Page 1 of 30 Erik Wahlberg PSC 113: Study Guide + Outlines for Quiz #2 (11/4/2011)

Table of Contents
Topic Study Guide from Morgans Recitation Chapter 6: Public Opinion Chapter 7: The Media Chapter 9: Political Parties Chapter 10: Elections, Campaigns, and Voting Page Numbers in Textbook 177-209 211-245 285-317 319-359 Page Numbers in Study Guide 1-2 2-7 7-12 12-20 21-30

Study Guide from Morgans Recitation 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. Occupy Wall Street Aristotles Typology Electoral College Individual Mandate Nicholas Sarkozy Angela Merkel DOMA Leon Panetta Flat tax/Progressive tax Chapter 6: Public Opinion // Focus Questions: p. 178 Public Opinion Efficacy vs Political Trust Scientific polling: Gallup, random sample, representative sample Types of polls: tracking, exit, push Errors in Polling: Question wording, sampling error, etc Roles of Elites: Elite theory How informed is the public regarding political issues? Electorate polarization (Bell curve), Partisanship What impacts a persons political opinion? Chapter 7: The Media // Focus Questions: p. 212 Mass Media Roll of the Free Press Functions of the News Free Press Protections: NYT v Sullivan, Pentagon Papers, Near v MN Prior Restraint Self-selection/selective perception FCC Role of the Media- Descriptive vs Interpretive History of the Press: Partisan, Professional, Television Media Today Infotainment Soft News Minimal vs Not-so-minimal effects Model Blogging, Citizen Journalism, Social Networking How do the media impact the perspectives of voters? Chapter 9: Political Parties // Focus Questions: p.286

Page 2 of 30 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. Types of Primaries Delegates/Superdelegates Evolution of Political Parties 3 Roles of Political Parties Party Caucuses/Primary Elections Frontloading Patronage Party loyalty Third Parties 2-Party System History of Party Reform Civil Service Australian Ballot Progressives Party Alignment/Realignment National Party Conventions Chapter 10: Elections, Campaigns and Voting // Focus Questions: p. 320 Constitutional Requirements of Elections Winner take all system Electoral College the math & the function of the EC Why do we have the Electoral College? Initiatives Referenda Wedge Issues and Negative Politics Why do we traditionally have a low voter turnout during elections? Prediction Models: What factors do the best prediction models consider? 2000 Bush v Gore Presidential Election controversy

Outlines of Chapters 6 / 7 / 9 / 10 Chapter 6: Public Opinion

1. The power of public opinion a. The power of presidential approval i. Approval rating- job performance evaluation for the president, congress, or intuition; generated by public opinion polls and typically reported as percentage ii. Bush had highest- 9/11- 90 percent of the public-nation security- launching campaigns on Iraq 70 percenteventually rating went down to 30 percent from un-favoring Iraq war and hurricane Katrina. iii. Obama had high approval rating at first but sunk because of economic condition and un-popular war Afghanistan. b. What is public opinion i. Recognized for its power and is ever changing, hard to predict, and nearly impossible to control ii. Public opinion- aggregate of individual attitudes or beliefs about certain issues or officials iii. Based on voting, polls, rallies, protests, newspaper editorials, information on day to day conversations. c. The publics support of government i. Efficacy- extent to which people believe their actions can have an impact on public affairs and the actions of government ii. Public trust- extent to which people believe their government acts in their best interests iii. Two common efforts involved in assessing trust in government

Page 3 of 30 1. Believe their participation in the government matters 2. Belief that government acts in their best interest iv. Both are declining 2. Public Opinion polls a. Polls make it possible to gauge the publics thinking on a variety of issues or officials. b. Poll results can be biased, contradictory, and confusing. i. Reason Nate Silvers clear assessments proved so popular during 2008 c. Scientific polling and the growth of survey of survey research i. Straw poll- ballot polls by 19th century newspapers to predict outcome of elections (Jackson elections, Roosevelt election) ii. Random samples- method of selection that gives everyone who might be selected to participate in a poll an equal choice to be included iii. Gallup poll- most well-known and perhaps most respected polling firm in the US founded by George Gallup iv. Scientific polling- method of polling that provides a fairly precise reading of public opinion by using random sampling v. Polls were unhelpful because it was unclear who was being surveyed *Clarification Needed* d. Types of Polls i. Census- constitutionally mandated court of the population every ten years ii. Sample- subset of a population from which information is collected and analyzed to learn more about the population as a whole the norm for an accurate sample size is around one thousand people. iii. Population- group the poll is to represent iv. Representative sample- polling sample that is not biased, in which all members of the population have an equal chance of being included v. Tracking poll- polls that seek to gauge the change of the over a period of time, common during the closing months of the presidential election vi. Exit poll- poll that survey a sample of voters immediately after exiting the voting booth to predict the outcome of the election before the ballots are officially counted (2000 election between bush and gorecontroversy in Florida) vii. Push poll- polls that are designed to manipulate the opinions of those being polled (put in the shift public opinion) viii. Most famous and consequential exit poll 1. Florida during 2000 presidential elections (Gore / Bush) e. Errors in Polls i. Confidence interval- statistical range, with a given probability, that takes a random error into account ii. Sample error- measure of the accuracy of a public opinion poll, reported as a percentage 1. 600 participants = (Sampling Error) 4% iii. Non-attitudes- sources of error in public opinion polls in which individuals feel obliged to give an opinion on something when, in reality, they are unaware of the issue or have no opinion in it. f. The future polls i. Increasing number of Americans that can screen calls is changing public opinion ii. Declining response rate is lessening ability of pollsters to capture public opinion accurately iii. Internet polls represent the future for polling public opinion iv. Response rate- proportion of the public who respond to inquiries from pollsters to do surveys (decline in phones (no more landlines), increase in internet polls)

Page 4 of 30 3. What Drives public opinion a. Social and political environment i. Political attitudes are shaped by the environment ii. Some slight hints genetics may shape political views (Not widely researched) iii. Socialization- impact and influence of ones social environment on the views and attitudes one carries in life, a primary source of political attitudes iv. Independents- individuals who do not affiliate with either of the major political parties b. Generational effects i. Generational effect- effects on ones personal opinions related to the era in which one lives (great depression, 9/11 attack) 1. Major events change an entire generations thinking about politics 2. Need not be limited to life-altering events 3. Millennial seem to be more trusting of government than previous generations, evidence exists also less religious c. Self-Interests and Rationality i. Self-interest- concern for ones own advantage and well-being (as income rises, the chances of someone being a republican rises) ii. Rationality- acting in a way that is consistent with ones self interest (people who have children want more education policy, elderly support social security because there close to retirement) iii. Elites- groups of people who may lead the public opinion, such as journalists, politicians, and the policy makers iv. Elite theory- idea that public opinion is shaped by disclosure among elites and is a top-to-bottom process 1. Massive change in public opinion unlikely 2. Elites ability to change public opinion is product of intensity and consistency of the message 3. Disagreement among elites on an issue will decrease potential to change v. Worry that elites have an higher influence in public opinion, goes against democracy concept that all have equal participation vi. Democrats peruse tax policies that tax the wealthy at a higher rate to pay for social programs that benefit the less wealthy vii. Republicans persuade policies that protect individual wealth 4. The Shape of Public Opinion a. To understand public opinion, one must understand the ways it is shaped by partisanship and ideology b. Partisanship i. Party identification- attachment or allegiance to a political party, partisanship ii. Perceptual lens- ideological framework that shapes the way partisans view the world of political world and process information iii. By knowing party identification, political scientists can predict attitudes on a range of issues iv. Partisanship shapes how an individual thinks about politics v. Many citizens identify as independents but actually behave as partisans vi. Political ideology- sets of consistent political beliefs vii. Liberals-individuals who have faith in the government to improve lives, believing that private effort are insufficient; in the social sphere liberal support diverse lifestyles and tend to oppose and government action that seeks to shape personal choice

