Program Report For 1997

Research programs Irrigated rice ecosystem
RAISING THE YIELD PLATEAU 4 Germplasm developed with high yield potential 4 Development of new plant type (PBGB, APPA) 4 Grain yield of indica cultivars and lines developed since 1966 (PBGB) 5 Disease resistance (PBGB, EPP) 6 Selection of monogenic lines for blast resistance (PBGB, EPP) 6 Partial resistance of IR cultivars to blast (PBGB) 9 Allelism of blast resistance genes in IR cultivars (PBGB) 9 Cold tolerance (PBGB) 11 Hybrid rice 12 Release of IRRI hybrids (PBGB) 12 Elite rice hybrids (PBGB) 12 New cytoplasmic male sterile (CMS) lines (PBGB) 13 Elite breeding lines (PBGB) 14 IR lines named as varieties (PBGB) 14 REVERSING TRENDS OF DECLINING PRODUCTIVITY 14 Characterization of rice farms and input use 14 Farm size (SS) 15 Input use (SS) 15 Soil N supply as affected by crop rotation and residue management 18 Rice-upland crop rotation experiment, 1993-95 (SWS, APPA) 18 Plant growth and grain yield (SWS, APPA) 18 Carbon turnover (SWS, APPA) 20 IMPROVING PEST MANAGEMENT 20 Systems for sustainable farm-level IPM 20 Host range studies of a weed biocontrol agent (EPP) 20
Durability of brown planthopper resistance in IR64 (EPP) 21 Monitoring of tungro in the Philippines (EPP) 21 EXAMINING GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE 21 CO2 temperature effects on rice quantified (SWS) 21 Methane emission quantified and mitigation options developed (SWS) 23 IMPROVING RICE-WHEAT SYSTEMS 23 Soil N supply and fertilizer use efficiency in the R-W system of the piedmont of Nepal (SWS) 23 Recovery and balances of 15N-labeled urea in a R-W system as affected by rice residue management (SWS) 24 Accumulation of phenols and fatty acids in soil organic matter of rice-wheat soils (SWS) 26 Use of the SPAD meter to time topdressing of N in rice-wheat (SWS) 27 Estimating phosphorus-supplying capacity of soils in a R-W system (SWS) 28 A characterization of rice pests and quantification of yield losses in the R-W system of India (EPP) 30 Cluster and correspondence analysis (EPP) 31 Principal component analysis and multiple regression (EPP) 32 PROGRESS OF UNREPORTED PROJECTS 33 Improving nutrient management (APPA, SWS, CREMNET) 33 Identifying tillage and water interactions (SWS) 33 Developing postharvest technology (AE) 34 Sustaining the irrigated lowland resource base (APPA, SWS, SS, EPP, AE) 35 PROGRAM OUTLOOK 35
Irrigated rice ecosystem
The demand for rice is projected to increase by as much as 70% over the next 30 yr. More than 80 million ha of the worlds 141 million ha rice area are planted to irrigated rice, which produces more than 75% of the worlds rice. Thus, major increases in rice production must come from irrigated rice. Irrigated ricelands have the potential to sustain the required rice production, but as populations increase, there will be increased competition for the land, labor, and water required for intensive irrigated rice production. Moreover, growing environmental concerns make it imperative that the additional rice production be achieved with minimal environmental impact. The irrigated rice ecosystem research program takes a three-part approach to increasing rice production: 1) increase the efficiency of crop production inputs, 2) shift the rice yield frontier upward, and 3) sustain the resource base for irrigated lowlands.
Raising the yield plateau

Germplasm developed with high yield potential This project develops germplasm with high yield potential, superior grain quality, multiple resistance to diseases and insects, and growth duration of 100140 d. Work in 1997 included 393 crosses, F 2 populations from 210 crosses grown, 56,479 pedigree nursery rows evaluated, and 729 advancedgeneration breeding lines in replicated yield trials. Thirty-five elite breeding lines were evaluated in multilocation lowland rice performance trials coordinated by the Philippine Rice Research Institute (PhilRice).
