs of one elemenL occur









uses
Some alloys are used so predomlnanLly wlLh respecL Lo Lhelr base meLals
LhaL Lhe name of Lhe prlmary consLlLuenL ls also used as Lhe name of Lhe
alloy lor example 14 caraL gold ls an alloy of gold wlLh oLher elemenLs
Slmllarly Lhe sllver used ln [ewelry and Lhe alumlnlum used as a sLrucLural
bulldlng maLerlal are also alloys
1he Lerm alloy" ls someLlme used ln everyday speech as a synonym for a
parLlcular alloy lor example auLomoblle wheels made of alumlnlum alloy
are commonly referred Lo as slmply alloy wheels" 1he usage ls obvlously
lndeflnlLe slnce sLeels and mosL oLher meLals ln pracLlcal use are also alloys
ComposlLlon
Alloys can be classlfled by Lhe number of Lhelr consLlLuenLs An alloy wlLh
Lwo componenLs ls called a blnary alloy one wlLh Lhree ls a Lernary alloy
and so forLh Alloys can be furLher classlfled as elLher subsLlLuLlon alloys or
lnLersLlLlal alloys dependlng on Lhelr meLhod of formaLlon ln subsLlLuLlon
alloys Lhe aLom of Lhe componenLs are approxlmaLely Lhe same slze and Lhe
varlous aLoms are slmply subsLlLuLed for one anoLher ln Lhe crysLal sLrucLure
An example of a (blnary) subsLlLuLlon alloy ls brass made up of copper and
zlnc lnLersLlLlal alloys occur when Lhe aLoms of one componenL are
subsLanLlally smaller Lhan Lhe oLher and Lhe smaller aLoms flL lnLo Lhe
spaces (lnLersLlces) beLween Lhe larger aLoms



olymers
9o|ymer ls a large molecule (macromolecule) composed of
repeaLlng sLrucLural unlLs 1hese subunlLs are Lyplcally connecLed
by covalenL chemlcal bonds AlLhough Lhe Lerm olymet ls someLlmes Laken
Lo refer Lo plasLlcs lL acLually encompasses a large class comprlslng boLh
naLural and synLheLlc maLerlals wlLh a wlde varleLy of properLles
8ecause of Lhe exLraordlnary range of properLles of polymerlc
maLerlals
2
Lhey play an essenLlal and ublqulLous role ln everyday llfe
3
1hls
role ranges from famlllar synLheLlc plasLlcs and elasLomers Lo
naLural blopolymers such as nuclelc aclds and proLelns LhaL are essenLlal for
llfe
Lxample of naLural polymers
SLarch cellulose wool proLeln sllk and naLural rubber
SynLheLlc polymers are handmade polymers 1he monomers are used are
usually obLalned from peLroleum afLer golng Lhrough Lhe reflnlng and
cracklng process
Lxample of synLheLlc polymers
olyLhene polyvlnyl chlorlde or vC poyprooene erspex nylon and
Lerylene
SynLheLlc polymers are wlsely use Loday because Lhey can made Lo have
speclal properLles requlred for Lhelr uses 1hey also very sLable and do noL
corrode or decay 1hls also means Lhey are noL easy Lo blodegrade Pence
Lhey may cause Lhe polluLlon blockage of dralnage sysLems and polsonous
gases whlch have a pungenL smell
Class
Class ls an amorphous (noncrysLalllne) solld maLerlal Classes are
Lyplcally brlLLle and opLlcally LransparenL
1he mosL famlllar Lype of glass used for cenLurles ln wlndows and drlnklng
vessels ls sodallme glass made of abouL 73 slllca (SlC
2
) plus na
2
C CaC
and several mlnor addlLlves CfLen Lhe Lerm glass ls used ln a resLrlcLed
sense Lo refer Lo Lhls speclflc use
ln sclence however Lhe Lerm glass ls usually deflned ln a much wlder sense
lncludlng every solld LhaL possesses a noncrysLalllne (le amorphous)
sLrucLure and LhaL exhlblLs a glass LranslLlonwhen heaLed Lowards Lhe llquld
sLaLe ln Lhls wlder sense glasses can be made of qulLe dlfferenL classes of
maLerlals meLalllc alloys lonlc melLs aqueous soluLlons molecular llqulds
and polymers lor many appllcaLlons (boLLles eyewear) polymer glasses
(acryllc glasspolycarbonaLe polyeLhylene LerephLhalaLe) are a llghLer
alLernaLlve Lo LradlLlonal slllca glasses
uses
Common G|ass
lused quarLz (prlmarlly composed of SlC
2
) ls used for some speclal
appllcaLlons lL ls noL very common due Lo lLs hlgh glass LranslLlon
LemperaLure of over 1200 C (2192 l)
3
normally oLher subsLances are
added Lo slmpllfy processlng Cne ls sodlum carbonaLe (na
2
CC
3
) whlch
lowers Lhe glass LranslLlon LemperaLure Powever Lhe soda makes Lhe
glass waLer soluble whlch ls usually undeslrable so llme (calclum
oxlde (CaC) generally obLalned from llmesLone) some magneslum
oxlde (MgC) and alumlnlum oxlde (Al
2
C
3
) are added Lo provlde for a beLLer
chemlcal durablllLy 1he resulLlng glass conLalns abouL 70 Lo 74 slllca by
welghL and ls called a sodallme glass
4
Sodallme glasses accounL for abouL
90 of manufacLured glass
G|assceram|cs
Classceramlc maLerlals share many properLles wlLh boLh noncrysLalllne
glass and crysLalllneceramlcs 1hey are formed as a glass and Lhen parLlally
crysLalllzed by heaL LreaLmenL lor example Lhe mlcrosLrucLure of
whlLeware ceramlcs frequenLly conLalns
boLh amorphous andcrysLalllne phases CrysLalllne gralns are ofLen
embedded wlLhln a noncrysLalllne lnLergranular phase of graln boundarles
When applled Lo whlLeware ceramlcs vlLreous means Lhe maLerlal has an
exLremely low permeablllLy Lo llqulds ofLen buL noL always waLer when
deLermlned by a speclfled LesL reglme
2122