Page 5 of 30 viii. Conservative- individuals who distrust government believing that private efforts are more likely to improve peoples lives; in the social sphere conservatives usually support traditional lifestyle and tend to believe government can play a valuable role in shaping personal choice ix. Levels- of conceptualization- measure of how ideologically coherent individuals are in their political evaluations x. View that Americans are mostly independents is false 1. Most independents lean toward one party or the other c. Is the public informed? i. Citizens do not know many details about politics 1. 10% know the name of the speaker of the house ii. Salient-indication of importance and relevance of an issue to an individual iii. Low information rationality- idea that people do not need to have lots of information to make good decisions iv. Although individuals do not know all details about candidates views on all issues, they do know views on issues that are relevant to them v. Public can learn quickly if an issue is salient enough to them and receives attention from the news media vi. Public opinion is more stable than suggested by shifting answers people to give to the same questions just a few months apart vii. Personal decision making is not always based on complete information, so why should political decision making be expected to conform to rational models that scholars use? viii. 1940 Presidential campaign Colombia University Study 1. Most voters made up their minds prior to the campaign 2. Argued low turnout in election might be good thing because uninformed will not be choosing leaders 3. Suggested the public may not be capable of meeting its democratic responsibilities a. Due to not all participants having equal knowledge to represent themselves ix. 5 Findings of optimism for voting U.S. Citizens 1. Public collectively seems to make reasonable choices a. Economy is doing poorly, the party in power suffers 2. Though individuals do not know all details about candidate views on all issues, the know the issues significant to themselves a. Hunters know candidates views on gun control 3. Public can learn quickly if an issue is important to them and receives attention from news media a. Following 9/11 public understood need for giving up some civil liberties to ensure security 4. Public opinion is more stable than suggested a. Polls do not speak to poorly informed public, but the polls are what are at fault 5. Personal decision making is not always based on complete information, so political decisions are expected to reflect the same a. Low information rationality (Definition) d. Is the public polarized? i. Public has polarized along with parties ii. Polarized- condition in which differences between parties and/or the public are so stark that disagreement breaks out, fueling attacks and controversy iii. Depolarization- political system in which parties adopt the same positions on issues and choice is limited, leading citizens to feel less compelled to participate in elections

Page 6 of 30 iv. Responsible parties- parties that take responsibility for offering the electorate a clear and distinct range of policies and programs, thus providing a clear choice v. Some worry that one effect of polarization will be more personal attacks on political figures and greater discourse in politics vi. Others argue that increasing polarization indicates people care more about who wins election and that interest in elections has increased 5. Group Differences a. Socioeconomic status i. Socioeconomic status- combined measures of occupation, education, income, wealth, and relative social standing or lifestyle (people with low S.E.S. tend to be for more social programs while people with high S.E.S. tend to not as much) 1. Strong difference in opinion among different income groups is that political parties have class bias ii. Reagan democrats- voters traditionally affiliated with democratic party based on their working-class status but who defected in the 1980s to vote for Ronald Reagan because of his conservative message on social issues, a strong national security, and limited government (support working class, conservative social agenda, decreased role in govt) b. Age i. Younger people are more liberal while older people are more conservative ii. Evidence that people tend to become more conservative as they age c. Religion i. Protestants favor conservatives more than Catholics or Jews. Muslims tend to be more liberal except for social issues d. Gender i. Gender gap- differences in the political attitudes and behavior of men and women ii. Women favor democrats while men favor more republicans iii. Women favor more spending on social programs than men iv. Men much more likely to support death penalty than woman e. Race and Ethnicity i. Affirmative action- policies that grant racial or gender preferences in hiring, education, or contracting f. Education i. Important changes in American population is increasing level of education ii. Generational Replacement- Older less-educated citizens have passed on thus increasing the average level of education of Americans public iii. Long standing belief that democracy is best able to endure when its citizens are engaged and informed g. Military Action i. Rally around the flag effect- surge of public support for president in times of international crisis ii. Congress officially declared war 5 times iii. Public influence on president decision to engage in military action always limited because the amount of information available to public is purposely restricted 1. People cannot hold the government fully accountable if they are not fully informed iv. Fundamental problem is that once U.S. is in war, public can do little to effectively change military strategy or troop levels h. Anti-terrorism Measures i. New Yorker magazine broke story about Abu Ghraib facility in Iraq 1. Where Iraqi prisoners were subject to torture

Page 7 of 30 ii. Bush administration authorized detaining of suspects, whether U.S. citizens or not, without charges or trials, and wiretapping without a warrant iii. President also struggling with closing Guantanamo Bay facility iv. If it can be shown government action saved American lives by uncovering/preventing terrorist attack through harsh interrogation techniques, then the public will support them; otherwise the public will want to limit them. 6. Public Opinion and Democracy a. Public must be sufficiently well informed to make good decisions and ensure politicians act according to public preferences b. Avg. Americans do not know many details, but nations many successes indicate public is equal to the task of self-government c. Although clear public officials are generally responsive to public opinion, debate on how responsive American Government actually is i. Some suggest connection between opinion and policy are weak ii. Others state public has mixed feelings on many issues and does not have concrete opinions on the toughest questions, so we offer little guidance d. In democracy politicians know issues public will respond to and rebel to, so they adopt views that will not anger electorate i. Politicians are aware of latent public opinion

Chapter 7: The News Media and the Internet

I. The News a. What are the Mass Media? i. Mass media- all news sources including the newspapers, television, and radio. 1. The vast array of sources of information available to the public ii. News media- subset of the mass media that provides the news of the day reported by journalists. iii. With all new technology of the 21st century, news media is changing since average citizen is able to report on politics through blogs & websites iv. Press- another term for new media or journalist v. Millennial- generation born between 1983-2003 1. Grew up with a 24/7 news cycle, information of our world very different than before 24/7 news cycle. vi. Watchdog- role of the press in monitoring government actions vii. For press to do their job journalists must feel free to citizen the government 1. First amendment protects this right Functions of the news a. Inform i. The press and media provides a wide range of information to the public b. Investigating i. News researching to reveal information. (uncover illegal things politician have done) ii. Allows press to serve as watchdogs c. Interpreting i. Gives the media power to tell what they think is the important part of the story and leave certain things out. Law and the free press

II.

III.

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IV.

a. First amendment protects freedom of press, but not entirely i. During times or threats of war, national security concerns may require the press not publish a story b. Prior restraints- Gov. restrictions on freedom of the press i. Conflict between Gov. wish for secrecy and press willingness to report a controversial story c. Near v. Minnesota- supreme court declares that Gov. cannot prevent news from printing except in extraordinary cases. d. Libel- publishing false and demeaning statements about another e. NY times vs. Sullivan (1964)- Supreme Court case that ruled that proof of actual malice is needed to convict a law suit i. Set a very high standard proof of actual malice f. Pentagon Papers Case- Supreme Court permitted the publication of classified papers on the Vietnam War. i. Landmark modern case on the freedom of the press ii. NTY secured a copy of top secret Department of Defense analysis detailing U.S. involvement in Vietnam, began publishing in the belief that the info contradicted official statements and that it was essential for the public to understand the governments policy. iii. Court rejected governments argument that national security took precedence over the right to publish documents embarrassing to the government. iv. In general court gives preference to the press in the belief that in the long run it is better to inform the public and hold elected officials accountable g. Few laws that constrain print media, but electronic media is heavily regulated by the government h. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) - executive branch in charge of regulating and overseeing radio, TV, and electronic broadcasting. i. Monitors media ownership as well ii. Telecommunications Act of 1996 eased rules concerning multiple ownership of news media groups 1. Resulted in greater trend towards greater concentration of media ownership iii. Without competition the press will become lapdogs, not watchdogs History of American Press a. The Colonial Era (1620-1750)- newspapers were not widely available i. Colonial governments feared harsh criticism would incite the public and create instability b. The Founding era (1750-1790)i. Tension between colonies and Britain increase, interest in politics grew as well ii. Federalist v.s. Antifederalist public conflict iii. Federalist Papers- series of published essays written by founding fathers that were for ratifying the constitution. c. The Partisan Era (1790-1900)- after the adoption of the constitution i. Most newspapers allied with the federalists or newly emerging Jeffersonian party ii. Sedition act (1798) - made it illegal to print anything bad about the government. Revoked soon after. iii. Penny press- newspaper for cheap 1. Newspapers owners realize they could make higher profits through circulation and advertising than as arms of political parties 2. Partisanship actually drove customers away who did not share their political views

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V.

