Ergonomics

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Ergonomics is the study of designing equipment and devices that fit the human body, its movements, and its cognitive abilities.

Threshold limit value

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search The threshold limit value (TLV) of a chemical substance is a level to which it is believed a worker can be exposed day after day for a working lifetime without adverse health effects. Strictly speaking, TLV is a reserved term of the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH). However, it is sometimes loosely used to refer to other similar concepts used in occupational health and toxicology. TLVs, along with biological exposure indices (BEIs), are published annually by the ACGIH. The TLV is an estimate based on the known toxicity in humans or animals of a given chemical substance, and the reliability and accuracy of the latest sampling and analytical methods. It is not a static definition since new research can often modify the risk assessment of substances and new laboratory or instrumental analysis methods can improve analytical detection limits. The TLV is a recommendation by ACGIH, with only a guideline status. As such, it should not be confused with exposure limits having a regulatory status, like those published and enforced by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). The OSHA regulatory exposure limits permissible exposure limits (PELs) published in 29CFR 1910.1000 Table Z1 are based on recommendations made by the ACGIH in 1968, although other exposure limits were adopted more recently. Many OSHA exposure limits are not considered by the industrial hygiene community to be sufficiently protective levels. The National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) publishes recommended exposure limits (RELs) which OSHA takes into consideration when promulgating new regulatory exposure limits.

TLV
The TLV (Threshold Limit Value) is a workplace exposure standard recommended by an ACGIH committee. TLVs are recommended values that should not be exceeded in a workplace, not legal limits. They do not guarantee protection to all workers and are not intended to be used for community (general public) exposure. A TLV has three components:

A time-weighted average (TWA) concentration that ACGIH recommends not be exceeded for up to an 8-hour workday during a 40-hour workweek. A ceiling value, which ACGIH recommends not be exceeded at any time during the workday. A short-term (STEL) value , which ACGIH recommends not be exceeded for longer than a specified brief period of time (usually 15 minutes) during a workday.

Example TLV: TLVs have been recommended for more than 700 hazardous substances, and are based on available animal and human exposure studies. The goal is to minimize workers' exposure to hazardous concentrations as much as possible.

Rashida Khilawala
Professionalism is the expertise that a professional has of a certain field. In the workplace, professionalism refers to an individual doing their job, with sincerity and genuineness. Professionalism leads to logical and unbiased decision. In the absence of professionalism, the concepts of "politics" and "mind games" find room to breed. But, this explanation is not enough to understand the concept of professionalism. Let us delve into its depths further. Professionalism in the Workplace These days, every salaried employee with a degree considers himself a professional. If that fact was worth any salt, professionalism would not be hard to find and tough to keep in the corporate sector, right? Well, then how do we understand professionalism in the workplace? Professionalism at work requires an individual to possess these characteristics.

Knowing oneself and being in control of one's reactions and work related antics. Losing control over one's temper is not considered professional at a work place. Handling constructive criticism. Constructive or not, criticism is a part of any working experience. As such, as a part of professionalism at work, one needs to be receptive of criticism. While giving the criticism a thought and following it through if it is constructive and ignoring it if not. One has to be aware that workplace conflicts are natural and hence inevitable. It is not in human nature to be around so many people for so much time on a regular basis, under occasional stress, and yet manage to be conflict-free. The point is to harness that conflict into positive productivity and leave it at that.

Importance of Professionalism at Workplace

Being a team player. This is a very wellknown requirement for professionalism at work. A team spirit allows people to have their differences, yet follow the same goal. It requires an individual to give consideration to others, take suggestions and share credits. Having a pleasing personality. Besides work, professionalism at work requires one to have a pleasing personality. This helps keep the environment in the office, favorable and conducive. Let's face it, regularly seeing a person come shabbily to office will foster a very unprofessional atmosphere. Read more on professional dress code.

Maintaining appropriate communication. Free communication and open door policies are all very conducive and welcoming at every workplace. However, this "freedom" has to be kept to a limit. Too much prying into personal life and friendships beyond the workplace as well as fraternization are completely against professionalism.

Other than these points, it is also required to maintain a good track record and achieve targets under conducive circumstances. It is also important to have a good reputation in the organization. Basic Professional Etiquette Tips Mentioned below are some basic professional etiquette tips which you can follow to make a great impact on everyone in your company. Conversation Etiquettes

Always listen to others attentively. A good listener is always dear to every client. Speak only when the other person has finished talking instead of interrupting in between. Keep a low but clear and calm voice while conversing. Your tone should always be polite. While conversing always look into the eyes of the other person and avoid showing your back or looking elsewhere. Keep your conversations short and to the point instead of getting into irrelevant topics and discussions. Remember this is a business talk and not a family re-union. Maintain your sobriety and politeness even if the client speaks something offensive or rude and avoid replying back in harsh tone/words. Avoid fidgeting with your dress or putting your hands on the face while in a conversation.

Handshake Etiquettes

When shaking hands always offer a firm handshake with your fingers titled down and your thumb up. However, ensure your handshake is not so firm that it crushes or hurts the other persons hand. This indicates that you are dominant. Limit the time of handshakes to 2 to 3 seconds and take your hand back gracefully. Avoid patting on the back of the hand. While shaking hands, greet the person by looking into his/her eyes.

Dressing Etiquettes

Always wear neat and nicely pressed formal clothes. Choose corporate shades while you are picking up clothes for your office wear. Women should avoid wearing exposing dresses and opt for little but natural make-ups. Men need to keep their hair (including facial hair) neatly trimmed and set. Always polish your shoes. Keep your nails clean. Wear clothes which you are comfortable in and can carry well. This is very important while you are in a business meeting or client presentation.

Introduction and Greeting Etiquettes

When you are getting introduced, either shake hands or nod your head. If you are in charge of introducing other people always introduce the lower ranked person to the higher ranked one. When first introduced, stand up to meet or greet the person.

Electronic Communication Etiquettes

While communicating with your colleagues, seniors or clients through emails, always address the person with Dear Hi or Hello followed by a title (Mr./Mrs./Miss etc.) and his/her name and end your mail with Yours Sincerely or Yours Truly, whatever suits best with your name and designation. Also, always mention a Subject to all your official mails. Keep official mails preferably short and precise. However, if the subject demands elaborate details and explanations, go ahead but use a friendly formal language instead of a casual one. While speaking over telephones, always greet the other person while starting and ending the call. Always speak politely. Include your contact details and the date while sending faxes. While participating in conference calls introduce all the participants to each other at the beginning.

Dining Etiquettes

Always be courteous while official dinners. Offer the seat to your guest first. If you are the guest, be punctual and thank the host for the dinner. Avoid opening your mouth and chewing food. Initiate conversations while waiting for the food. Avoid pointing the knife or fork towards the other person while eating and speaking. Allow your guest to select the menu and wine. If something unwanted has gone to your mouth, place the napkin in front of your mouth tactfully and bring it out instead if putting your hand inside the mouth to get rid of it. Avoid talking when there is food in your mouth. Learn the basic table manners before you go out to dine with a potential client or an important business meet.

General Etiquettes

Always be punctual at your workplace. Switch off or put your mobile/cell phones in silent mode while in a conference call,business meeting or corporate presentation. In case it is an urgent call which you need to take excuse yourself and take permission from the others for taking the call. Avoid digging your nose in public. Use handkerchiefs when you are coughing/sneezing in public. When in a meeting room, always stand up to greet the seniors of they arrive after you.

Try to ignore and overlook funny or embarrassing sounds when in a meeting or official conversation. If you have forgotten somebodys name ask him/her politely saying that you are sorry that you cannot remember the name. Always keep a comfortable distance while conversing with others. Avoid standing or sitting too close to the other person. An arms length would be ideal to maintain the comfort zone. Be careful while smoking and drinking when you have company. Find out if the person is comfortable with your smoking. Avoid excessive drinking when in a client meet. It would be nice if you hold the door for the person who is coming immediately behind you.