DEVELOPMENT OF NEW PLANT TYPE
Numerous breeding lines of the new plant type (NPT) were evaluated in observational trials during wet season (WS) and replicated yield trials during dry season (DS). Most of the NPT lines yielded well
Table 1. Yield performance and maturity of promising NPT lines in a WS observational trial. IRRI, 1997. Line Maturity (d) 120 115 114 112 110 109 113 113 113 119 Grain yield (t ha-1) 6.1 6.8 6.2 6.2 6.6 6.2 6.3 6.1 6.6 6.4
IR65564-44-2-3 IR65600-42-5-2 IR65600-54-6-3 IR65600-87-2-2-3 IR66159-189-5-5-3 IR66160-5-2-3-2 IR66160-121-4-1-1 IR66160-121-4-4-2 IR66160-121-4-5-3 IR68552-55-3-2
IRRI program report for 1997
Table 2. Agronomic traits and yield performance of promising NPT lines grown during DS. IRRI, 1997. Maturity (d) Plant height (cm) 93 95 91 95 93 86 92 87 96 100 Tillers (no.) Panicle length (cm) 26 25 27 25 22 22 21 21 28 25 Grains panicle-1 Filled 185 117 197 160 114 118 102 111 232 164 Sterile 33.8 15.8 21.1 29.9 26.8 5.3 5.7 5.3 39.1 20.5 84.6 87.6 90.3 84.2 81.4 95.7 94.6 95.4 87.8 88.9 Fertility (%) Grain yield (t ha-1) 9.4 9.6 9.3 9.9 8.9 9.1 8.9 9.1 8.9 8.9
Line
IR65564-44-2-3 IR65600-27-1-2-2 IR65600-127-6-2-3 IR66158-38-3-2-1 IR66159-189-5-5-3 IR66160-121-4-1-1 IR66160-121-4-4-2 IR66160-121-4-5-3 IR66750-6-2-1 IR68011-15-1-1
122 112 118 112 112 113 114 113 119 120
4 4 3 3 5 5 5 5 4 5
in the WS observation trial. Those that yielded more than 6 t ha-1 are listed in Table 1. A number of NPT lines yielded well during 1997 DS (Table 2). Most of the lines listed had good grain filling. Several of the advanced breeding lines are resistant to blast and bacterial blight (BB). A large number of crosses were made between NPT and improved indica lines with multiple disease and insect resistance. Progenies with long slender grains and resistance to brown planthopper (BPH) and green leafhopper (GLH) were selected from those crosses.
GRAIN YIELD OF INDICA CULTIVARS AND LINES DEVELOPED SINCE 1966
A study initiated in 1996 looked at trends in the grain yield of rice cultivars and lines developed at IRRI since 1966. Associated changes in morphophysiological traits were also determined. Eleven semidwarf varieties and lines (IR8, IR20, IR26, IR30, IR36, IR50, IR60, IR64, IR72, IR59682-132-1-1-2, and IR65469-161-2-2-3-2-2) and a traditional variety with intermediate stature (BPI 76) were grown at IRRI and PhilRice during 1996 DS. Fourteen-day-old seedlings were transplanted on 13 Jan at IRRI and 9 Jan at PhilRice. Hill spacing was 0.2 0.2 m with 4 seedlings hill-1. Phosphorus (30 kg P ha1 as single superphosphate), potassium (40 kg K ha1 at IRRI and 80 kg at PhilRice as KCl), and zinc (5 kg Zn ha-1 as zinc sulfate heptahydrate) were applied and incorporated in all plots 1 d before transplanting. Nitrogen in the form of prilled urea was applied (60 kg as basal, 40 kg at mid-tillering, 60 kg at panicle initiation, and 40 kg at flowering). Standard management practices
were followed. Diseases and insects were controlled to avoid any crop damage. Stems were counted once every week during the growing season. Canopy height was measured in the field at maturity. Twelve hills were sampled from each plot at maturity. Plant dry weight was determined after oven drying at 70 C to constant weight. Panicles were hand-threshed and filled spikelets were separated by submerging them in tap water. The filled spikelets were then oven-dried at 70 C to constant weight for determining individual grain weight. Spikelets per panicle, grain-filling percentage, and harvest index (HI) were calculated. Grain yield was determined from a 5-m2 area from each plot and adjusted to a moisture content of 0.14 g H2O g-1 fresh weight. Regression analysis of grain yield against year of release indicated that annual gain in rice yield was 75 kg ha-1, which is equivalent to 1% yr-1. Increase in yield of cultivars released before 1980 was mainly due to the improvement in HI, but increases in total dry matter was associated with yield increase of cultivars developed after 1980. The 12 varieties and lines were further divided into three groups according to the year of release. Cultivars released in 1966-73 had greater height, longer growth duration. and larger panicle size than later releases (Tables 3 and 4). Lower yield of this group was due to poor grain filling. Cultivars released in 1974-83 had shorter stature, shorter growth duration, small panicles, and higher tillering capacity. Biomass production and grain weight limited the grain yield in this group although their HI was improved over the 1966-73 group. Varieties and lines developed in 1984-95 were moderate in plant height, growth duration, panicle size, and
Table 3. Yield components of indica rice cultivars released at different time periods.a IRRI, 1997. Year of release Panicles (no. m-2) 399 581 506 Spikelets panicle-1 (no.) 125 88 95 Spikelets (no. m-2) 49,516 51,328 47,726 Filled spikelets (%) 67 81 77 1000-grain weight (g) 20.8 20.2 23.7
1966-73 1974-83 1984-95
a Av of four cultivars in each period. Cultivars were BPI 76, IR8, IR20, and IR26 in the first period; IR30, IR36, IR50, and IR60 in the second period; and IR64, IR72, IR59682-132-1-1-2, and IR65469-161-2-2-3-2-2 in the third period.