3. To increase circulation, newspapers begun to move towards sensationalism, printing news of crimes and scandals and stories about personalities much like tabloids do iv. Yellow journalism- distorting the facts to mislead the public d. The Professional Era (1900-1950) - Made journalism a large profession. High circulation of papers. i. Development of mass circulation also led journalism to develop into a serious profession with an ethic of objective reporting ii. Public-spirited press increased efforts to investigate wrongdoings in government, business, and industry iii. Muckraking- journalistic practice of investigative reporting to uncover corruption. 1. Gave politicians additional reason to peruse good public policy: to avoid bad press iv. Goal of being impartial and unbiased in reporting became part of the journalists creed v. New key goal became to get the scoop 1. The Scoop- Expression for journalists goal of breaking a new story, providing original and important information to the public 2. Begun seeking to cultivate politicians for access to news and stories a. Led to a different dynamic between politicians press i. Both sides knew they needed each other 3. Increased politician and press relationship led to an increased potential for conflicts of interest a. Off the Record- Information a journalist acquires from interview, not intended for publication, can still be useful in setting a context for important news reports. e. The Television Era (1950-2000)- three major networks (ABC CBS NBC) i. Soft news- Colbert report, Daily Show, SNL ii. Blogs iii. Social networking The Mass Media in the Twenty-First Century a. Impact of T.V. changed further with the rise of cable T.V. b. Advances in technology opened up additional avenues of communication c. The Changing Media Environment i. Media environment- Structure and design of media through which people obtain information about politics or other current events 1. Two main lessons a. Americans adopt new media quickly i. Ex. 1] Radios in homes dramatically increased b. There are more options for news than ever before i. Radio -> T.V. -> Internet d. The Decline of Newspapers i. Hard News- News coverage found in printed press, more fact based, opposed to interpretive narratives and commentary ii. Will the decline of newspapers deprive Americans of hard news, of facts they need to hold government accountable? e. The Durability of Radio i. Radio remains important

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ii. Political Talk Radio- Media format dominated by conservative commentators that has become vital gateway in disseminating political issues and events to millions f. The Transformation of TV News i. Shrinking audience for network evening news ii. Generates concern about how well informed the public is about politics g. Infotainment i. Infotainment- Sources of news geared towards a less politically attentive audience, offering less substantive and more entertaining coverage than hard news ii. Soft News- News focused less on facts/policies than on sensationalizing secondary issues or less serious subjects of the entertainment world h. Blogs- a website that provides a forum for bottom-up commentary i. Average citizens able to express their opinions to a wider audience ii. Have potential to spread false information iii. Blogging symbolizes the modern transformation of the mass media iv. They foster participation, but not deliberation 1. Liberals read liberal blogs // Conservatives read conservative blogs v. Citizen Journalist- Individuals with no formal journalistic training and independent of news organizations. Play an active role in reporting the news or commentating on current events i. Social Networking i. Politicians begun using social networks to reach out to population j. The News and the Millennials i. Change in media environment do not affect all citizens equally ii. Millennials appear more interested in politics at this point than previous generations The Impact of the News Media on the Public a. News media makes decisions about what to cover, what not to cover, and how to cover it b. The Propaganda Model- Extreme view of medias role in society, arguing that press only serve the interest of the government, driving what the public thinks about important issues i. By holding monopoly of information, government can easily marshal public support c. The Minimal effect model- View of the medias impact as marginal, since most people seek new reports to reinforce beliefs already held rather than to develop new ones i. People use media to reinforce beliefs they already had. ii. Public does not have info about politics, attitudes were shaped by long-standing forces like partisanship or neighborhood one lives in iii. Selective Exposure- Process where people secure information from sources that agree with them, thus reinforcing their beliefs iv. Selective Perception- Process where partisans interpret the same information differently v. Partisanship involves a perceptual lens (Chapter 6) d. Not so minimal effect model- View of the medias impact as substantial, occurring by agenda setting, framing, and priming
i. Begun dominating PSC for 40 years, then starting in 1970s begun to reassess (P. 231)

ii. Agenda setting- ability for media to impact how people view issues iii. Priming- the media influences how public views politicians by emphasizing criteria that make them good or bad.

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VIII.

1. Can alter the criteria that citizens use when evaluating political leaders, primarily affecting the vote iv. Framing- Media influences public perception of issues by constructing the issue or discussion of a subject in a certain way. 1. Amos Tversky & Daniel Kahneman Experiment a. If program A adopted 200 people saved // program B adopted 1/3 possibility 600 people saved and 2/3 probability no one saved i. 72% favored A // 28% Favored B b. If program C adopted 400 people die // program D adopted 1/3 probability nobody dies, and 2/3rd probability 600 people die i. 22% favor C // 78% favor D c. Programs A and C yield the exact same policy outcome, the only difference is that description of program A stresses saving people, while the description of program C stresses the deaths of people d. Demonstrates power of framing, that public react to news event/policy depends on how its presented Evaluating the News Media a. 2 General concerns i. Media is biased and not presenting objective information ii. Focuses on the general quality of information available to the public iii. Public faith in the press has declined iv. Are the Media Biased? 1. Given that even in selecting what stories to cover the press influences public opinion, bias may be inevitable 2. For many years conservative commentators claim that news media is liberal a. Partisan loyalties drive the liberal bias b. Quality of Information i. Concern that people getting less hard news and searching for more soft news ii. Sound Bites- Brief snippets of info that stress short, catchy statements over substantive analysis. 1. Fear that this undermines the quality of information c. Implications of the Internet i. Evidence arrival of internet has not changed overall amount of information the public possesses, but also stress that internet not equally available to all Americans ii. Those with internet access much better informed than those without d. Implications of Media Choice i. Efforts to make political news more interesting may further softening of news ii. Though Americans have access to vast amount of information, this does not mean public as a whole is well informed iii. Media choices will further fuel polarization The Mass Media and Public Policy: Censorship a. Obscene Content in Broadcast Media i. FCC v. Pacifica Foundation (1978) - established FCC has legal authority to fine any media outlet that knowingly allows expression of obscene content, under certain circumstances.

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1. Underlying question was if the First Amendment inhibits the power of the government to restrict the public broadcast of indecent language under any circumstance ii. FCC v. Fox Television Stations1. One broadcast used similar language that was fleeting and not seriously harmful, second broadcast used different more vulgar language 2. Ruled FCC only needed to prove that its new policy was justifiable and reasonable 3. Broadcast outlets taken to bleeping or buzzing over words that may be harmful iii. CBS Inc. v. FCC 1. Incident halftime show for 2004 super bowl [Janet Jackson] 2. FCC fined, CBS challenged saying FCC changed policy on indecent images without notifying CBS and other broadcasting networks iv. These 3 cases exert a significant impact on the way government restricts expression of speech and visual images through the media b. Safety, Social Networking, and the Internet i. Due to speed technology evolves, it is harder to keep internet safe for users ii. Supreme court has repeatedly ruled that using broad or vague language to create blanket restrictions jeopardizes the right to free speech guaranteed by the First Amendment The Mass Media and Democracy a. Nearly all public movements/statements of political figures can be recorded, as a result politicians have a tougher time ducking responsibility b. Bubble- state of politicians being sheltered from the public scrutiny and uncontrolled situations c. Politicians build staffs and organizations designed to keep them from making mistakes and from interacting with journalists and citizens d. Changes in the news media also led to decline of # professional journalists covering politics e. Worry about medias ability to advance democratic government comes from those who favor topdown approach f. Those who see merit and appeal in a bottom-up approach, these changes seem far less troubling