By Paramita Ghosh

Professional Ethics
Avoiding Conflict of Interest Professional ethics need to be set, especially in a business or a large organization where a group of individuals may find themselves in situations where their values are in conflict with another, and they are in need of some reference as to what is considered ethical and not. A conflict of interest may be described as a situation where your personal interests or activities could influence your judgement or decision-making and consequently, your ability to act in the best interests of the company or business. Professional ethics or the code of ethics comprises of a range of issues, including:

Data privacy and protection of sensitive information Adherence to confidentially agreements No bias in analysis of data and professional consulting Resolution of conflict of interest Accountability towards business

A code of ethics enables the business to establish the ideals and responsibilities of the profession or business. It serves as a reference on acceptable conduct, increases awareness and maintains consistency and ensures improved quality. When professionals follow a set code of conduct, it also enables their customers to trust the business with their critical information and is a conscious effort to protect the interests of the clients and professionals. Standards of Professional Conduct Members of any professional body are expected to understand and comply with all applicable laws, rules and regulations of any government, regulatory organization, licensing agency or professional committee governing their official or professional activities. Professionalism Professionals must exercise reasonable care and sound judgement to achieve and maintain independence and objectivity in their business related activities. They must not intentionally conceal or misrepresent information or facts relating to recommendations, actions and findings or in revealing any kind of information to deceive their customers, clients or partners, as the case may be. In short, professionalism is all about doing the right things in the interest of the organization, profession or business, as the case may be. Avoid breach of conduct Members, employees or businesses must refrain from indulging in any kind of dishonesty, fraud or deceit that adversely affects the business integrity, goodwill or competence. They must act for the benefit of their clients or customers and place their clients interests before their personal interests. Protect sensitive and critical information

It is assumed that professionals maintain confidentiality and do not disclose sensitive and critical information about their clients/customers to third parties except or unless you are required to disclose by law or if the information concerns illegal activities on the part of the client or if the client expressly permits disclosure of information. When it comes to their employment, employees must act for the benefit of their employer and not deprive their employer of the advantage of their skills, expertise or cause harm to their employer or the organization. A code of conduct may be specified for all disciplines and adhered to. Finally, it is important to behave ethically on both personal and professional fronts with a clear conscience. By Janani Rajagopal
HumanResources.hrvinet.com

Key result areas

1. Definition of Key Result Areas (KRA)

Key Result Areas or KRAs refer to general areas of outputs or outcomes for which the departments role is responsible. Key Result Area in simple Terms may be defined as Primary responsibilities of an Individual, the core area which each person is accountable.
2. Importance of KRAs.

Set goals and objectives Prioritize their activities, and therefore improve their time/work management Make value-added decisions Clarify roles of department or individual Focus on results rather than activities Align their roles to the organizations business or strategic plan Communicate their roles purposes to others
3. Conditions of KRAs

Key result areas (KRAs) capture about 80% of the departments work role. The remainders are usually devoted to areas of shared responsibility. Each KRA should capture at least 5 % of work role Office of research services

Safe Laboratory Practices & Procedures

Below is a listing of Safe Laboratory Practices to serve as a reminder of some fundamental safety tips. Tip #1: Ask yourself, What am I working with? What are the hazards?

Common hazards in the laboratory include: animal, biological, chemical, physical, and radiological. If there is an accident or emergency situation involving these hazards: Seek immediate assistance. If you are splashed by any of these materials, use running water from an eyewash station or emergency shower for at least 15 minutes or until emergency assistance arrives and provides you with different instructions. Report to your supervisor any accident, injury, or uncontrolled release of potentially hazardous materials - no matter how trivial the accident, injury, or release may appear.

Tip #2: Be prepared.

Attend all required laboratory safety training prior to the start of your research assignment. Read all procedures and associated safety information prior to the start of an experiment. Perform only those experiments authorized by your supervisor.

Follow all written and verbal instructions. Ask for assistance if you need guidance or help. Work under direct supervision at all times. Never work alone in the laboratory. Know the locations and operating procedures for all safety equipment. This includes the eyewash station and safety shower. Know the locations of the nearest fire alarms and at least two ways out of the building. Never use an elevator in emergencies. Be alert and proceed with caution at all times in the laboratory. Immediately notify the supervisor of any unsafe conditions. Know the proper emergency response procedures for accidents or injuries in the laboratory.

Tip #3: Prevent potential exposure.

Conduct yourself in a responsible and professional manner at all times. No pranks. No practical jokes. Dress for work in the laboratory. Wear clothing and shoes that cover exposed skin and protect you from potential splashes. Tie back long hair, jewelry, or anything that may catch in equipment. Never eat food, drink beverages, chew gum, apply cosmetics (including lip balm), or handle contact lenses in the laboratory. Use a chemical fume hood or biosafety cabinet, as directed by your supervisor. Observe good housekeeping - keep aisles clear. Report damaged electrical equipment to the supervisor. Do not use damaged electrical equipment. Do not leave active experiments unattended. Never leave anything that is being heated or is visibly reacting unattended.

Tip #4: Protect yourself, others, your research, and the environment

Practice good personal hygiene. Wash your hands after removing gloves, before leaving the laboratory, and after handling a potentially hazardous material. While working in the laboratory, wear personal protective equipment - eye protection, gloves, laboratory coat - as directed by your supervisor. Properly segregate and dispose of all laboratory waste.

Top 10 Personal hygiene practices for everyone

1. Daily showers or bath and washing hair. 2. Frequently washing hands and face. 3. Daily brushing and flossing teeth, regularly after every meal. 4. Wearing clean clothes and keeping your surroundings clean. 5. Hold a tissue over the mouth when coughing or sneezing, not a bare hand. 6. Suppression of habits such as nose-picking, touching the face etc. 7. Washing hands before eating. 8. Not licking fingers before picking up sheets of paper. 9. Not biting nails 10. Washing hands right after you touch your shoes.

Every organization has various types of goals. "Organizational goals are desired states of affairs or preferred results that organizations attempt to realize and achieve" (Amitai Etzioni). The idea of organizational goals has a long history in economics, in which the classic position posits an entrepreneur or ownership group which in turn establishes the goals of the firm. Alternatively, these goals may represent a concesus arrived at by all members of the organization. One useful scheme for describing organizational goals was provided by Charles Perrow. He has identified the following types of organizational goals: * Officials goals. These goals are the formally stated goals of an organization described in its charter and annual reports and they are emphasized in public statements by key executives. * Operative goals are the outcomes that the organization actually seeks to attain through its operating policies and activities. * Operational goals Organizational goals define the performance objectives and desired behaviours within an organization. However, a typical social organization today has multiple stakeholders-groups of people, and consequently has multiple goals, which, at times, may be mutually conflicting. According to Perrow, multiple organizational goals can be classified into four major categories: * Output goals. These goals are the "end product," such as consumer products, services, health care, or education. * System goals. System goals relate to the organization itself, and they consist of such things as growth, stability, profit, efficiency, market share. * Product goals. Product goals consist of the characteristics of the goods or services, such as quality, styling, uniqueness, variety, and price. * Derived goals refer to the way an organization uses its power and influence to achieve other social or political goals (such as employee welfare, community services, or political aims). Henry Minztberg has provided a different classification of goals: * System goals. There are four system goals: survival, efficiency, control, and growth. * Formal goals. Formal goals are used by managers to tell everyone what they are doing. * Ideological goals. These goals are what the people within the organization believe in. * Shared personal goals. These goals are what people within the organization come together to accomplish for their mutual benefit. For most organizations, goals are constantly changing and members of the organizations must respond appropriately, by formulating new goals as well as deciding which goals will be accThe organization is where resources come together. Organizations use different resources to accomplish goals. The major resources used by organizations are often described as follow: (1) human resources, (2) financial resources, (3) physical resources, and (4) information resources. Managers are responsible for acquiring and managing the resources to accomplish goals. omplished, and in what order.

What Is Management?
The term management can be and often is used in several different ways. Mary Parker Follett, described management as "the art of getting things done through people." From Peter Drucker's viewpoint, managers give direction to their organizations, provide leadership, and decide how to use organizational resources to accomplish goals.The term management in this thesis refers to the definition of management described by Richard L. Daft:

"Management is the attainment of organizational goals in an effective and efficient manner through planning, organizing, leading, and controlling organizational resources" There are two important ideas in this definition: (1) the four functions of planning, organizing, leading, and controlling and (2) the attainment of organization goals in an effective and efficient manner.