Table 4. Growth duration, canopy height, tillering capacity, total dry matter, and harvest index of indica rice cultivars released at different time periods.a IRRI, 1997. Year of release 1966-73 1974-83 1984-95 Growth duration (d) 130 115 122 Canopy height (cm) 98 80 87 Maximum (stems hill-1) 36 48 43 Total dry matter (g m-2) 1655 1554 1764 Harvest index (%) 41.0 52.7 48.2
a Av of four cultivars in each period. Cultivars were BP I76, IR8, IR20, and IR26 in the first period; IR30, IR36, IR50, and IR60 in the second period; and IR64, IR72, IR59682-132-1-1-2, and IR65469-161-2-2-3-2-2 in the third period.
tillering ability. The yield improvement of this group over the older varieties was associated with high total dry matter and grain weight. The results suggest that further improvement in grain yield may come from increasing biomass production.
DISEASE RESISTANCE
Changes in races of BB pathogen. As a part of an effort to develop strategies for the deployment of BB resistance genes, the races of Xanthomonas oryzae pv oryzae (Xoo) were monitored for 3 yr in IR54, a partially resistant variety. IR54 was grown at Calauan, Laguna, in 1993-95 and at Mabitac, Laguna, in 1994-95. In previous experiments, IR54 was resistant to the indigenous races of Xoo present at the two sites. IR54 was planted as a border between plots of near-isogenic lines (NILs), such as IRBB4 (Xa4), IRBB7 (Xa7), IRBB10 (Xa10), and IR24 (susceptible check). The disease symptoms observed in IR54 were not the typical water-soaked lesions observed in susceptible varieties, such as IR24. Infected leaves were collected and bacteria isolated from the lesions. A set of NILs carrying specific BB resistance genes were inoculated with the bacterial isolates for race identification. Race 3 was found to be predominant at Calauan during 1993. Occurrence of races 2 and 9 was low. Race 3 was predominant (65%) in 1994 while races
2 (19%) and 9 (15%) were at minimal level. Level of race 3 declined (43%) in 1995 but race 9 became predominant (55%). Only one isolate belonging to race 2 was obtained. BB infection was not easily discernible at Mabitac. Only nine isolates were recovered in 1994 and all belonged to race 3. The total number of Xoo isolates recovered in 1995 increased to 31 with 27 isolates belonging to race 3. Only traces of races 2 (1 isolate) and 9 (3 isolates) were found.