Chapter 9: Political Parties

I. The role of political parties in American democracy a. What are political parties i. Political parties- broad coalitions of individuals who organize to win elections in order to enact a commonly supported set of public policies ii. Party platform- document that lays out a partys core beliefs and policy proposal for each presidential election iii. At national level, party issues its platform during presidential election year iv. From time to time candidates may disagree with elements of the partys platform v. Using party labels as a shortcut for the party platform, voters can hold the elected officials accountable for their policy successes, and blame them for policy failures vi. Party in the electorate- percentage of voters who are likely to choose a partys candidates in an election

Page 13 of 30 vii. Party in government-members of government who share the same party affiliation and work together to accomplish and work together to accomplish the partys electoral and policy goals viii. Party as an organizer- internal structure of a political party at the city, county, state or federal level b. What do political parties do? i. Parties in the electorate 1. Party identifications- attachment or allegiance to a political party; partisanship 2. Voters identify with parties for several reasons a. Belief that the policies put fourth be one party will serve their interests better than policies proposed by other parties b. Family or social environments, in which being a member of a party is similar to other personal characteristics 3. Voter registration-enrollment required prior to voting to established eligibility ii. Parties in Government 1. Party caucus- group of party members in a legislature iii. Party organization 1. National committee- top level of nation political parties; coordinates national presidential campaigns a. Responsible for running their partys presidential nominating convention every 4 years b. Main job to do everything possible to elect the partys presidential nominee every 4 years 2. Incumbent- occupant of elected office 3. State central committee- top level of state political parties; help recruit and raise money for statewide candidates and drafts state party policies a. Also works /w local organizations to recruit new voters and raise money 4. Local party organizations- first level of political parties; recruits candidates for lower level elected office, registers voters and ensures they get to the polls on election day c. The party nomination process i. Each party must nominate candidates for office and then elect them in a two stage process 1. Primary elections elections in which voters select candidates who will run on the party label in the general election; also called direct primary a. Runoff election- election held after initial primary in which voters select from the top two primary candidates, guaranteeing a candidates nominated by majority vote 2. General election- election in which voters choose their elected officials ii. Primaries 1. Important way that each voter can have equal voice in nominating his/her party candidate 2. Closed primary- primary election in which the voter must affiliate with a party before casting a vote 3. Semi closed primary- primary election in which party-affiliated voters cast votes and nonaffiliated voters can choose which partys primary to vote on 4. Open primary- primary election in which voters do not have to affiliate with a party before voting a. Voters are given ballots with each partys list of candidates and can choose which they want but are restricted to voting for only one I. Ballot- list of candidates who are running for elected office, used by voters to make their choices 5. Elections are a fact of political life, but also create competition within a political party and encourage candidates to reveal negative aspects of each others professional/personal lives

Page 14 of 30 6. Party organizations always want the candidate most likely to win presidency to be nominated under the party banner. They accomplish this by trying to exert control over the primary election process in several ways a. State laws govern ballot access b. Party controls the gate by determining how open or restrictive ballot access is for candidates seeking to run for office on the party label c. The can steer donors toward their preferred candidates, and away from candidates who do not agree with their goals iii. The presidential nomination 1. Evolved from one concentrated in hands of small group of elites to modern process which allows millions of voters to participate directly 2. Voters cast vote for particular candidate but are really choosing delegates who will support that nominee at the partys national nominating convention 3. Delegates- individuals selected by party voters in a primary or caucus election who is committed to supporting a particular presidential nominee at the parties national nominating convention 4. Presidential party caucus- meeting of party members in town halls, schools and even private homes to choose a presidential party nominee a. Less formal and more personal in that party members meet in town halls, schools, and even private homes to choose a nominee 5. Each state awarded # delegates to the convention by the national party organization based on # Electoral college votes the stat has and also the size of the party support in that state 6. Candidate who wins majority of delegates from primary and caucus elections is selected at the national convention as the partys nominee for president 7. Democrats and Republicans allocate delegates within their primaries/causes differently 8. How Democrats allocate delegates within their primary / causes a. Democratic has a more disorderly process b. Specifically object to the use of the unit rule, or winner-take-all system I. Winner take all system- electoral system in which whoever wins the most votes in an election wins the election II. Believed the unit rule allowed white conservative men to dominate the nominating process c. In response to this grassroots movement, Democrats formed the McGovern-Fraser Commission I. Mcgovern-fraser commission- democratic party commission whose reforms of the partys presidential nominating system increased access by underrepresented groups 1. Recommended changes in the way that delegates were chosen and awarded to candidates during the primary season d. Democratic party instituted requirements that states delegations accurately reflect the distribution of preferences for presidential candidates in the state I. For 1978 election Democrats formally instituted proportional representation 1. Proportional representation- electoral system that assigns multiple seats to a geographic district according to the proportion of votes a political party receives in an election

Page 15 of 30 a. # Delegates that a candidate receives is based on the % of the vote received in the primary or caucus, either at the state level or in each congressional district. e. In 1981 Democratic party required each states delegation be composed of an = # of men and women, creating a category of delegates known as superdelegates I. Super delegates- democratic party delegates who have a vote at the national nominating convention on the basis of party status or position in government and are free to support the presidential nominee of their choice II. Not chosen through primary voting process, rather are invited to convention since active members of the party who will be instrumental in turning out party voters in the general election III. Most superdelegates are elected officials in the party IV. Uncommitted and free to choose whomever they wish to support at the convention 9. How Democrats allocate delegates within their primary / caucuses a. Rarely faced internal demand for more diverse representation, so it has not significantly changed b. August of 2010 Republican National Committee approved a plan which award some delegates on a proportional basis I. In the past with winner-take-all system, Republican party tended to resolve nomination process more quickly than Democrats c. Shorter nomination process gave republicans advantage in general election since nominee could develop his strategy far sooner than the Democratic nominee 10. The two earliest presidential contests have been in the New Hampshire primary and the Iowa caucus a. Even though small, since first 2 presidential contests for each major party makes them disproportionately influential in generating publicity and momentum for the winners b. Front-loading- holding many primaries simultaneously early in the year I. Creates imbalance of influence across state in determining the partys nominee Dynamics of early political parties a. Parties not originally intended to be a part of the political system i. Emerged from disagreements among the framers b. Political factions: Federalists and anti-federalists i. Factions- defined by madison as any group that places its own interests above the aggregate interests of society 1. Recognized these are a natural outgrowth of different interests among citizens and little government could do to stop them without denying important civil liberties 2. Emerged before the constitution was adopted ii. Federalists- Initially those supported the constitution during the period of ratification; later, the name of the political party established by supporters of Alexander Hamilton 1. Stable federal government that could collect tax revenue, fund and regulate a national army, regulate foreign and domestic trade, and stabilize currency would make American democratic experiment a success iii. Anti-federalists- those who opposed the new proposed constitution during the ratification period 1. Viewed the future of the Us as a loosely affiliated but sovereign states that governed themselves, managing their own tax policies and internal security