Planning
Planning is considered to be the central function of management because it sets the pattern for the other activities to follow. "Planning means defining goals for future organizational performance and deciding on the tasks and use of resources needed to attain them" (Richard Daft). Planning encompasses four elements:

Evaluating environmental forces and organizational resources Establishing a set of organizational goals Developing strategies and plans to achieve the stated goals Formulating a decision-making process

These elements are concerned with organizational success in the near future as well as success in the more distant future. Planning to the future, the manager develops a strategy for getting there. This process is referred to as strategic planning. Chapters 2 and 3 address the topic of management strategy and strategic planning.

Organizing
Organizing is the managerial function of making sure there are available the resources to carry out a plan. "Organizing involves the assignment of tasks, the grouping of tasks into departments, and the allocation of resources to departments" (Richard Daft)Managers must bring together individuals and tasks to make effective use of people and resources. Three elements are essential to organizing:
Developing the structure of the organization Acquiring and training human resources Establishing communication patterns and networks

Determining the method of grouping these activities and resources is the organizing process.

Leading
Leading is another of the basic function within the management process "Leading is the use of influence to motivate employees to achieve organizational goals" (Richard Daft).Managers must be able to make employees want to participate in achieving an organization's goals. Three components make up the leading function:

Motivating employees Influencing employees Forming effective groups.

The leading process helps the organization move toward goal attainment.

Controlling
The final phase of the management process is controlling. "Controlling means monitoring employees' activities, determining whether the organization is on target toward its goals, and making correction as necessary (Richard Daft ). Controlling ensures that, through effective leading, what has been planned and organized to take place has in fact taken place. Three basic components constitute the control function:

Elements of a control system Evaluating and rewarding employee performance

Controlling financial, informational, and physical resources.

Controlling is ongoing process. An affective control function determines whether the organization is on target toward its goals and makes corrections as necessary. These all managerial functions are necessary and are related and interrelated to each other.

Ryszard Barnat, LLM., DBA, Ph.D. (Strat. Mgmt) Organizational Goals

Ethics At The Workplace - Work Ethics

The workplace environment has really changed since the time our daddies (and some mommies) used to work in their cubbyholes. That was the time when people knew just a handful of people from their place of work, and a still fewer people were so close that they could be invited home for a dinner. But today, the workplace is more of a community center; there's a lot more going on in every office than mere work. And that is where ethics in the workplace become important. It is not enough to get in the good books of your employers, but it extremely imperative to be comfortable with colleagues and even the subordinates. Obviously, workplace ethics will differ from one employment location to another. However, there are some ground similarities that can be observed. Based on this, we can formulate some 'safe' rules that would work of almost every work ambiance. So here are the work ethics commandments. The First Commandment Thou shalt not criticize thy boss. This is one workplace ethic that has remained sacrosanct over the ages. The boss is always right. Okay, he or she might be an insufferable lout, but as long as you are working with them, they are always right. The most judicious employee will remain good in the books of the employer. However, with changing times, bosses are becoming more accessible to their employees. Some of them even love taking inputs from their workers and improve their businesses. But, it is advisable to keep your mouth shut till asked. Another thing to avoid is maligning your boss and indulging in back-speak in the office cafeteria. The Second Commandment Thou shalt not rub thy colleagues the wrong way. Gone are the days when people were not even interested in what was going on in their next cubicle. Today, you cannot avoid befriending your colleagues at your workplace. Just be sure that you do not indulge in activities that create a bad impression of yourself on your colleagues. Folks at work can hamper your own prospects nowadays. Put in a genuine good word when they deserve it, and do not criticize when they err. That way you will never go wrong. The Third Commandment Thou shalt not comment on thy colleagues' personal affairs. Respect your colleagues' private space and they will respect yours. Do not read their personal chats over their shoulder and do not be interested in their mail that is directed to the workplace. Even if a colleague breaks out about their family affairs or romantic shenanigans with you, try not to be over-zealous in offering advice. Most probably, they do not want a nanny, they just want a set of ears to listen to their monkeyshines. The Fourth Commandment Thou shalt not compare thyself with thy colleagues. This breach of ethics in the workplace has happened ever since Cain and Abel started farming for their father Adam. In the machinery of your workplace, all employees are differently sized cogs in the wheel. Every one has been assigned a post in the company because of some unique talent. That means, you should not compare yourself with how others work. Dont ever begin cribbing with your employers when someone gets a promotion and you dont. It will certainly happen with you if you deserve it. The Fifth Commandment Thou shalt not be a nosey parker. In today's workplace environment, one of the biggest work ethics is to keep your nose stuck in your own affairs. Do not involve yourself in assignments meant for others, and never show off that you can do a particular job better than them. Instead, try excelling in the work assigned to you. If you show off your superiority to others, your colleagues will think of you as too pompous, and your boss might even reprimand you for not sticking with your own work.

The Sixth Commandment Thy attire shalt speak for itself. The workplace garb has changed drastically in recent times, and the Friday jeans have come into the weekdays too. But that doesnt mean you will dress up like a pantaloon to work. Keep your attire matching your status, and do not break the dress code of work, however flimsy it might be. It helps when you are dealing with outside clients. Keeping semi-formal attire at least is the need of the day. The Seventh Commandment Thou shalt not bring thy family in thy workplace. It is ridiculous to speak about your family to your colleagues. Everyone has a family, and they are most interested in what happens with their folks, but it is nothing short of moronic to discuss your family woes at the workplace. An unwritten rule of workplace ethics is that you will never bring your family visiting your workplace, unless they are invited. The Eighth Commandment Thou shalt invite thy colleagues to thy homestead. You must keep your family out of the workplace as much as possible, but it is good work ethics to invite your colleagues over to dinner sometime. You can bond there and even do some constructive planning together. But, you must not jump in and invite everyone. Take your time, understand how friendly the people in your workplace are, and then subtly begin the invitations. It is, of course, understood that you should not have any vested interests in inviting your colleagues (or superiors) over. The Ninth Commandment Thou shalt take credit only where it is due, and shalt not be modest about it. When there's an appraisal, make sure your work gets noticed. Inform the right people that it is your work in advance, so that when the time comes, you get the nod. Do not be crass about it, though. A subtle approach is required to make your presence felt in the workplace. At the same time, you should always acknowledge your subordinates' good work, especially if they are creative people working for you. Creative minds work better when fed on praise. And that works both ways. The Tenth Commandment Thou shalt always keep thyself informed. The final rule of ethics in the workplace is to always be informed in what is going on in your business. It does not pay if you are the one always sitting mute below the corner in the front office, or if you are the one dozing shamelessly when a business talk is going on. People will think funny about you if you suddenly pop up and ask them what's going on. If you are informed about your workplace affairs, it will also help you to behave better and put up a generally good impression at the workplace. By Neil Valentine D'Silva

Decision Making Techniques

Robert Harris Planning for Decision Making While decision making without planning is fairly common, it is often not pretty. The terms used to describe it--crisis management, putting out fires, seat-of-the-pants governing--all reveal the inelegance and awkwardness of this way of life. Planning allows decisions to be made in a much more comfortable and intelligent way. Planning even makes decisions easier by providing guidelines and goals for the decision. We might even say that planning is a type of decision simplification technique (see the discussion of these techniques below).

Decision makers will find four major benefits to planning: 1. Planning allows the establishment of independent goals. The vision which will shape the decisions is set apart from surrounding events. Decisions are not made only as reactions to external stimuli. "Management by firefighting" is replaced by a conscious and directed series of choices. Managers now steer the organization, individuals now steer their lives, rather than being steered by external forces. Sometimes the difference between planning and not planning is described as "proactive" (taking control of the situation) versus "reactive" (responding to stimuli).

2. Planning provides a standard of measurement. A plan provides something to measure against, so that you can discover whether or not you are achieving or heading toward your goals. As the proverb says, If you don't know where you're going, it doesn't matter which way you go. 3. Planning converts values to action. When you are faced with a decision, you can consult your plan and determine which decision will help advance your plan best. Decisions made under the guidance of planning can work together in a coherent way to advance company or individual goals. Planning is useful in emergency situations, too. When a crisis arises, a little thought about the overall plan will help determine which decision to make that will not only help resolve the crisis but will also help advance the overall plan. Without a plan, crises are dealt with haphazardly and decisions are made which may ultimately be in conflict with each other. 4. Planning allows limited resources to be committed in an orderly way. Budgets, time, effort, manpower--all are limited. Their best use can be made when a plan governs their use. A simple example would be planning to buy a house or a car. Rather than having to decide between buying the item right now with all cash or never having it, you can plan to buy it over several years by making payments. Or, you might combine this plan with the plan to buy a smaller house and add rooms later as they could be afforded. By planning you can thus accomplish things that might otherwise look impossible.