SELECTION OF MONOGENIC LINES FOR BLAST RESISTANCE
Japanese differential varieties for blast pathogenicity were tested with Philippine blast isolates, but it was found that reactions of the varieties to the blast isolates were not clear due to additional genes, such as Pi sh or Pi k-s or unknown genes, which these varieties possess. Lines from which the extra gene, or genes, were excluded were developed and NILs were developed with single genes for resistance (Table 5). One of the recurrent parents of NILs was Lijiangxintuanheigu (LTH), which is supposed to possess no blast resistance genes. These lines should be useful for differentiating pathogenicity of blast isolates. They were inoculated with blast isolates. Lines from Japanese differentials, Shin 2 and BL1, were selected for Pi sh gene. These lines
Table 5. Monogenic lines for blast resistance. IRRI, 1997. Designation Resistance gene Pi a Pi a Pi i Pi k-s Pi k-s Pi k Pi k-m Pi k-m Pi k-p Pi k-h Pi z(?) Pi z Pi z-5 Pi z-t Pi ta Pi ta Pi ta Pi ta-2 Pi ta-2 Pi b Pi t Pi sh Pi sh Pi 1 Pi 3 Pi 5(t) Pi 6(t) Pi 7(t) Pi 8 Pi 9(t) Pi 10(t) Pi 11(t)? Pi 12(t) Pi 19(t) Pi 20 Pi 20 Resistance donor Aichi Asahi CO 39 Fujisaka 5 Fujisaka 5 Shin 2 Kanto 51 Tsuyuake K60 K3 Fukunishiki Zenith C101A51 Toride 1 Ki 101PKT C105TTP2L9 Pi No. 4 BL 1 K59 Shin 2 BL 1 C101LAC C104PKT RIL249a SML Apura RIL 29a Yano95F424b WHD-IS-75-1-127 Tongil Zhaiyeqing 8 RIL 10a Aichi Asahi ARL 24 (IR24) Asominori/IR24 RIL Generation Remark
IRBLa-A IRBLa-C IRBLi-F5 IRBLks-F5 IRBLks-S IRBLk-Ka MLkm-Ts Tsuyuake IRBLkp-K60 IRBLkh-K3 IRBLz-Fu MLz-Z IRBLz5-CA IRBLzt-T IRBLta-K1 Mlta-CP1 IRBLta-CT2 Mlta2-Pi Reiho IRBLb-B IRBLt-K59 IRBLsh-S IRBLsh-B IRBL1-CL IRBL3-CP4 IRBL5-M ML6-Ap IRBL7-M ML8-Kas IRBL9-W ML10-To ML11-Z IRBL12-m IRBL19-A ML20-IR24 ARL 20
a
BC1F7 BC1F7 BC1F7 BC1F7 BC1F7 BC1F5 BC1F3 BC1F5 BC2F5 BC1F7 BC3F2 BC3F5 BC1F7 BC2F5 BC2F5 BC3F5 BC1F3 BC1F5 BC2F5 BC1F7 BC1F5 BC3F5 BC2F5 BC3F5 BC2F3 BC3F5 BC1F2 BC3F5 BC1F3 BC2F5 BC2F5 BC1F7 BC1F3 -
Resistance segregates
Resistance segregates = Pi 2(t) = Pi 4(t) with pi a With pi a Resistance segregates with pi a
Resistance segregates Resistance segregates Av-isolates have not been found Resistance segregates with Pi b?
Resistance segregates with Pi a
RILs of CO 39/Moroberekan. bLines of Nipponbare/Kasalath.
showed almost same reactions to the blast isolates used, and the Pi sh gene in the two differentials is the same. BL1 possesses Pi b and Pi sh. However, resistance reactions of the variety were higher than expected on the basis of the combination of Pi b and Pi sh (Table 6). Fujisaka 5 and Shin 2 were reported to have the same Pi k-s gene. This gene was identified with isolates V86010 or V850196, which are avirulent to Pi k-s. Two selected lines, IRBLks-F5 from Fujisaka 5 and IRBLks-S from Shin 2, were resistant to both blast isolates. However, IRBLks-S showed a moderately resistant reaction to some blast isolates to which IRBLks-F5 was highly susceptible. It was confirmed previously that Pi sh gene of Shin 2 was not incorporated into IRBLks-S. Therefore, it was
concluded that either IRBLks-F5 and IRBLks-S do not have the same Pi k-s gene or an additional gene was present in Shin 2. Norin 6 and Caloro, which have Pi k-s, also showed moderate resistance to some isolates. Similar differences were found between Yashiromochi and MLta-K1. High resistance of the two varieties to some blast isolates was consistent, but Yashiromochi was moderately resistant to some isolates that were compatible to MLta-K1. Pi k-s and Pi sh genes are not present in Yashiromochi. Therefore, this variety may possess an unknown gene, or genes, for moderate resistance. All the isolates were compatible to Pi t gene, but moderately incompatible to Pi sh. Other blast isolates tested showed the same reactions to the two