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Page 16 of 30 2. Just fought a war to overturn a monarch and did not want to put themselves under the rule of an oppressive new centralized government that would govern from top down iv. Federalist viewpoint triumph v. Washington worries opposing views could lead to organized political parties that would cause conflict in the new nation c. Thomas Jefferson, Andrew Jackson and the emergence of the democratic party i. Jefferson won election of 1800 and marked beginning of established partisan politics 1. Used victory to his political party into a viable long-term organization known as the DemocraticRepublicans (Republicans) a. Democratic republicans- political party formed by Thomas Jefferson to oppose strong central government policies of the federalists (dominated for 28 years- Jefferson, James, Madison, Monroe, Quincy Adams) ii. Democratic-Republicans grew divided which was led by Andrew Jackson 1. He wanted to take party to a new level of inclusiveness and use that wider reach to become president iii. Politics had changed in fundamental ways because of the nations rapid geographic and population growth 1. Jackson-led Democrats emerged as large Grassroot majority political party and he used all powers of presidency to strengthen his political party around the country iv. Anti-Jackson wing of the old Democratic-Republican had taken the name of the National Republicans 1. Henry Clay lost election but joined senate and started laying groundwork for new political party that would oppose Jacksons policies 2. Encouraged members of National Republicans to join forces with others who opposed Jackson to from the Whig Party a. Whig party- political party formed to oppose the Jackson democrats I. Whig Party- Objected to Jacksons abuse of presidential power for partisan gains v. Emergence of slavery shook up the party balance once again d. The anti-slavery movement and the formation of the republican party i. Democratic party strategy for opening up larger gateway for citizen participation inadvertently encouraged alternate groups and political parties to emerge ii. William Lloyd Garrison- white journalist who formed the American Anti-Slavery Society 1. Frederick Douglass- African American who began organizing free blacks in the north for the same purpose iii. Over time groups that opposed slavery combined under the abolitionist movement 1. Abolitionist movement- grassroots movement to abolish slavery 2. Not political party per se, but grew large and vocal enough to pressure Democrats and Whigs to take a formal position on slavery, especially the extension of slavery into western territories iv. Third parties-minor political parties that present a third alternative to the two dominant political parties in the American political system 1. Typically focus on a single issue, but frequently are absorbed into a larger coalition of groups v. Republicans opposed slavery which was formed into newest political parties and democrats were proslavery vi. Review top right of p. 299 in textbook for explanation on how Democrats and Republicans finally became nations 2 major political parties e. Party loyalty and patronage

Page 17 of 30 i. Jacksonian era provided many opportunities to bring the federal government into the state and local arena by building the forts, post roads, customhouses, and lighthouses. ii. Patronage system- political system in which government programs and benefits are awarded based on political loyalty to a party or politician iii. Party boss- party organization leader who controlled the distribution of public funds by rewarding party supporters and punishing party opponents iv. Key element in this system was the loyalty of supporters, who on election day voted for the bosss preferred set of candidates 1. Voter support so reliable and predictable it became known as Machine Politics a. Machine politics- party organization dominated by a boss who controlled the distribution of public jobs and commanded groups of voters to support his preferred candidates f. Reform and the erosion of party control i. Critical factor in success of machine politics was party control of voting ii. Many places, party officials counted the votes, further manipulating the voting process to their advantage iii. 3 Developments in the late 19th and early 20th century eroded party organizations control over government jobs and elections 1. Creation of a merit-based system of government employment 2. Introduction of ballot reforms 3. A change in the way nominees for elected office were selected 4. All 3 reforms led by Progressives iv. Progressives- coalitions of democrats and republicans who believed that government has been captured by corrupt elites who were using government resources to enrich themselves rather than the citizen v. Civil service- system of employment in the federal bureaucracy under which employees are chosen and promoted based on merit 1. Pendleton Act of 1883 reformed the civil service by requiring that government jobs be fulfilled based on merit, not political connections vi. Australian ballot- voting system in which state government run elections and provide voters the option of choosing candidates from multiple parties; also called the secret ballot 1. Parties print the ballots and give to voters, who put them in the ballot box, no privacy and party officials monitored citizens votes 2. Each ballot lists all candidates, from all parties running for office and voters marked their choice in private 3. Additionally poll watchers and ballot counters were expected to perform their tasks without favoring any specific party and without intimidating voters 4. This reform greatly reduced party boss control over election outcomes vii. Progressives launched Grassroot campaigns for direct primaries, run by the state, as a means of nominating party candidates 1. Primaries replaced the practice of nominating candidates in local and state party conventions 2. Direct primaries opened up party nomination system to voters generally 3. Effect of direct primaries was to greatly reduce control party bosses and machines had over choices offered in elections The Effects of a Two-Party System a. Following civil war party divisions ran largely along geographic lines i. Republicans dominant in Northeast and West ii. Democrats dominate in the South and increasingly in the nations largest cities

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Page 18 of 30 b. Limited political choice i. Anthony Downs 1. Argued that voters whose views fall between the two parties were actually represented in a twoparty system 2. Median voter theorem- theory that if voters select candidates on the basis of ideology and everyone participates equally, then in a two party race the party closer to the middle will win 3. Candidates seek to attract a majority of votes, and because most voters fall in the middle of the ideological spectrum, both parties move toward a comprise 4. This is how moderates have political influence in a two-party system a. Moderates- ideological viewpoints that falls between liberal and conservative, can be associated with democrats and republicans and does not hold consistently strong ideas about whether government should be involved in peoples lives 5. Current two-party system contradicts Downs expectations about convergence to the middle ii. Maurice Duverger 1. Single member plurality system- electoral system that assigns one seat in a legislative body to represent citizens who live in a defined area (a district) based on which candidate wings the most votes a. To win that seat, candidate needs only a plurality of votes, not a pure majority I. Plurality- Vote in which the winner needs to win more votes than any other candidate II. Majority- Vote in which the winner needs to win 50% +1 of the votes cast b. Since only one seat, voters become accustomed to choosing between candidates from the two major parties iii. The two-party system works to transfer the battleground from between parties to within parties c. The Role of Third Parties i. Formed when two parties in the system dont offer policy proposal that a significant number of voters want to see enacted, third parties are formed ii. Two-Party system stands as a gate that blocks the emergence of alternative viewpoints and reduces the choices available to voters in terms of perspectives on how to govern iii. When 2 parties together do not offer policy proposals that a significant # of voters want to see enacted, third parties form 1. No third parties have been able to build a sustained organization over time d. Obstacles to third parties and independents i. Are discouraged by two main parties-they act as spoilers-independents ii. Democrats / Republicans controlled state legislature and Congress for so long they have successfully structured electoral laws to favor a 2 party system over a multiple-party system 1. Ex. 1] If candidate is third party or an Independent, state laws typically require thousands of signatures to get that candidate on the ballot, and the names and addresses of the signers have to be exactly right or the signature will not count a. State and local political parties frequently challenge the signatures on ballot petitions in court to try to get them invalidated b. They also do not have nearly as much resources iii. Independent- voter or candidate who is not affiliated with a political party e. Challenges to Party Power from Interest Groups i. In addition to third parties, the two major parties also face challenges from established interest groups and from broader social groups

Page 19 of 30 ii. Interest groups and social groups exploit weaknesses of major parties and third parties iii. Important in politics because they are responsive to the policy concerns of voters generally even if they are not members iv. Over time interest/social movement groups have become more tightly aligned with specific political parties, which has undermined their capacity to serve as independent checks or competitors with political parties Party Alignment and Ideology- Voter identification with a political party in repeated elections a. Shifts in party allegiance can occur when public attitudes chance considerably as one party appears to respond more quickly to those changes than another b. The Parties after the Civil War i. Parties generally stayed the same except after great depression which brought turmoil and trouble to republican party-citizens wanted a change through a new political leader and a new approach to government itself c. The New Deal and the Role of Ideology in Party Policies i. Political ideology- set of consistent political views about the way the federal government could work ii. New deal- FDRs program for ending the great depression through government intervention in the economy and set a safety net programs for workers 1. Designed to help individuals who were jobless, homeless, or in financial need 2. Essentially a promise by the federal government to provide a safety net for workers who fell on hard times iii. Voters came to accept the view that government involvement in the economic aspect of individuals lives was legitimate and, on balance, a good thing 1. Perspective on government serves as the foundation for liberals a. Liberal- faith in Gov. to improve peoples lives. Private efforts insufficient. In social sphere support diverse lifestyle and oppose any government action that seeks to shape personal choice iv. Those who opposed the New Deal became the forefathers of modern conservative 1. Conservative- Distrusts government, believe private efforts more likely to improve peoples lives. In social sphere support traditional lifestyles and believe government can play valuable role in shaping personal choices v. Republicans seized main weakness of New Deal which was the high cost of all the newly created programs vi. Aftermath of 1932 led to transformation of two parties 1. Almost as if they switched places 2. Democrat changed from a party that believed in states rights, low taxes, and little government intervention in individuals lives to a party that created a large social safety net that relied on federal government to ensure personal economic stability 3. Republicans changed from a party that believed in a strong central federal government and in intervention in the economy when necessary to a party of a strictly limited federal government and fiscal responsibility 4. Modern liberals/Conservatives also differ on social issues vii. Voters responded to the partisan/ideological changes by changing their own party allegiances over time, a term known as Realignment 1. Realignment- long-term shift in voter allegiance from one party to another viii. Democrats today support expanding size of government to accomplish specific policy goals, even if it means raising taxes, as well as supporting liberal social views