Interpersonal skills
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Interpersonal skills are the skills that a person uses to interact with other people. Interpersonal skills are sometimes also referred to as people skills or communication skills.[1] Interpersonal skills involve using skills such as active listening[2] and tone of voice, they include delegation and leadership. It is how well you communicate with someone and how well you behave or carry yourself. Also they help people further their careers.

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM The schematic diagram shows, by means of graphic symbols, the electrical connections and functions of a specific circuit arrangement. The schematic diagram is used to trace the circuit and its functions without regard to the actual physical size, shape, or location of the component devices or parts. The schematic diagram is the most useful of all the diagrams in learning overall system operation

Schematic
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search For the record label, see Schematic Records. A schematic diagram represents the elements of a system using abstract, graphic symbols rather than realistic pictures. A schematic usually omits all details that are not relevant to the information the schematic is intended to convey, and may add unrealistic elements that aid comprehension. For example, a subway map intended for riders may represent a subway station with a dot; the dot doesn't resemble the actual station at all but gives the viewer information without unnecessary visual clutter. A schematic diagram of a chemical process uses symbols to represent the vessels, piping, valves, pumps, and other equipment of the system, emphasizing their interconnection paths and suppressing physical details. In an electronic circuit diagram, the layout of the symbols may not resemble the layout in the physical circuit. In the schematic diagram, the symbolic elements are arranged to be more easily interpreted by the viewer.

Intrapersonal Skills
Intrapersonal is to do with self. The dictionary gives the meaning of Existing or occurring within the individual self or mind. In our homeschool efforts this means we want to train our children to be the best self they can be. This is not talking about a selfish attitude, of looking out after number 1 far from it! It is looking at who the child is and making the most of the inner self. Another word, one that is becoming a popular term these days, is Emotional Intelligence. Emotional Intelligence is the ability to understand and manage your emotional life, which in turn will affect the life of others around you.

What are Interpersonal Skills?

Simply put interpersonal skills are the skills we use to interact or deal with others. Interpersonal skills are sometimes also referred to as communication skills, people skills and/or soft skills. How we deal with others can greatly influence our professional and personal lives, improving these skills builds confidence and enhances our relationships with others

Units of Length 10 millimeters (mm) 10 centimeters 10 decimeters 10 meters 10 dekameters 10 hectometers = 1 centimeter (cm) = 1 decimeter (dm) = 100 millimeters = 1 meter (m) = 1000 millimeters = 1 dekameter (dam) = 1 hectometer (hm) = 100 meters = 1 kilometer (km) = 1000 meters

Units of Area 100 square millimeters (mm2) 100 square centimeters 100 square decimeters 100 square meters 100 square dekameters 100 square hectometers = 1 square centimeter (cm2) = 1 square decimeter (dm2) = 1 square meter (m2) = 1 square dekameter (dam2) = 1 are = 1 square hectometer (hm2) = 1 hectare (ha) = 1 square kilometer (km2)

Units of Liquid Volume 10 milliliters (mL) 10 centiliters 10 deciliters 10 liters 10 dekaliters 10 hectoliters = 1 centiliter (cL) = 1 deciliter (dL) = 100 milliliters = 1 liter1 = 1000 milliliters = 1 dekaliter (daL) = 1 hectoliter (hL) = 100 liters = 1 kiloliter (kL) = 1000 liters Units of Volume 1000 cubic millimeters (mm3) 1000 cubic centimeters 1000 cubic decimeters = 1 cubic centimeter (cm3) = 1 cubic decimeter (dm3) = 1 000 000 cubic millimeters = 1 cubic meter (m3) = 1 000 000 cubic centimeters = 1 000 000 000 cubic millimeters

Units of Mass 10 milligrams (mg) 10 centigrams 10 decigrams 10 grams 10 dekagrams 10 hectograms 1000 kilograms
Length

= 1 centigram (cg) = 1 decigram (dg) = 100 milligrams = 1 gram (g) = 1000 milligrams = 1 dekagram (dag) = 1 hectogram (hg) = 100 grams = 1 kilogram (kg) = 1000 grams = 1 megagram (Mg) or 1 metric ton(t)

The standard unit of length in the metric system is the meter. Other units of length and their equivalents in meters are as follows: 1 millimeter = 0.001 meter 1 centimeter = 0.01 meter 1 decimeter = 0.1 meter 1 kilometer = 1000 meters We symbolize these lengths as follows: 1 millimeter = 1 mm 1 centimeter = 1 cm 1 meter = 1 m 1 decimeter = 1 dm 1 kilometer = 1 km
Volume

The standard unit of volume in the metric system is the liter. One liter is equal to 1000 cubic centimeters in volume. Other units of volume and their equivalents in liters are as follows: 1 milliliter = 0.001 liter 1 centiliter = 0.01 liter 1 deciliter = 0.1 liter 1 kiloliter = 1000 liters From these units, we see that 1000 milliliters equal 1 liter; so 1 milliliter equals 1 cubic centimeter in volume. We symbolize these volumes as follows: 1 milliliter = 1 ml 1 centiliter = 1 cl 1 deciliter = 1 dl 1 liter = 1 l 1 kiloliter = 1 kl For reference, 1 liter is a little more than 1 quart. One teaspoon equals about 5 milliliters.
Mass

The standard unit of mass in the metric system is the gram. Other units of mass and their equivalents in grams are as follows: 1 milligram = 0.001 gram 1 centigram = 0.01 gram 1 decigram = 0.1 gram 1 kilogram = 1000 grams We symbolize these masses as follows: 1 milligram = 1 mg 1 centigram = 1 cg 1 decigram = 1 dg 1 gram = 1 g 1 kilogram = 1 kg

For reference, 1 gram is about the mass of a paper clip. One kilogram is about the mass of a liter of water.
Time

The following conversions are useful when working with time: 1 minute = 60 seconds 1 hour = 60 minutes = 3600 seconds 1 day = 24 hours 1 week = 7 days 1 year = 365 1/4 days (for the Earth to travel once around the sun) In practice, every three calendar years will have 365 days, and every fourth year is a "leap year", which has 366 days, to make up for the extra quarter day over four years. The years 1992, 1996, 2000, and 2004 are all leap years. This gives us a total of 52 complete 7 day weeks in each calendar year, with 1 day left over (or 2 in a leap year). The year is divided into 12 months, each of which has 30 or 31 days, except for February, which has 28 days (or 29 days in a leap year).
Decimals in measurement

We use decimals to specify units of measurement when we need more precision about length, volume, mass, or time. For example, when specifying the height of a person 1.63 meters tall, to say that person is 1 or 2 meters tall doesn't give us a very good idea of how tall that person really is. The prefixes for the different units of length, volume, and mass in the metric system obey the following rules:
Prefix millicentidecidekahectokiloMultiply by 0.001 0.01 0.1 10 100 1000

So for example: 1 hectometer = 100 meters 1 centigram = 0.01 gram 3 milliliters = 3 (0.001 liters) = 0.003 liters 0.9 kilometers = 0.9 (1000 meters) = 900 meters

Unit Conversion Length 1 in 1 ft 1 yard 1 mile Unit Conversion Length 1 in 1 ft = 2.54 cm = 30.48 cm = 0.0254 m = 0.3048 m = = = = 2.54 cm 30.48 cm 91.44 cm 1.6093 Km = = = = 0.0254 m 0.3048 m 0.9144 m 1609.3 m

1 yard = 91.44 cm = 0.9144 m 1 mile = 1.6093 Km = 1609.3 m

Use engineering units. For example: 5.23e-7

From: To:

Area 1 in2 1 ft2 Volume 1 in3 1 ft3 1 us f.oz 1 imp f.oz 1 us gal 1 imp gal Weight 1 OZ = 28.35 g 1 lb = 0.4536 kg = 453.6 g 1 imp ton = 1016 kg = = = = = = 16.387 cm3 0.0283 m3 29.574 ml 28.41 ml 3.7854 l 4.546 l = 6.4516 cm2 = 0.0929 m2

1 acre = 0.4047 hectares = 4047 m2

Temperature
o

F = o C = o R = K=

C*1.8 + 32 (oF - 32) / 1.8 o F + 459.67 o C + 273.15

Types and Uses of Industrial Lubricants

By : Graham Baylis

Cutting Fluids One of the main industrial lubricants is cutting fluid, which is used in a variety of manufacturing processes that involve cutting, just as the name suggests. Cutting fluids can be synthetic, semisynthetic, straight or soluble depending on what precisely they are needed for. Generally, soluble cutting fluids are very popular with lots of industries as they are relatively inexpensive yet still provide good results. Cutting fluids tend to be used to lubricate machine parts, especially if the machine is cutting at a low speed. They can also be used to remove debris from the work surface and keep the parts of the machine cool. They also have the added benefit of preventing machine corrosion, which can in turn help industrial machines to have longer lives. Thermal Oils Thermal oils are also often used as industrial lubricants. These are oils that carry thermal energy and they are used in a huge range of different industries as they have multiple applications. Some of these uses overlap with the uses of cutting fluids, such as the way they can help to cool the parts of machines. Thermal oils can also be used in metal working and any other industrial process that requires a combination of heat and beneficial lubrication. Dielectric Greases

Another common form of industrial lubricant is dielectric greases. These are generally used for reducing the wear and tear of machinery, helping it to last for longer and it stay in good condition for an extended period of time. This means that dielectric greases are important to the health of a lot of industrial machinery. They also reduce friction and are commonly used on electrical items, as the name suggests. For instance, they are used on transformers and capacitors. They also coat and lubricate machinery, protecting it while it is in use. Hydraulic Fluids One final common type of industrial lubricant is hydraulic fluid. Hydraulic fluids are mainly used in hydraulic machinery in purposes that are related to the transmission of power. Due to the nature of hydraulic machinery, these fluids are generally based on water or mineral oils. They can also include synthetic lubricants and emulsions. The nature of them and the work they are most commonly used for means that hydraulic fluids can be most commonly found in industries such as the military, automotive businesses, marine work and aerospace firms. Overall, there are many types of industrial lubricant and while they share some purposes - such as protecting the components of machines - they also have different compounds, which make different fluids suited to different industries. This means it is really important to make sure you use the right lubrication for the job, no matter what industry you work in or what you want the fluid to do.

Flood Light Installation Step-By-Step

Print this Add Your Own Project comments Outdoor flood lights provide added security to your home as well as lighting up a good portion of your deck, or patio for extended nighttime entertaining. Outdoor flood lights come in a wide variety of shapes, colors, and styles. They will add some value to your home while also giving your home great nighttime curb appeal. Materials Needed Electrical Wire - Make sure it matches the correct amperage needed. Electrical Switch Electrical Box Screwdrivers Wire Cutter and Stripper Sawz All Plastic Caps Step One - Shut Off Power The first step in any type of electrical work is to shut off the power. Trying to do electrical work with the power still on is a very dangerous. Any touch of a tool, or your skin, can cause severe injury, and even disability. Ads by Google Electrical Training Call 0800 298 4200. Full training & business / job support - Nationwide www.olci.info Wiring Diagram Electric We Are Here To Help You For Free! Solving Problems Is Easy As 123. www.FixYa.com/ Wiring+Diagram+Electric

Step Two - Determine Location and Prepare Locate the position where you want to install the flood lights. You can attach these lights to a garage, outside of your home overlooking a patio, or even along a fence post to light up more of your yard. Once you have the place located, cut a hole in that position. Cut the hole large enough to place the electrical box. Step Three - Locate Area for Switch and Connect to Power Determine where you want to place the light switch and cut the hole in the wall. Once the hole is in the wall you will need to fish the wire through the electrical switch box. Getting power to your switch can happen in one of two ways. You can run a wire to the nearest plug outlet, or you can wire to direct to a breaker if you are running the light on its own circuit. To connecting to the outlet, you will need to pull out the outlet from the electrical box. Unscrew the cover and the outlet and slide it out. Fish the new wire through to wall until you get to the outlet. Connect the black wire to the black on the outlet and the same with the white. Connect the ground wire and reinstall the outlet. Run the wire through to the breaker box. Thread the wire through the access area of the breaker and connect the black wire into the chosen breaker's set screw. Attach the white and green wire to the metal bar in the breaker and tighten. Step Four - Install Flood Light After all the wire connections are made in the house, run the wire out to wherever you are installing your flood lights. Bring wire in through the electrical box and strip the wire back at least an inch. Twist the corresponding wires together from the light to the power supply. Screw the flood light onto the electrical box with the supplied hardware. Step Five - Connect Light Switch Take the black wire from the power source and screw onto the bottom of the light switch, while the black wire from the flood lights goes onto the top screw. Attach the bare copper wire to the green screw and set the light switch into the box. Secure it with the screws provided and attach the face plate.

How To Install Track Lighting

By K D Crawford
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One way to accentuate and brighten a room is to remove the old ceiling fixture and install track lighting. Track lighting uses multiple fixtures which install into a track. These fixtures remove and install onto the track quickly, allowing you the flexibility to create a mood or accentuate items on a wall. Installing track lighting does involve some electrical work. You will be removing the existing light fixture to make way for the track lighting. Follow a few simple rules such as turning off the power to the fixture, and the installation will be straightforward and safe. Materials Needed: Step ladder Helper Phillips-head screwdriver

Pencil Drill Wire nut connectors Remove The Existing Fixture Open up your home electrical panel box and find the circuit breaker that powers the light fixture you are removing. Check to be sure the power is off by turning on the light switch. Place a step ladder under the fixture so you can safely reach it without stretching. Remove the globe or cover from the light fixture and unscrew the light bulb. If possible, ask a friend to help so you can hand down stuff without going up and down the ladder. Remove the screws securing the fixture to the ceiling junction box with a Phillips-head screwdriver. Lower the fixture slowly until you see the wires connectors. Twist the wire connectors securing the house wires to the fixture wires counterclockwise. The wire connectors look like plastic plugs. The ends of the wires insert into the connector and twist together when the connector is attached. Pull the fixture wires away from the house wires. Remove the fixture from the ceiling. Install Track Lighting Thread the house wires through track lighting mounting plate. Secure the mounting plate to the ceiling junction box with the screws provided in your track lighting kit. Position the track onto the ceiling over the junction box. If possible, have your helper hold the track in place while you mark the mounting holes to the ceiling with a pencil. Place the track out of your way. Drill holes in the ceiling at your mounting marks with a drill bit large enough for the toggle bolt wings to fit through. When installing track lighting, it is necessary to use toggle bolts to add stability to the track. These are included in the track kit. Place a washer over each toggle bolt and insert the bolt through the track with the threaded end pointing toward the ceiling. Thread the toggle wings onto each bolt. Position the track over the mounting holes and insert the toggle bolts into the mounting holes. You will have to fold the toggle wings with your fingers to insert them into the mounting holes. Tighten each toggle bolt with a Phillips-head screwdriver. Pull the ends of the wires through the track, if the lighting kit you are installing uses wires in the track. Connect the lighting wires to the same colored house wires using plastic wire nuts to secure them together. Some kits now use a wire terminal connector. Loosen the terminal screws on the connector and attach the wires according to the manufacturers instructions. Snap the connector into the track below the mounting plate. Position the track lighting cover over the junction box and press firmly until it snaps secure over the track. Twist the individual fixtures into the track and position them to your liking. Screw in the appropriate size light bulb into each fixture. Turn on the circuit breaker to the track lighting. Test the lighting with the wall switch.