8 Ca89 IK81-25 M36-1-3 -10-1 RH/M RH/MM~MS M~MS M~MS RH S~S+ RH/MSR~M S~S+ S MS MS~S MS~S+ RH/M S R M M~MS S+ RH/MSS~S+ MSS RH S+ S+ S+ M RH S+ M~S M S+ MS~S+ S~S+ R~M RH RH RH/MSMSS+ R~MSM~MS MS(S+1) RH RH~MRH RH RH RH RH M~MS MS S/S+ RH/S MS (R1) S+ M~MS MS S S (R1) RH RH M RH/M R~M M RH/MRH RH/MRH~MSRH RH~MS MS MS MS M-~MSM-~MSR~MSBN111 BN209 V86010 M64-1-3 -9-1 M39-1-3 -8-1 RH M-~MS R~M/MSMR~M/MSR~M S+ S~S+ SS+ MS~S M-~MSRH MS~S RH R C923 -49 S R~MS M~MS M~MS M~MS RH RH~MS-~S S~S+ S+ MS~S+ MS S S+ S MS~S B90002 M101-1-2 -9-1 RH~MSRH~M RH~MS RH~MS R~MS RH RH MS-~SRH~MS MS-~S MSRH/SS RH RH~R M~MS M M~MS M M RH MMS~S M~MS (S1) S+ S+ MS S~S+ S+ MS~S S+ MS M~MSRH~R RH~M M MS MS~S S(MS2) S+ RH/MS RH/MS S S S S RH~R R RH RH R~M MS-~SR~M S+ MS MSR~MR~M
Table 6. Reactionsa of some lines with single genes for resistance to the standard blast isolates. IRRI, 1997.
Variety and line (donor)
Resistance gene
PO6-6
Shin 2 Nipponbare IRBLsh-S (Shin 2) MLsh-S (Shin 2)
Pi k-s, Pi sh Pi sh Pi sh Pi sh
M R~M RH~R M
IRBLsh-B (BL1) BL1 IRBLb-B (BL1) Norin 6 Caloro IRBLks-F5(Fujisaka 5) IRBLks-S (Shin 2) MLks-S (Shin 2)
Pi sh Pi b, Pi sh Pi b Pi k-s Pi k-s Pi k-s Pi k-s Pi k-s
MS~M RH MS~S MS~S M M R~M MS
Fujisaka 5 IRBLi-F5 (Fujisaka 5) Yashiromochi Mlta-K1 (K1) (sister line of IRBLta-K1)
Pi i, Pi k-s pi i Pi ta Pi ta
R~M RH S+ M
RH=no lesion, R=brown speck, M=type 3 small lesions, MS=type 3 big lesions, S=type 4 and 5 lesions, "S+" indicates many S lesions, ""= small number of lesions.
genes. These results are different from those with Japanese blast isolates, most of which were compatible to Pi sh and incompatible to Pi t. Pi 19(t) gene was also not effective against all the isolates. This gene was identified in Aichi Asahi and other Japanese differentials and is effective against a blast isolate from Yunnan Province, China. It is allelic, or closely linked, to Pi ta locus. Pi k alleles (except for Pi k-s), Pi 1, and Pi 7(t) have shown similar reactions to available blast isolates, but there is no isolate to distinguish these genes from each other at IRRI. Pi 1 gene is closely linked to Pi k locus, and Pi 7(t) was found to be allelic, or closely linked, to Pi 1. Therefore, these three genes may be allelic. Until a blast isolate that can distinguish these genes is found, this gene complex is designated as Pi k*. Pi i gene and Pi 3 gene show the same reaction and are probably allelic. Therefore they have been treated as such. The reaction of Pi 5(t) was similar to that of Pi i and Pi 3 against isolates tested. However, the line with Pi 5(t) showed higher resistance than those with Pi i or Pi 3. Whether Pi 5(t) itself gives higher level of resistance or an additional gene is present in this line has to be confirmed.
PARTIAL RESISTANCE OF IR CULTIVARS TO BLAST
Among cultivars in the IR30 group, IR30 showed low partial resistance (PR) and IR29 had high PR. In the IR36 group, IR50 and IR52 had almost no PR, but IR5, IR36, IR42, IR54, IR68, and PSBRc4 showed relatively low DLA. Because IR54 and IR68 showed moderate type 3 lesions against many of the blast isolates in artificial inoculation, an unknown gene, or genes, for moderate resistance could have suppressed blast. IR8 and IR26 in the IR24 group, and IR46 and IR48 in the IR64 group showed relatively high PR, although DLA on groups with Pi 20 was small. IR24 was previously ranked as susceptible before, but it showed lower DLA than IR36, which possesses moderate level of partial resistance. The importance of identifying major genes is evident.