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Page 20 of 30 ix. Republicans today support limiting the size of government by keeping taxation and regulation of the economy to a minimum as well as preserving conservative social values x. Majority of voters today reluctant to identify themselves conclusively with either party, which suggests an alternative to realignment known as Dealignment 1. Dealignment- a reluctance by voter to identify themselves with either party, often accompanied by increased split ticket voting a. Split Ticket Voting- Practice of voting for candidates from different parties for different elected officials in a single election 2. This situation means parties are too extreme in their beliefs for most voters or are polarized d. The Modern Partisan Landscape i. Result of the 2008 elections may be sign that party landscape is shifting ii. When voters give one party control of white house and Congress they have high expectations for strong government track record, a term defined by responsible parties 1. Responsible Parties- Parties that offer the electorate a clear and distinct range of policies and programs, thus providing voters a mean for holding the party in government accountable for policy outcomes iii. Recently, parties have taken on starker opposing positions and ramped up the rhetoric to the point that it is difficult form members of opposing parties to communicate at all iv. Current partisanship has reduced incentive for the parties to cooperate and solve problems, resulting in a less responsive government to overall public needs Political Parties and Public Policy: The Environment a. Party Platforms in Environmental Policy i. Democratic party centered on creating green jobs and renewable energy sources and on reducing greenhouse emissions ii. Republican Party focused on promoting clean and reliable sources of energy, funding an energy trust fund, and increasing emphasis on energy conservation and efficiency iii. President Obama proposed the cap and trade bill (H.R. 2454) which establishes system where government establishes maximum amount of carbon emission for entire country, with goal of reducing these emissions 17% by 2020 1. Within maximum, each company can buy, sell, and trade permits with each other if they expect their emissions to exceed or fall below expectations 2. Passed the House of Representatives 3. Republicans argued higher cost for consumers, potential job loss as companies cut back on hiring, real decrease in carbon emission would take too long to accomplish at too great a cost. b. Competing Constituent and Interest Group Pressures i. Party line vote- voting in congress according to party position, so that a majority of one party votes against a majority of the other party ii. Members of both parties crossed political aisle to vote against their partys official position Political Parties and Democracy a. Political parties determine the choices voters have at the polls by crafting the laws that allow candidates to be on the ballot and overseeing the primaries that allow voters to choose candidates

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Chapter 10- Elections, Campaigns, and Voting

I. The Constitutional Requirements for Elections a. Constitution nearly silent on rules about voting in elections, leaving such choices to the states b. Electoral College- 538 presidential electors to represent the voters in respective states i. Consequences of delegation of authority is to create a system of voting that is very complicated, because state rules vary ii. Differing rules also lead to inequalities among states c. Framers wanted to set up barriers against a direct democracy d. Presidential Elections i. 3 Fundamental themes guided the Framers thinking 1. State given broad discretion on key matters regarding presidential elections to ensure the importance and to counterbalance the power of the national government 2. Framers designed presidency with George Washing in mind and did not spell out in great detail all aspects of the presidency, including elections 3. Doing what was right for the nation as opposed to supporting one faction over another a. Assumption went awry early on, as parties formed almost from the start ii. The Electoral College 1. Formal selection of president is in hands of electors who collectively constitute the Electoral College 2. Selection of electors originally the responsibility of state legislature a. Gave public an indirect say in the choice 3. Today the people of each state choose the electors in an arrangement that has given citizens a new gateway for influence 4. Party lines up electors for its candidates prior to the election 5. Each state receives # electoral votes = to number senators and members in house of reps a. Minimum is 3 b. California has most electoral votes /w 55 6. All electoral votes in a state are allocated to the candidate who finishes first in the voting 7. To win presidency candidate needs majority (270) of the 538 electoral votes a. 435 Representatives + 100 Senators + 3 District of Colombia = 538 8. If no one wins majority of electoral votes, election is thrown into House of Representatives a. Each state gets 1 vote and candidate with majority wins iii. Problems with the Electoral College and Reform 1. Electoral college has never worked as Framers envisioned 2. Difficulties with this gate to direct democracy: a. States were free to set their own rules for selecting electors, as a consequence states rules for selecting electors and the timetable for selection vary widely b. When winning the nations popular vote does not automatically translate to a win in electoral college i. Individual who receives fewer votes could become president ii. Popular Vote- Tally of total votes from individual citizens, as opposed to electoral vote 3. Advantages of Electoral College a. Encourage candidates to secure support in all corners of the country, not just areas with dense population b. Eliminating electoral college would decrease role of the states, dampening significance of state interests

Page 22 of 30 iv. The Controversy Surrounding the 2000 Presidential Election 1. Popular vote, Gore received ~600,000 votes than bush 2. Neither bush nor Gore had majority in the electoral college a. Bush led Florida by 537 out of 5.8 million votes (.0001 % Difference) 3. Citizens across country lost faith in American elections after multiple recounts 4. Supreme court stated the machinery of running elections is a state question that should not involve federal courts e. Congressional Election i. Senate intended by the framers to bring state interest to bear on the legislative process, while white house was intended to represent the people ii. Senate Elections 1. Constitution originally gave the choice of senators to state legislature 2. Adoption of 17th amendment changed this iii. House Elections and Redistricting 1. House members always been elected directly by the people 2. State legislature responsible for drawing district lines, a process known as redistricting a. Redistricting- State legislature redraw boundaries of congressional districts in the state to make them equal in population size b. Used as a tool to achieve greater minority representation in the House of Representatives c. Current guidelines on redistricting call for the consideration of race in drawing district lines, but not to that extreme it has been employed in the past 3. Poiticalization of drawing districts is called gerrymandering a. Gerrymandering- redistricting that blatantly benefits one political party f. Other Elections i. Some states voters cast ballots on specific policies through initiatives and referenda 1. Initiatives- Process which citizens place proposed law on the ballot for public approval 2. Referendum- Process which public approval is required before a state can pass laws The Presidential Campaign and Issues a. The decision to Run and the Invisible Primary i. When candidate decides to run for president, he/she must enter the invisible primary 1. Invisible primary- Period just before the primaries begin which candidates attempt to capture party support and media coverage ii. Party insiders- candidates with deep ties to party leaders and views that agree with political viewpoints of party leadership b. The Caucuses and Primaries i. To win party nomination, candidate must secure majority of delegates to win the national party convention ii. 70% use some form of primary election 1. Citizens directly vote for candidate who will run on party label in general election iii. 30% use caucuses 1. Meeting of party members in town hall, schools, and even private homes to choose a vote for a presidential party nominee 2. Caucuses demand more time from voters, participation usually low iv. Early primaries quickly build momentum for a front-runner and yield a likely nominee v. Front-Loading- Holding many primaries simultaneously early in the year