LIGHTING FUNDAMENTALS
LIGHTING UPGRADE MANUAL US EPA Office of Air and Radiation 6202J EPA 430-B-95-003, January 1995 U.S. EPA Green Lights Program ILLUMINATION

Quantity of Illumination

Quality of Illumination

Quantity of Illumination

Light Output The most common measure of light output (or luminous flux) is the lumen. Light sources are labeled with an output rating in lumens. For example, a T12 40-watt fluorescent lamp may have a rating of 3050 lumens. Similarly, a light fixture's output can be expressed in lumens. As lamps and fixtures age and become dirty, their lumen output decreases (i.e., lumen depreciation occurs). Most lamp ratings are based on initial lumens (i.e., when the lamp is new). Light Level Light intensity measured on a plane at a specific location is called illuminance. Illuminance is measured in footcandles, which are workplane lumens per square foot. You can measure illuminance using a light meter located on the work surface where tasks are performed. Using simple arithmetic and manufacturers' photometric data, you can predict illuminance for a defined space. (Lux is the metric unit for illuminance, measured in lumens per square meter. To convert footcandles to lux, multiply footcandles by 10.76.) Brightness Another measurement of light is luminance, sometimes called brightness. This measures light "leaving" a surface in a particular direction, and considers the illuminance on the surface and the reflectance of the surface. The human eye does not see illuminance; it sees luminance. Therefore, the amount of light delivered into the space and the reflectance of the surfaces in the space affects your ability to see. Refer to the GLOSSARY at the end of this document for more detailed definitions. Quantity Measures

Luminous flux is commonly called light output and is measured in lumens (lm). Illuminance is called light level and is measured in footcandles (fc). Luminance is referred to as brightness and is measured in footlamberts (fL) or candelas/m2 (cd/m2).

Determining Target Light Levels

The Illuminating Engineering Society of North America has developed a procedure for determining the appropriate average light level for a particular space. This procedure ( used extensively by designers and engineers ( recommends a target light level by considering the following:

the task(s) being performed (contrast, size, etc.) the ages of the occupants the importance of speed and accuracy

Then, the appropriate type and quantity of lamps and light fixtures may be selected based on the following:

fixture efficiency lamp lumen output the reflectance of surrounding surfaces the effects of light losses from lamp lumen depreciation and dirt accumulation room size and shape availability of natural light (daylight)

When designing a new or upgraded lighting system, one must be careful to avoid overlighting a space. In the past, spaces were designed for as much as 200 footcandles in places where 50

footcandles may not only be adequate, but superior. This was partly due to the misconception that the more light in a space, the higher the quality. Not only does overlighting waste energy, but it can also reduce lighting quality. Refer to Exhibit 2 for light levels recommended by the Illuminating Engineering Society of North America. Within a listed range of illuminance, three factors dictate the proper level: age of the occupant(s), speed and accuracy requirements, and background contrast. For example, to light a space that uses computers, the overhead light fixtures should provide up to 30 fc of ambient lighting. The task lights should provide the additional footcandles needed to achieve a total illuminance of up to 50 fc for reading and writing. For illuminance recommendations for specific visual tasks, refer to the IES Lighting Handbook, 1993, or to the IES Recommended Practice No. 24 (for VDT lighting). Quality Measures

Visual comfort probability (VCP) indicates the percent of people who are comfortable with the glare from a fixture. Spacing criteria (SC) refers to the maximum recommended distance between fixtures to ensure uniformity. Color rendering index (CRI) indicates the color appearance of an object under a source as compared to a reference source.

Quality of Illumination Improvements in lighting quality can yield high dividends for US businesses. Gains in worker productivity may result by providing corrected light levels with reduced glare. Although the cost of energy for lighting is substantial, it is small compared with the cost of labor. Therefore, these gains in productivity may be even more valuable than the energy savings associated with new lighting technologies. In retail spaces, attractive and comfortable lighting designs can attract clientele and enhance sales.

Three quality issues are addressed in this section.

glare uniformity of illuminance color rendition

Glare Perhaps the most important factor with respect to lighting quality is glare. Glare is a sensation caused by luminances in the visual field that are too bright. Discomfort, annoyance, or reduced productivity can result.

A bright object alone does not necessarily cause glare, but a bright object in front of a dark background, however, usually will cause glare. Contrast is the relationship between the luminance of an object and its background. Although the visual task generally becomes easier with increased contrast, too much contrast causes glare and makes the visual task much more difficult. You can reduce glare or luminance ratios by not exceeding suggested light levels and by using lighting equipment designed to reduce glare. A louver or lens is commonly used to block direct viewing of a light source. Indirect lighting, or uplighting, can create a low glare environment by uniformly lighting the ceiling. Also, proper fixture placement can reduce reflected glare on work surfaces or computer screens. Standard data now provided with luminaire specifications include tables of its visual comfort probability (VCP) ratings for various room geometries. The VCP index provides an indication of the percentage of people in a given space that would find the glare from a fixture to be acceptable. A minimum VCP of 70 is recommended for commercial interiors, while luminaires with VCPs exceeding 80 are recommended in computer areas.

Uniformity of Illuminance on Tasks The uniformity of illuminance is a quality issue that addresses how evenly light spreads over a task area. Although a room's average illuminance may be appropriate, two factors may compromise uniformity.

improper fixture placement based on the luminaire's spacing criteria (ratio of maxim recommended fixture spacing distance to mounting height above task height) fixtures that are retrofit with reflectors that narrow the light distribution

Non-uniform illuminance causes several problems:

inadequate light levels in some areas visual discomfort when tasks require frequent shifting of view from underlit to overlit areas bright spots and patches of light on floors and walls that cause distraction and generate a low quality appearance

Color Rendition

The ability to see colors properly is another aspect of lighting quality. Light sources vary in their ability to accurately reflect the true colors of people and objects. The color rendering index (CRI) scale is used to compare the effect of a light source on the color appearance of its surroundings. A scale of 0 to 100 defines the CRI. A higher CRI means better color rendering, or less color shift. CRIs in the range of 75-100 are considered excellent, while 65-75 are good. The range of 55-65 is fair, and 0-55 is poor. Under higher CRI sources, surface colors appear brighter, improving the aesthetics of the space. Sometimes, higher CRI sources create the illusion of higher illuminance levels. The CRI values for selected light sources are tabulated with other lamp data in Exhibit 3. Back to the Table of Contents
Incandescent Lamps Standard Incandescent Lamp

Incandescent lamps are one of the oldest electric lighting technologies available. With efficacies ranging from 6 to 24 lumens per watt, incandescent lamps are the least energy-efficient electric light source and have a relatively short life (750-2500 hours). Light is produced by passing a current through a tungsten filament, causing it to become hot and glow. With use, the tungsten slowly evaporates, eventually causing the filament to break. These lamps are available in many shapes and finishes. The two most common types of shapes are the common "A-type" lamp and the reflector-shaped lamps.
Tungsten-Halogen Lamps The tungsten halogen lamp is another type of incandescent lamp. In a halogen lamp, a small quartz capsule contains the filament and a halogen gas. The small capsule size allows the filament to operate at a higher temperature, which produces light at a higher efficacy than standard incandescents. The halogen gas combines with the evaporated tungsten, redepositing it on the filament. This process extends the life of the filament and keeps the bulb wall from blackening and reducing light output.

Because the filament is relatively small, this source is often used where a highly focused beam is desired. Compact halogen lamps are popular in retail applications for display and accent lighting. In addition, tungsten-halogen lamps generally produce a whiter light than other incandescent lamps, are more efficient, last longer, and have improved lamp lumen depreciation.

Incandescent A-Lamp More efficient halogen lamps are available. These sources use an infrared coating on the quartz bulb or an advanced reflector design to redirect infrared light back to the filament. The filament then glows hotter and the efficiency of the source is increased. Fluorescent Lamps

Fluorescent lamps are the most commonly used commercial light source in North America. In fact, fluorescent lamps illuminate 71% of the commercial space in the United States. Their popularity can be attributed to their relatively high efficacy, diffuse light distribution characteristics, and long operating life.

Fluorescent lamp construction consists of a glass tube with the following features: filled with an argon or argon-krypton gas and a small amount of mercury coated on the inside with phosphors equipped with an electrode at both ends

Fluorescent lamps provide light by the following process:

An electric discharge (current) is maintained between the electrodes through the mercury vapor and inert gas. This current excites the mercury atoms, causing them to emit non-visible ultraviolet (UV) radiation. This UV radiation is converted into visible light by the phosphors lining the tube.