ALLELISM OF BLAST RESISTANCE GENES IN IR CULTIVARS
Based on classification of IR cultivars for blast resistance genes, data on diseased leaf area (DLA) of the cultivars in 1993 and 1994 IRRI blast nurseries were compared. There was a clear difference between DLA data in 1993 and 1994. The groups that possess Pi 20 (IR24 group, IR74 group, and IR64 group) were highly resistant in 1993 but showed some susceptible lesions in 1994. The comparisons indicated that constitutions of races had changed and Pi 20 is an important resistance gene against the blast population in the IRRI blast nursery. On the other hand, other groups showed the same tendency in both years, although blast incidence was higher in 1994. From the comparison between IR30 group and IR36 group, Pi ta gene was considered to be ineffective. Pi k* was also ineffective in the blast nursery in 1993 and 1994. Other major genes in IR cultivars (Pi b, Pi k-s, and Pi a) could be ignored in evaluation of partial resistance because the resistance spectrum of these genes to Philippine blast isolates is narrow.
Pi ta gene in IR cultivars. A Pi ta gene in IR36 group cultivars and a combination of Pi ta and Pi 20 or Pi ta-2 gene in IR64 group cultivars was previously indicated. To confirm those results, IR36, IR50, and IR64 were crossed with each other and with NILs with Pi ta. Blast isolate, IK81-25, which is avirulent to Pi ta, was used for inoculation. The F2 population of IR36 (resistant to IK81-25) and C105TTP2L9 (having Pi ta, resistant to IK8125) segregated with no susceptible plants (Table 7), indicating that IR36 resistance to IK81-25 was controlled by Pi ta gene. The F2 population of IR36/ IR50 showed that both the cultivars possessed the
Table 7. Allelism tests for Pi ta gene in IR cultivars. IRRI, 1997. Reaction to blast isolate IK81-25 (no. plants) Resistant IR36/C105TTP2L9 (F2) IR36/IR50 (F2) IR36/C101PKT (F2) IR64/IR36 (F2) IR64/C101PKT (F2) IR64/C105TTP2L9 (F2) IR64/IR 50 (F2) IR36 C105TTP2L9 IR50 C101PKT IR64 466 391 167 324 132 274 346 27 29 20 19 17 Moderately Susceptible resistant 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 4 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
Population
Table 8. Allelism testsa of IR56 on Pi ta locus. IRRI, 1997. IK81-25 Population R C101PKT/IR56 F2 Yashiromochi/IR56 F2 IR64/IR56 F2 Pi No. 4/IR56 F2 IR56 C101PKT Yashiromochi Pi No. 4 IR64
a
PO6-6 S 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 R 338 354 184 203 28 0 0 0 0 M20 16 9 20 0 0 6 3 0 M+ 36 52 26 37 0 0 14 4 5 S 49 75 34 9 0 36 21 0 23 R
M36-1-3-10-1 MM+ S
M1 3 0 0 0 1 1 0 1
M+ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
468 460 296 295 29 44 45 3 21
154
30
30
58
R=resistant; M=moderate; S=susceptible.