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Page 23 of 30 c. The National Convention (Page 329) *No significant information* d. Issues i. Fundraising and Money 1. 1971 congress tried to put candidates on equal financial footing and make them less focused on special interests through the Federal Election Campaign Act (FECA) 2. Matching funds- Public funds given to presidential candidate equaling the $ amount the candidate raises from private contributors 3. Contributors try to amplify their impact through bundling a. Bundling- Organizing and influencing others to donate to a political campaign to raise more money than the 2,400 contribution FEC rules permit per individual 4. Political Action Committees (PACs)- Groups formed to raise and contribute funds to support electoral candidates and are subject to campaign finance laws 5. Rules for public financing of presidential nomination campaigns are complicated, designed to ensure candidates are serious contenders before receiving them 6. McCain used public funds receiving $80 million from government // Obama opted out and spent $730 million ii. Swing States- States not clearly pro-Republican or pro-Democrat 1. Swing voters- voters neither Republican or Democrat, perused by each party during election 2. Both McCain and Obama campaigned hard in Pennsylvania- a battleground state a. Battleground State- State where outcome of presidential election uncertain and which both candidates invest much time to win iii. Microtargeting- Gathering detailed information on cross-sections of electorate to track potential supporters and tailor political messages for them; also called narrowcasting 1. Has become favorable to political parties and electoral campaigns 2. Can design specific political messages tailored for each voting profile 3. Has begun to replace traditional polling techniques iv. Campaign Issues 1. Valence Issues- Noncontroversial/Widely supported campaign issues unlikely to differentiate among candidates a. Vague claim to a goal b. Provide limited incite to what policies a candidate might peruse once in office 2. Position Issues- Offer specific choices in policy, often differentiate candidates views 3. Wedge issue- Issue focused on particular group of electorate that candidates use to gain more support by taking votes away from opponents a. Have potential to break up opponents coalition b. Generally involve controversial policy concerns i. Ex.] Abortion, gay marriage v. Negativity 1. Candidates good at telling voters to vote for them, but also to not vote for opponents 2. Public needs to know the good and the bad so negativity plays an important role in campaigns a. Negativity- Campaign strategy telling voters why they should not for opponent, highlights info that raises doubts about opponent 3. Most famous negative add was Daisy Spot aired by President Lyndon Johnson a. Against Barry Goldwater, implied if Goldwater won he would start nuclear war 4. Recently, amount of negativity has been on the rise

Page 24 of 30 5. This trend may weaken the fabric of democracy 6. To ensure accountability, candidates do need to be able to critique the other side vi. Polls and Prediction Models 1. Prediction Models- Formulas that take into account array of factors to project a winner a. Best prediction models use combination of key structural factors i. The Economy ii. Presidential Popularity iii. The Incumbent partys time in office Congressional Campaigns and Issues a. The Decision to Run and the Primaries i. Midterm Elections- Congressional elections halfway between presidential election b. The Fall Campaign i. After primaries, two winning candidates often revise their campaign message to attract more moderate voters ii. To win general election, candidates need votes from party members, independents, and opposing party c. Issues i. Congressional elections dont draw much attention as presidential elections, yet involve many of the same issues ii. Voters almost always reelect house / senate members 1. Question if congressional elections actually serve to hold Congress accountable iii. Voters know less about these candidates than those in presidential elections iv. Fundraising and Money 1. An individual can contribute up to $2,400 to a candidate in primary and same amount in general election 2. Up to a total of$ 45,600 from primaries and same amount for general elections 3. Candidates also raise money from PACs, which limited to $5,000 primary and $5,000 general to a single candidate v. The Role of Political Parties 1. Parties forbidden by campaign finance laws from actively coordinating a specific individuals congressional/senatorial campaign a. Local parties can engage in general activities 2. Role of national political parties in congressional elections complex a. They can pay for campaign training, hold general party fundraisers, buy campaign adds that attack opposing candidates (but cannot mention their partys candidate), and share list of donors/party members who volunteer their time to candidates individual campaign vi. Incumbency Advantages 1. They almost always win 2. Number of competitive races has been in decline, trend called vanishing marginal a. Vanishing Marginal- Trend marking decline of competitive congressional elections 3. Safe Seats- Seat in congress considered to be reliably held by one party or another 4. High rate of incumbent re-election may indicate good work, or raise concerns if elections really foster accountability 5. Strategic Retirement- Decision to retire from congress based on unlikelihood of winning next election vii. Relative Lack of Interest

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Page 25 of 30 1. Voting rates in congressional elections are always lower than presidential elections 2. Voters tend to vote for incumbents 3. Voting driven by 2 major forces: Partisanship and Incumbency a. Presidential coattails- Effect a popular president/president candidate has on congressional elections 4. Partisan makeup of congress reflect popularity of president or presidential candidate The Practice and Theory of Voting a. Voting is a gateway to power, so there will always be battles over who gets access to ballot b. Competing Views of Participation i. Debates centered on who is qualified to cast ballots ii. Too much participation = too many demands on government 1. As result government becomes less able to respond to these demands iii. Hamiltonian Model of Participation- suggests too much participation is bad and that many people not well-enough informed to cast votes 1. Favors a larger role for elitists iv. Jeffersonian Model- Suggests more participation better, more people involved more they learn about politics and want to get even more involved Who Votes? a. Low turnout raises question about governments responsiveness b. Unequal turnout by various demographic groups suggest government response is unequal as well c. Turnout (Page 330) *No significant Information* d. The Demographics of Turnout i. Race and Ethnicity 1. Turnout rates in ethnic minorities below average for entire country 2. These groups tend to be less well off, lower income means lower turnout ii. Sex 1. Women turn out a slightly higher rate than men 2. Gender gap- Differences in political attitudes and behavior of men and women iii. Age 1. Participation remains higher for older Americans iv. Income 1. More income means the person has more at stake thus more reason to vote 2. Higher income individuals more likely to arrange to vote that those with low-paying jobs, who are less able to take time off work to vote v. Education 1. Years of formal education mort important influence on tendency of someone to vote 2. Socialization- Process of learning customs, attitudes, and values of social group, community or culture a. Having been raised in environment stresses importance of education shapes willingness to vote Why Vote? a. 3 Approaches to explain why votes choose to vote. Field of Economics, Psychology, and Rules and context of the election b. An Economic Model of Voting i. All choices involve a calculation about self-interest that balances costs and benefits

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Page 26 of 30 ii. If benefits exceed the costs, they turn out iii. If voting becomes less costly to all citizens, there should be rise in participation iv. Tax cut is a public good that is shared by all in society, regardless of whether one votes or not 1. Public Good- Goods/benefits provided by Gov. which everyone benefits and no one can be excluded v. The chance one vote will alter the outcome of the election is very small vi. The conclusion of the economic model was that voting was not in ones self-interest and in fact is irrational vii. Many people do cast ballots, so the economic model of voting has velar weaknesses c. A Psychological Model of Voting i. Views voting as product of citizens attitudes about the political system ii. These attitudes often product of socialization and early political experiences iii. Psychological component tied to act of voting is partisanship 1. Partisanship- Attachment/allegiance to a political party 2. Citizens who align /w party more likely to vote iv. Citizens who express greater trust in government more willing to participate v. People who think they have a voice in government are likely to vote, political scientists call this attitude efficacy 1. Efficacy- Extent to which people believe their actions can have an impact on public affairs and the actions of government d. An Institutional Model of Voting i. Institutional model- Focuses on the context of the election, including whether it is close and whether the rules encourage or discourage participation 1. Voting is understood to be shaped by the rules of the system a. Political party behavior b. Way candidates run their campaigns c. The context of the election 2. Model does not ignore individuals personal resources of psychology attitudes, it points out that the political environment is a factor that shapes participation ii. Competitiveness of an election also influences motivation Assessing Turnout a. Is Turnout Low? i. The United States Compared to Other Democracies 1. Compared to other democracies, turnout in the United States is nearly the very bottom a. Only country significantly lower than US is Afghanistan 2. One reason turnout so low has to do with rules of voting a. Australia has compulsory voting i. Compulsory voting- Practice that requires citizens to vote in elections or face punitive measures 3. Another reason has to do with the convenience of voting a. Most European countries lessen the cost of voting by allowing voting to take place on Sunday b. Most states selected Tuesday as the day for voting in primaries and in state elections i. Since on a working day, not many citizens available to participate ii. Trends in Turnout 1. Second way turnout in American election seems problematic is the trend over past 50 years