1he Lerm malnly refers Lo a mlx of llLhlum and alumlnoslllcaLes whlch ylelds
an array of maLerlals wlLh lnLeresLlng Lhermomechanlcal properLles 1he
mosL commerclally lmporLanL of Lhese have Lhe dlsLlncLlon of belng
lmpervlous Lo Lhermal shock 1hus glassceramlcs have become exLremely
useful for counLerLop cooklng 1he negaLlve Lhermal expanslon coefflclenL
(1LC) of Lhe crysLalllne ceramlc phase can be balanced wlLh Lhe poslLlve 1LC
of Lhe glassy phase AL a cerLaln polnL (70 crysLalllne) Lhe glassceramlc
has a neL 1LC near zero 1hls Lype of glassceramlc exhlblLs excellenL
mechanlcal properLles and can susLaln repeaLed and qulck LemperaLure
changes up Lo 1000 C

Ceramlcs
1he earllesL ceramlcs were poLLery ob[ecLs made from clay elLher by lLself
or mlxed wlLh oLher maLerlals hardened ln flre LaLer ceramlcs were glazed
and flred Lo creaLe a colored smooLh surface Ceramlcs now lnclude
domesLlc lndusLrlal and bulldlng producLs and arL ob[ecLs ln Lhe 20Lh
cenLury new ceramlc maLerlals were developed for use ln advanced ceramlc
englneerlng for example ln semlconducLors
1ypes of ceramlcs
Crysta|||ne ceram|cs
CrysLalllne ceramlc maLerlals are noL amenable Lo a greaL range of
processlng MeLhods for deallng wlLh Lhem Lend Lo fall lnLo one of Lwo
caLegorles elLher make Lhe ceramlc ln Lhe deslred shape by reacLlon lo
slto or by formlng powders lnLo Lhe deslred shape and LhenslnLerlng Lo
form a solld body Ceramlc formlng Lechnlques lnclude shaplng by hand
(someLlmes lncludlng a roLaLlon process called Lhrowlng) sllp casLlng Lape
casLlng (used for maklng very Lhln ceramlc capaclLors eg) ln[ecLlon
moldlng dry presslng and oLher varlaLlons ueLalls of Lhese processes are
descrlbed ln Lhe Lwo books llsLed below A few meLhods use a hybrld
beLween Lhe Lwo approaches
-oncrysta|||ne ceram|cs
noncrysLalllne ceramlcs belng glasses Lend Lo be formed from melLs 1he
glass ls shaped when elLher fully molLen by casLlng or when ln a sLaLe of
Loffeellke vlscoslLy by meLhods such as blowlng Lo a mold lf laLer heaL
LreaLmenLs cause Lhls glass Lo become parLly crysLalllne Lhe resulLlng
maLerlal ls known as a glassceramlc wldely used as cookLop