Discharge lamps (such as fluorescent) require a ballast to provide correct starting voltage and to regulate the operating current after the lamp has started.
Full-Size Fluorescent Lamps Full-size fluorescent lamps are available in several shapes, including straight, Ushaped, and circular configurations. Lamp diameters range from 1" to 2.5". The most common lamp type is the four-foot (F40), 1.5" diameter (T12) straight fluorescent lamp. More efficient fluorescent lamps are now available in smaller diameters, including the T10 (1.25 ") and T8 (1").

Fluorescent lamps are available in color temperatures ranging from warm (2700(K) "incandescent-like" colors to very cool (6500(K) "daylight" colors. "Cool white" (4100(K) is the most common fluorescent lamp color. Neutral white (3500(K) is becoming popular for office and retail use. Improvements in the phosphor coating of fluorescent lamps have improved color rendering and made some fluorescent lamps acceptable in many applications previously dominated by incandescent lamps.
Performance Considerations The performance of any luminaire system depends on how well its components work together. With fluorescent lamp-ballast systems, light output, input watts, and efficacy are sensitive to changes in the ambient temperature. When the ambient temperature around the lamp is significantly above or below 25C (77F), the performance of the system can change. Exhibit 6 shows this relationship for two common lamp-ballast systems: the F40T12 lamp with a magnetic ballast and the F32T8 lamp with an electronic ballast.

As you can see, the optimum operating temperature for the F32T8 lamp-ballast system is higher than for the F40T12 system. Thus, when the ambient temperature is greater than 25C (77F), the performance of the F32T8 system may be higher than the performance under ANSI conditions. Lamps with smaller diameters (such as T-5 twin tube lamps) peak at even higher ambient temperatures.

Compact Fluorescent Lamps Advances in phosphor coatings and reductions of tube diameters have facilitated the development of compact fluorescent lamps.

Manufactured since the early 1980s, they are a long-lasting, energy-efficient substitute for the incandescent lamp. Various wattages, color temperatures, and sizes are available. The wattages of the compact fluorescents range from 5 to 40 ( replacing incandescent lamps ranging from 25 to 150 watts ( and provide energy savings of 60 to 75 percent. While producing light similar in color to incandescent sources, the life expectancy of a compact fluorescent is about 10 times that of a standard incandescent lamp. Note, however, that the use of compact fluorescent lamps is very limited in dimming applications. The compact fluorescent lamp with an Edison screw-base offers an easy means to upgrade an incandescent luminaire. Screw-in compact fluorescents are available in two types:

Integral Units. These consist of a compact fluorescent lamp and ballast in self-contained units. Some integral units also include a reflector and/or glass enclosure. Modular Units. The modular type of retrofit compact fluorescent lamp is similar to the integral units, except that the lamp is replaceable.

A Specifier Report that compares the performance of various name-brand compact fluorescent lamps is now available from the National Lighting Product Information Program ("Screw-Base Compact Fluorescent Lamp Products," Specifier Reports, Volume 1, Issue 6, April 1993). High-Intensity Discharge Lamps High-intensity discharge (HID) lamps are similar to fluorescents in that an arc is generated between two electrodes. The arc in a HID source is shorter, yet it generates much more light, heat, and pressure within the arc tube.

Originally developed for outdoor and industrial applications, HID lamps are also used in office, retail, and other indoor applications. Their color rendering characteristics have been improved and lower wattages have recently become available ( as low as 18 watts. There are several advantages to HID sources:

relatively long life (5,000 to 24,000+ hrs) relatively high lumen output per watt relatively small in physical size

However, the following operating limitations must also be considered. First, HID lamps require time to warm up. It varies from lamp to lamp, but the average warm-up time is 2 to 6 minutes. Second, HID lamps have a "restrike" time, meaning a momentary interruption of current or a voltage drop too low to maintain the arc will extinguish the lamp. At that point, the gases inside the lamp are too hot to ionize, and time is needed for the gases to cool and pressure to drop before the arc will restrike. This process of restriking takes between 5 and 15 minutes, depending on which HID source is being used. Therefore, good applications of HID lamps are areas where lamps are not switched on and off intermittently. The following HID sources are listed in increasing order of efficacy:

mercury vapor metal halide high pressure sodium low pressure sodium

Mercury Vapor

Clear mercury vapor lamps, which produce a blue-green light, consist of a mercury-vapor arc tube with tungsten electrodes at both ends. These lamps have the lowest efficacies of the HID

family, rapid lumen depreciation, and a low color rendering index. Because of these characteristics, other HID sources have replaced mercury vapor lamps in many applications. However, mercury vapor lamps are still popular sources for landscape illumination because of their 24,000 hour lamp life and vivid portrayal of green landscapes. The arc is contained in an inner bulb called the arc tube. The arc tube is filled with high purity mercury and argon gas. The arc tube is enclosed within the outer bulb, which is filled with nitrogen. Color-improved mercury lamps use a phosphor coating on the inner wall of the bulb to improve the color rendering index, resulting in slight reductions in efficiency.
Metal Halide These lamps are similar to mercury vapor lamps but use metal halide additives inside the arc tube along with the mercury and argon. These additives enable the lamp to produce more visible light per watt with improved color rendition.

Wattages range from 32 to 2,000, offering a wide range of indoor and outdoor applications. The efficacy of metal halide lamps ranges from 50 to 115 lumens per watt ( typically about double that of mercury vapor. In short, metal halide lamps have several advantages.

high efficacy good color rendering wide range of wattages

However, they also have some operating limitations:

The rated life of metal halide lamps is shorter than other HID sources; lowerwattage lamps last less than 7500 hours while high-wattage lamps last an average of 15,000 to 20,000 hours. The color may vary from lamp to lamp and may shift over the life of the lamp and during dimming.

Because of the good color rendition and high lumen output, these lamps are good for sports arenas and stadiums. Indoor uses include large auditoriums and convention halls. These lamps are sometimes used for general outdoor lighting, such as parking facilities, but a high pressure sodium system is typically a better choice.
High Pressure Sodium The high pressure sodium (HPS) lamp is widely used for outdoor and industrial applications. Its higher efficacy makes it a better choice than metal halide for these applications, especially when good color rendering is not a priority. HPS lamps differ from mercury and metal-halide lamps in that they do not contain starting electrodes; the ballast circuit includes a high-voltage electronic starter. The arc tube is made of a ceramic material which can withstand temperatures up to 2372F. It is filled with xenon to help start the arc, as well as a sodium-mercury gas mixture.

The efficacy of the lamp is very high ( as much as 140 lumens per watt. For example, a 400-watt high pressure sodium lamp produces 50,000 initial lumens. The same wattage metal halide lamp produces 40,000 initial lumens, and the 400-watt mercury vapor lamp produces only 21,000 initially. Sodium, the major element used, produces the "golden" color that is characteristic of HPS lamps. Although HPS lamps are not generally recommended for applications where color rendering is critical, HPS color rendering properties are being improved. Some HPS lamps are now available in "deluxe" and "white" colors that provide higher color temperature and improved color rendition. The efficacy of low-wattage "white" HPS lamps is lower than that of metal halide lamps (lumens per watt of low-wattage metal halide is 75-85, while white HPS is 50-60 LPW).

Low Pressure Sodium Although low pressure sodium (LPS) lamps are similar to fluorescent systems (because they are low pressure systems), they are commonly included in the HID family. LPS lamps are the most efficacious light sources, but they produce the poorest quality light of all the lamp types. Being a monochromatic light source, all colors appear black, white, or shades of gray under an LPS source. LPS lamps are available in wattages ranging from 18-180.