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Page 27 of 30 2. Voting Age Population (VAP)- Used to calculate rate of participation by dividing number of voters by number of people in country who are over 18 a. All citizens over 18 constitute the VAP 3. Downward trend become worrisome in light of rising levels of education, which is one of the strongest predictors of turnout 4. One explanation lies in the difference between those who enter electorate and those who leave 5. Concept of generational replacement describes a trend in which older voters who pass away and leave the electorate are replaced by less reliable young voters a. Generational replacement- Cycle where younger generation replaces older generation in electorate 6. Second explanation has been the decline of party organizations a. Local parties less able to turn out the vote on election day, thus voting rates has declined 7. Third explanation for declining turnout is increasingly harsh tone of political campaigns a. Some argue negative campaigns fuel voter apathy b. More clear evidence negativity in campaigns has been on the rise c. A harsh campaign likely to be competitive and competitive campaigns draw interest, therefore increasing turnout. i. Negative attacks can activate partisanship, which also increases turnout 8. Recent comprehensive study of all research on this topic shows clearly that negativity is NOT RESPONSIBLE for a decline in turnout iii. The Voting Eligible Population Measure 1. Fourth explanation arguing that turnout has not declined over years: the VAP measure is in error since it does not take into account increases in # of convicted felons and immigrants who are ineligible to vote 2. Popkin and McDonald introduced new measure called Voting Eligible Population (VEP) a. Voting Eligible Population (VEP)- Used to calculate rate of participant by dividing # voters by # people who are eligible rather than just able to vote b. Do Turnout Rates Promote Inequality? i. Fact that those better educated or better off participate at a greater rate is a potential source for concern ii. Income gap between rich and poor increasing Participation Beyond Voting a. Involvement in Political Campaigns i. Campaigns are important gateway that allow public to influence politics and for politicians the public ii. The proportion of people who work in a campaign has been small and very stable over the last 3 decades iii. More citizens also claimed to display bumper sticker/wear button than engaging in other campaign activities iv. Americans far more engaged in campaigns than citizens in other democracies b. Protest Politics i. Boston Tea Party- Protest which colonists dressed as Indians boarded ships in Boston harbor express anger at Brittans tax policies and commercial regulation ii. In general, very few Americans actually participate in protests iii. Higher rates of protest activities in other democracies can be attributed to strong labor parties - some of them socialist and communist - that make protests common and symbolic c. E-Participation i. Easier and cheaper to send e-mail to congress than to write a letter

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Page 28 of 30 ii. Participation in blogs and other e-communication will continue to rise iii. Internet also transformed fundraising and campaign involvement Voting Laws and Regulations a. State governments continue to manage most voting laws and procedures, though the federal government steps in to prevent discrimination at polls b. Both work to prevent voter fraud c. Policy making regarding voting is undertaken at both federal/state levels, and has effect of both expanding and potentially contracting turnout d. The National Voter Registration Act and Voter Identification i. The National Voter Registration Act- Requires states to allow citizens to register to vote at same time they apply for/renew drivers license 1. Requires that states inform citizens if they are removed from the approved voter roll and limits removal to a change of address, conviction for a felony, and death ii. To avoid voter fraud many stats instituted voter identification required on election day 1. Controversial and opponents sued in federal courts to strike Indianas photo identification law 2. Issue was whether state laws that were intended to prevent voter fraud had the result of preventing citizens who were legally entitled to vote from doing so because of a lack of proper ID. a. Opponents argued process of getting such a card too complicated and overall effect of law would disenfranchise thousands of citizens 3. Supreme Court ruled in favor of Indiana law a. The state interests identified as justification for the law are both neutral and sufficiently strong to require us to reject the lawsuit iii. Ultimately states and localities administer and oversee elections, and states have responded inconsistently to these federal government iv. In a democracy all citizens should have equal opportunity to cast their votes because voting is the fundamental mechanism by which we hold government accountable e. New Forms of Voting i. Some states institute early voting, allowing voters to cast ballots prior to the Tuesday when the general election is held ii. Vote-by-mail-system- Method of voting in election where ballots are distributed to voters by post, completed, and returned by post 1. Can mail in 2 weeks prior to election iii. Cell phone technology could increase voter turnout Elections, Campaigns, and Public Policy: Campaign Finance and Promises a. Campaigns and elections key instruments in American democracy because they allow voters to judge their elected officials and replace them if disprove of job performance b. Elections intrinsically connected to public policy outcomes because politicians take them as indicators of which policies voters want the government to pursue c. Campaign Finance Laws i. 1971 Federal Election Campaign Act (FECA)- required candidates, political parties, and PACs to disclose their campaign financial records 1. 1974 Congress amended to set strict limits on how much $ could be contributed by individuals, parties, and PACs to campaigns a. Also created Federal Election Commission as independent agency to closely monitor campaign finance

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Page 29 of 30 ii. Supreme court case Buckly v.s. Valeo (1976)- declared limits on contributions and enforcement of those limits were constitutional, but that limits on how much $ candidates spent was not constitutional iii. Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA)- raised legal contribution allowance for campaigns 1. Prohibited political parties from accepting/spending unlimited amounts of money directly on campaigns 2. Restricted ability of interest groups to run campaign ads without fully identifying themselves 3. Prohibited them from running these ads within 30 days of a primary, and 60 days of the general election iv. Citizens United v.s. Federal Election Commission- Undoes many of the previous restrictions, now allowing unions and businesses to spend money on campaigns v. FECs enforcement decisions are evenhanded, not favoring or targeting groups representing one ideology or the other vi. FEC has been responsive to citizens concerns and continues to serve as a tool where citizens can help ensure fair playing field in elections d. Campaign Promises and Electoral Mandates i. Elections intended to send signals to politicians what policies should be pursued, winning candidates claim that their election constituted a mandate, a clear signal from the public about the policies government should pursue 1. Mandate- Political power the president claims after a decisive electoral victory ii. Key link between a campaign and a policy outcome is extent to which candidates are specific in campaign promises 1. Vague promises do not translate well into actual public policy since they fail to provide a blueprint for congress and the public 2. As long as president does not waver from campaign promises, he can use the idea of a mandate to successfully accomplish his goals iii. Party Platforms and Campaign Promises 1. Campaign process not made solely by presidential candidates, also made by party in form of party platform a. Party Platform- Document that lays out a partys core beliefs and policy proposals for each presidential election i. These are adopted at the national conventions 2. Obama made 415 promises during campaign, 15 months into term only broken 16 of them 3. Elections serve an important public policy purpose since they allow voters to declare their approval or disapproval of government actions 4. Campaigns themselves are the selling of contrasting political products, and voters choose the one they think is best Elections, Campaigns, Voting, and Democracy a. Many worry campaigns too long, candidates spend too much money, and voters not well informed b. Long term process has worked reasonably well // Short term those who loose who see process as unfair c. Although imperfect, elections, campaigns, and voting provide a real chance to ensure government responsiveness d. Through competitive struggle American democracy functions e. One danger to democracy a distortion in the turnout i. Rich participate more than poor, and this gap Is increasing ii. Government may be overly responsive to the needs of the well off

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Page 30 of 30 1. Threatens the underpinnings of a democratic and egalitarian society iii. Wealthy citizens have more access to information/resources on the Internet and therefore are more informed and better able to make government responsiveness to their needs 1. At the same time internet might be used to extend participation f. Participatory model of voting has more appeal than the elite model g. Democracy becomes more responsive, more accountable, and more equal if more people participate h. More gateways there are, the better Americas civic life is