uses
knlfe blades Lhe blade of a ceramlc knlfe wlll sLay sharp for much longer
Lhan LhaL of a sLeel knlfe alLhough lL ls more brlLLle and can be snapped
by dropplng lL on a hard surface
vehlcle ceramlc brake dlscs are reslsLanL Lo abraslon aL hlgh
LemperaLures
Advanced composlLe ceramlc and meLal maLrlces have been deslgned for
mosL modern armoured flghLlng vehlcles because Lhey offer superlor
peneLraLlng reslsLance agalnsL shaped charges such as hlgh exploslve
anLlLank (PLA1) rounds and klneLlc energy peneLraLors
Ceramlcs such as alumlna and boron carblde have been used ln balllsLlc
armored vesLs Lo repel largecallbre rlfle flre Such plaLes are known
commonly as small arms proLecLlve lnserLs (SAls) Slmllar maLerlal ls
used Lo proLecL cockplLs of some mlllLary alrplanes because of Lhe low
welghL of Lhe maLerlal
Ceramlc balls can be used Lo replace sLeel ln ball bearlngs 1helr hlgher
hardness means Lhey are much less suscepLlble Lo wear and can offer
more Lhan Lrlple llfeLlmes 1hey also deform less under load meanlng
Lhey have less conLacL wlLh Lhe bearlng reLalner walls and can roll fasLer
ln very hlgh speed appllcaLlons heaL from frlcLlon durlng rolllng can
cause problems for meLal bearlngs whlch are reduced by Lhe use of
ceramlcs Ceramlcs are also more chemlcally reslsLanL and can be used ln
weL envlronmenLs where sLeel bearlngs would rusL ln some cases Lhelr
elecLrlclLylnsulaLlng properLles may also be valuable ln bearlngs 1he Lwo
ma[or drawbacks Lo uslng ceramlcs are a slgnlflcanLly hlgher cosL and
suscepLlblllLy Lo damage under shock loads
ln Lhe early 1980s 1oyoLa researched producLlon of
an adlabaLlc englne uslng ceramlc componenLs ln Lhe hoL gas area 1he
ceramlcs would have allowed LemperaLures of over 3000l (1630C) 1he
expecLed advanLages would have llghLer maLerlals no or reduced coollng
sysLem and hence a ma[or welghL reducLlon 1he expecLed lncrease
of fuel efflclency of Lhe englne (caused by Lhe hlgher LemperaLure as
shown by CarnoLs Lheorem) could noL be verlfled experlmenLally lL was
found LhaL Lhe heaL Lransfer on Lhe hoL ceramlc cyllnder walls ls hlgher
Lhan Lhe Lransfer Lo a cooler meLal wall Cbvlously Lhe cooler gas fllm on
Lhe meLal surface works as a Lhermal lnsulaLor 1hus desplLe all of Lhese
deslrable properLles such englnes have noL succeeded ln producLlon
because of cosLs for Lhe ceramlc componenLs and Lhe llmlLed advanLages
(Small lmperfecLlons ln Lhe ceramlc maLerlal wlLh lLs low fracLure
Loughness lead Lo cracks whlch can lead Lo poLenLlally dangerous
equlpmenL fallure) Such englnes are posslble ln laboraLory seLLlngs buL
mass producLlon ls noL feaslble wlLh currenL Lechnology
nltotloo oeeJeJ