LPS lamp use has been generally limited to outdoor applications such as security or street lighting and indoor, low-wattage applications where color quality is not important (e.g. stairwells). However, because the color rendition is so poor, many municipalities do not allow them for roadway lighting. Because the LPS lamps are "extended" (like fluorescent), they are less effective in directing and controlling a light beam, compared with "point sources" like high-pressure sodium and metal halide. Therefore, lower mounting heights will provide better results with LPS lamps. To compare a LPS installation with other alternatives, calculate the installation efficacy as the average maintained footcandles divided by the input watts per square foot of illuminated area. The input wattage of an LPS system increases over time to maintain consistent light output over the lamp life. The low-pressure sodium lamp can explode if the sodium comes in contact with water. Dispose of these lamps according to the manufacturer's instructions. Back to the Table of Contents
Fluorescent Ballasts

The two general types of fluorescent ballasts are magnetic and electronic ballasts:
Magnetic Ballasts Magnetic ballasts (also referred to as electromagnetic ballasts) fall into one of the following categories:

standard core-coil (no longer sold in the US for most applications) high-efficiency core-coil cathode cut-out or hybrid

Standard core-coil magnetic ballasts are essentially core-coil transformers that are relatively inefficient in operating fluorescent lamps. The high-efficiency ballast replaces the aluminum wiring and lower grade steel of the standard ballast with copper wiring and enhanced ferromagnetic materials. The result of these material upgrades is a 10 percent system efficiency improvement. However, note that these "high efficiency" ballasts are the least efficient magnetic ballasts that are available for operating full-size fluorescent lamps. More efficient ballasts are described below. "Cathode cut-out" (or "hybrid") ballasts are high-efficiency core-coil ballasts that incorporate electronic components that cut off power to the lamp cathodes (filaments) after the lamps are lit, resulting in an additional 2-watt savings per standard lamp. Also, many partial-output T12 hybrid ballasts provide up to 10% less light output while consuming up to 17% less energy than energyefficient magnetic ballasts. Full-output T8 hybrid ballasts are nearly as efficient as rapid-start two-lamp T8 electronic ballasts.
Electronic Ballasts In nearly every full-size fluorescent lighting application, electronic ballasts can be used in place of conventional magnetic "core-and-coil" ballasts. Electronic ballasts improve fluorescent system efficacy by converting the standard 60 Hz input frequency to a higher frequency, usually 25,000 to 40,000 Hz. Lamps operating at these higher frequencies produce about the same amount of light, while consuming 12 to 25 percent less power. Other advantages of electronic ballasts include less audible noise, less weight, virtually no lamp flicker, and dimming capabilities (with specific ballast models).

There are three electronic ballast designs available: Standard T12 electronic ballasts (430 mA) These ballasts are designed for use with conventional (T12 or T10) fluorescent lighting systems. Some electronic ballasts that are designed for use with 4' lamps can operate up to four lamps at a time. Parallel wiring is another feature now available that allows all companion lamps in the ballast circuit to continue operating in the event of a lamp failure. Electronic ballasts are also available for 8' standard and high-output T12 lamps. T8 Electronic ballasts (265 mA) Specifically designed for use with T8 (1-inch diameter) lamps, the T8 electronic ballast provides the highest efficiency of any fluorescent lighting system. Some T8 electronic ballasts are designed to start the lamps in the conventional rapid start mode, while others are operated in the instant start mode. The use of instant start T8 electronic ballasts may result in up to 25 percent reduction in lamp life (at 3 hours per start) but produces slight increases in efficiency and light output. (Note: Lamp life ratings for instant start and rapid start are the same for 12 or more hours per start.) Dimmable electronic ballasts These ballasts permit the light output of the lamps to be dimmed based on input from manual dimmer controls or from devices that sense daylight or occupancy.
Types of Fluorescent Circuits There are three main types of fluorescent circuits:

rapid start instant start preheat

The specific fluorescent circuit in use can be identified by the label on the ballast. The rapid start circuit is the most used system today. Rapid start ballasts provide continuous lamp filament heating during lamp operation (except when used with a cathode cut-out ballast or lamp). Users notice a very short delay after "flipping the switch," before the lamp is started. The instant start system ignites the arc within the lamp instantly. This ballast provides a higher starting voltage, which eliminates the need for a separate starting circuit. This higher starting voltage causes more wear on the filaments, resulting in reduced lamp life compared with rapid starting. The preheat circuit was used when fluorescent lamps first became available. This technology is used very little today, except for low-wattage magnetic ballast applications such as compact fluorescents. A separate starting switch, called a starter, is used to aid in forming the arc. The filament needs some time to reach proper temperature, so the lamp does not strike for a few seconds.
HID Ballasts Like fluorescent lamps, HID lamps require a ballast to start and operate. The purposes of the ballast are similar: to provide starting voltage, to limit the current, and to match the line voltage to the arc voltage.

With HID ballasts, a major performance consideration is lamp wattage regulation when the line voltage varies. With HPS lamps, the ballast must compensate for changes in the lamp voltage as well as for changes in the line voltages. Installing the wrong HID ballast can cause a variety of problems:

waste energy and increase operating cost severely shorten lamp life significantly add to system maintenance costs

produce lower-than-desired light levels increase wiring and circuit breaker installation costs result in lamp cycling when voltage dips occur

Capacitive switching is available in new HID luminaires with special HID ballasts. The most common application for HID capacitive switching is in occupancy-sensed bi-level lighting control. Upon sensing motion, the occupancy sensor will send a signal to the bi-level HID system that will rapidly bring the light levels from a standby reduced level to approximately 80% of full output, followed by the normal warm-up time between 80% and 100% of full light output. Depending on the lamp type and wattage, the standby lumens are roughly 15-40% of full output and the input watts are 30-60% of full wattage. Therefore, during periods that the space is unoccupied and the system is dimmed, savings of 40-70% are achieved. Electronic ballasts for some types of HID lamps are starting to become commercially available. These ballasts offer the advantages of reduced size and weight, as well as better color control; however, electronic HID ballasts offer minimal efficiency gains over magnetic HID ballasts.

Types of Electrical Tools

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Timothy Sexton Timothy Sexton is an award-winning author who started writing in 1994. He has written on topics ranging from politics and golf to nutrition and travel, and his work appears online for Zappos.com, Disaboom and MOJO, among others. He has also done work for "Sherlock Holmes and Philosophy." He holds a Bachelor of Arts in English from the University of West Florida. By Timothy Sexton, eHow Contributor

updated December 03, 2010

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Wire cutters need to be able to cut through the insulation without damaging the wire. Lew Robertson/Brand X Pictures/Getty Images

Working with electricity is a very dangerous undertaking. One of the safety steps you want to take is making sure you are using tools that are designed for working with electrical equipment. Some electrical tools are those that can be found in the typical home toolbox. Other electrical tools are much more specialized for working with the specific requirements of dealing with wires and cables.

Pliers
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A set of pliers is a must for electrical work. You need pliers to help with things like grabbing and turning parts, forming loops on the end of wires and turning very small parts. Lineman's pliers and needle-nose pliers are especially effective tools to use when dealing with electrical wiring.

Wire Stripping Tools

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Wire stripping tools help to remove the insulation from the ends of wires without damaging the wire itself. A dedicated tool called a wire stripper can be adjusted to deal with multiple sizes of wire. The multipurpose tool comes in handy for many electrical jobs, including stripping wire of various gauges.

Screwdrivers
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Screwdrivers of various sizes are needed for electrical work. You will need a screwdriver to remove screws from junction boxes or switch plates on the wall. An offset screwdriver tips at right angles to its shaft, allowing your to work in awkward places that you could not reach with a standard straight screwdriver.

Cable Ripper
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One of the specialty tools used for electrical work is the cable ripper. This is a very simple and affordable tool that allows you to easily slice through outer insulation on two-wire cables. The cable ripper won't usually work on bigger cable, so also carry a utility knife in your toolbox.

Fuse Puller
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The fuse puller is another electrical specialty tool. This tool allows for easy removal of cartridge fuses. Pick one made of plastic to reduce the risk of shock.

Testing Devices
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Testing devices are the centerpiece of specialized electrical tools. A continuity tester determines whether the electrical path of a circuit is damaged or not. The multitester can diagnose problems with voltage as well as continuity in a circuit. A neon tester can confirm that power to the circuit is turned off before you start repair work. Two-part circuit finders helps to determine which devices are on which circuit breaker.

Soldering Gun
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A soldering gun is used for making a strong electrical connection between two copper wires twisted together. You can also use a soldering gun to make a connection between a wire that is twisted onto the terminal of some kind of electrical device and that device.

Cutting Tools
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A standard hacksaw can be drafted into electrical repair action when you need to cut metal conduit or sheathing. An alternative to the hacksaw is the armored cable cutter. For cutting metal conduit, you can rent a special conduit bender or buy one if you find the need to use one often.

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