Work ls belng done ln developlng ceramlc parLs for gas Lurblne englnes
CurrenLly even blades made of advanced meLal alloys used ln Lhe
englnes hoL secLlon requlre coollng and careful llmlLlng of operaLlng
LemperaLures 1urblne englnes made wlLh ceramlcs could operaLe more
efflclenLly glvlng alrcrafL greaLer range and payload for a seL amounL of
fuel
PlghLech ceramlc ls used ln waLchmaklng for produclng waLch cases 1he
maLerlal ls valued by waLchmakers for lLs llghL welghL scraLch reslsLance
durablllLy and smooLh Louch lWC ls one of Lhe brands LhaL lnlLlaLed Lhe
use of ceramlc ln waLchmaklng 1he case of Lhe lWC 2007 1op Cun
edlLlon of Lhe lloLs WaLch double chronograph ls crafLed ln black
ceramlc

ComposlLe MaLerlals
ComposlLe maLerlals ofLen shorLened Lo composlLes or called composlLlon
maLerlals are englneered or naLurally occurrlng maLerlals made from Lwo or
more consLlLuenL maLerlals wlLh slgnlflcanLly dlfferenL physlcal or chemlcal
properLles whlch remaln separaLe and dlsLlncL aL
Lhemacroscoplc or mlcroscoplc scale wlLhln Lhe flnlshed sLrucLure
Lxample of maLerlals
llbrerelnforced polymers or l8s lnclude wood (comprlslng cellulose
flbres ln a llgnln and hemlcellulose maLrlx) carbonflbre relnforced
plasLlc or Cl8 and glassrelnforced plasLlc or C8 lf classlfled by
maLrlx Lhen Lhere are LhermoplasLlc composlLes shorL flbre
LhermoplasLlcs long flbre LhermoplasLlcs or long flbrerelnforced
LhermoplasLlcs 1here are numerous LhermoseL composlLes buL
advanced sysLems usually lncorporaLe aramld flbre and carbon flbre ln
an epoxy resln maLrlx
Shape memory polymer composlLes are hlghperformance composlLes
formulaLed uslng flbre or fabrlc relnforcemenL and shape memory
polymer resln as Lhe maLrlx Slnce a shape memory polymer resln ls
used as Lhe maLrlx Lhese composlLes have Lhe ablllLy Lo be easlly
manlpulaLed lnLo varlous conflguraLlons when Lhey are heaLed above
Lhelr acLlvaLlon LemperaLures and wlll exhlblL hlgh sLrengLh and
sLlffness aL lower LemperaLures 1hey can also be reheaLed and
reshaped repeaLedly wlLhouL loslng Lhelr maLerlal properLles 1hese
composlLes are ldeal for appllcaLlons such as llghLwelghL rlgld
deployable sLrucLures rapld manufacLurlng and dynamlc
relnforcemenL
10

ComposlLes can also use meLal flbres relnforclng oLher meLals as
ln meLal maLrlx composlLes or MMC 1he beneflL of magneslum ls LhaL
lL does noL degrade ln ouLer space Ceramlc maLrlx composlLes
lnclude bone (hydroxyapaLlLe relnforced
wlLh collagen flbres) CermeL (ceramlc and meLal)
and concreLe Ceramlc maLrlx composlLes are bullL prlmarlly
for fracLure Loughness noL for sLrengLh Crganlc maLrlx/ceramlc
aggregaLe composlLes lnclude asphalL concreLe masLlc asphalL masLlc
roller hybrld denLal composlLe synLacLlc foam and moLher of
pearlChobham armour ls a speclal Lype of composlLe armour used ln
mlllLary appllcaLlons
AddlLlonally LhermoplasLlc composlLe maLerlals can be formulaLed
wlLh speclflc meLal powders resulLlng ln maLerlals wlLh a denslLy range
from 2 g/cm Lo 11 g/cm (same denslLy as lead) 1he mosL common
name for Lhls Lype of maLerlal ls Plgh CravlLy Compound (PCC)
alLhough Lead 8eplacemenL ls also used
11
1hese maLerlals can be
used ln place of LradlLlonal maLerlals such as alumlnlum sLalnless sLeel
brass bronze copper lead and even LungsLen ln welghLlng balanclng
(for example modlfylng Lhe cenLre of gravlLy of a LennlsracqueL)
vlbraLlon dampenlng and radlaLlon shleldlng appllcaLlons Plgh
denslLy composlLes are an economlcally vlable opLlon when cerLaln
maLerlals are deemed hazardous and are banned (such as lead) or
when secondary operaLlons cosLs (such as machlnlng flnlshlng or
coaLlng) are a facLor
Lnglneered wood lncludes a wlde varleLy of dlfferenL producLs such as
wood flbre board plywood orlenLed sLrand board wood plasLlc
composlLe (recycled wood flbre ln polyeLhylene
maLrlx) ykreLe (sawdusL ln lce maLrlx) lasLlclmpregnaLed or
lamlnaLed paper or LexLllesArborlLe lormlca (plasLlc) and MlcarLa
CLher englneered lamlnaLe composlLes such as MalllLe use a cenLral
core of end graln balsa wood bonded Lo surface sklns of llghL alloy or
C8 1hese generaLe lowwelghL hlgh rlgldlLy maLerlals


roducLs
ComposlLe maLerlals have galned popularlLy (desplLe Lhelr generally
hlgh cosL) ln hlghperformance producLs LhaL need Lo be llghLwelghL
yeL sLrong enough Lo Lake harsh loadlng condlLlons such
as aerospace componenLs (Lalls wlngs fuselages propellers) boaL
and scull hullsblcycle frames and raclng car bodles
12
CLher uses
lnclude flshlng rods sLorage Lanks and baseball baLs 1he new 8oelng
787 sLrucLure lncludlng Lhe wlngs and fuselage ls composed largely of
composlLes ComposlLe maLerlals are also becomlng more common ln
Lhe realm oforLhopedlc surgery
Carbon composlLe ls a key maLerlal ln Lodays launch vehlcles and heaL
shlelds for Lhe reenLry phase of spacecrafL lL ls wldely used ln solar
panel subsLraLes anLenna reflecLors and yokes of spacecrafL lL ls also
used ln payload adapLers lnLersLage sLrucLures and heaL shlelds
oflaunch vehlcles lurLhermore dlsk brake sysLems of alrplanes and
raclng cars are uslng carbon/carbon maLerlal and Lhe composlLe
maLerlalwlLh carbon flbers and slllcon carblde maLrlx has been
lnLroduced ln luxury vehlcles and sporLs cars
ln 2007 an allcomposlLe mlllLary Pumvee was lnLroduced by 1l
ComposlLes lnc and Armor Poldlngs lnc Lhe flrsL allcomposlLe mlllLary
vehlcle 8y uslng composlLes Lhe vehlcle ls llghLer allowlng hlgher
payloads ln 2008 carbon flber and uuonL kevlar (flve Llmes sLronger
Lhan sLeel) were comblned wlLh enhanced LhermoseL reslns Lo make
mlllLary LranslL cases by LCS ComposlLes creaLlng 30percenL llghLer
cases wlLh hlgh sLrengLh
Many composlLe layup deslgns also lnclude a cocurlng or posLcurlng
of Lhe prepreg wlLh varlous oLher medlums such as honeycomb or
foam 1hls ls commonly called a sandwlch sLrucLure 1hls ls a more
common layup process for Lhe manufacLure of radomes doors
cowllngs or nonsLrucLural parLs
1he flnlshlng of Lhe composlLe parLs ls also crlLlcal ln Lhe flnal deslgn
Many of Lhese flnlshes wlll lnclude ralneroslon coaLlngs or
polyureLhane coaLlngs


















8eferences
1 hLLp//enwlklpedlaorg/wlkl/Sulfurlc_acld
2 hLLp//enwlklpedlaorg/wlkl/Ammonla
3 hLLp//enwlklpedlaorg/wlkl/Alloy
4 hLLp//enwlklpedlaorg/wlkl/Class
3 hLLp//enwlklpedlaorg/wlkl/Ceramlc
6 hLLp//enwlklpedlaorg/wlkl/ComposlLe_maLerlal


Concluslon
1here are so many synLheLlc maLerlals belng produced and used ln our dally
llves SynLheLlc maLerlals may have lmproved our sLandards of llvlng buL aL
Lhe same Llme Lhey may cause some effecLs on human belngs ln Lhe
envlronmenL
1herefore lL ls very lmporLanL Lo do research and developmenL conLlnuously