same Pi ta gene, although one plant showed a few susceptible lesions. Another F2 population of IR36 and C101PKT (having Pi ta, resistant to IK81-25) segregated four susceptible plants with a few lesions. Those few lesions might be due to contamination of other blast isolates. F2 populations of crosses of IR64 with IR36, IR50, and Pi ta NILs showed segregation for resistance to IK81-25 in one susceptible plant of IR64/ C105TTP2L9 F2. These results indicate that resistance in IR64 to isolate IK81-25 is controlled by Pi ta or Pi ta-2. IR56 was assumed to possess Pi k* and Pi ta. To confirm the existence of Pi ta in IR56, F2 populations of IR56 with C101PKT (Pi ta), Yashiromochi (Pi ta), and Pi No. 4 (Pi ta-2, Pi sh) were tested for allelism (Table 8). F2 populations of C101PKT/IR56 and Yashiromochi/IR56 showed monogenic segregation for resistance to isolate PO6-6. This isolate is avirulent to Pi k* but virulent to Pi ta. The gene in IR56 for resistance to PO6-6 appears to be Pi k*. Both F2 populations did not segregate any susceptible plants when inoculated with isolate IK81-25, which is avirulent to Pi ta but virulent to Pi k*. Therefore, it was confirmed that IR56 has Pi ta as well as Pi k*. The F2 population of IR64/IR56 segregated no susceptible plants to isolate IK81-25, indicating both cultivars have Pi ta. Pi k* gene in IR cultivars. IR56 was assumed to have Pi k* and Pi ta on the basis of its reactions to blast isolates used. Allelism tests were conducted to confirm the presence of Pi k* in IR56. Differentials Kanto 51 (Pi k), Tsuyuake (Pi k-m), C101LAC (Pi 1), and RIL29 (Pi 7(t)) were crossed with IR56 and CO 39. Two blast isolates, PO6-6 and BN111, which are avirulent to Pi k* but virulent to Pi ta,
were used to test the segregating populations. Resistance in IR56, and all the differentials except for RIL 29, to isolates PO6-6 and BN111 was controlled by one dominant gene. RIL 29 may possess an extra gene, or genes, for moderate resistance to the two isolates. F2 populations of the crosses of IR56 with the differentials segregated only one plant in the F2 population of IR56/Tsuyuake when inoculated with BN111. These results indicate that the dominant gene in IR56 is either one of the Pi k alleles, or Pi 1 or Pi 7(t). Among the IR cultivars, PSBRc1, IR74, and IR70 were estimated to possess Pi k*. Pi 20 in IR74, and Pi ta in IR70 were also assumed. Allelism tests checked the relationship between Pi k* in IR56 and those in the three cultivars. Segregation in the F 2 population of CO 39/ PSBRc1 suggested that PSBRc1 has one dominant gene for resistance to isolates PO6-6 and BN111. The F2 population of IR56/PSBRc1 segregated with only one plant susceptible to BN111supposedly a contaminant. On the other hand, the F2 population of IR56/PSBRc1 showed segregations when inoculated with isolates IK81-25 and M36-1-3-10-1, which are virulent to Pi k* but avirulent to Pi ta. The segregation of one gene for resistance to isolate IK81-25 in the F2 population is due to Pi ta of IR56. IR56 is resistant to this isolate. The F2 populations showed varied segregation to the isolate M36-1-310-1 among populations from individual F1 plants. PSBRc1 itself segregated for reaction to the different isolates, indicating that this variety is heterogeneous for an unknown gene, or genes, for resistance to M36-1-3-10-1. IR74 was assumed to possess Pi k* and Pi 20. The F2 population of CO 39/IR74 showed segrega-
10
tion for one gene to PO6-6, two genes to BN111, and one gene to M36-1-3-10-1. Respective pathogenicities of the above isolates were avirulent to Pi k* but virulent to Pi 20, avirulent to both Pi k* and Pi 20, and virulent to Pi k* but avirulent to Pi 20. The segregation ratios agreed with the assumptions above. IR70 was classified to belong to IR56 group, which has Pi k* and Pi ta. The F2 population of CO 39/IR70 showed the segregation ratio of one dominant gene for resistance to isolates PO6-6, BN111, and IK81-25. The F2 population of IR56/IR70 segregated no susceptible plants upon inoculation with all the three isolates. Resistance to the former two isolates was controlled by Pi k*, and that to IK8125 by Pi ta. Other blast resistance genes in IR cultivars. IR36, IR50, IR60, IR56, and IR64 were crossed with IR24 to determine the presence of Pi b and Pi k-s genes in those cultivars. Both genes were identified in IR24 with blast isolates BN209 and V850196. IR36, IR50, and IR60 belonged to IR36 group, which has Pi ta. F2 populations of the three cultivars with IR24 segregated no susceptible plants when inoculated with isolate V850196, indicating that the three cultivars have Pi k-s (Table 9). F2 populations of IR36 and IR60 did not segregate when inoculated with isolate BN209 but the F2 population of IR36 and IR50 showed segregation although lesions on susceptible plants were few. IR36 and IR60 have Pi b. IR50 might not have Pi b. However, these results are contradictory because IR50 is resistant to isolate BN209, and virulent to Pi ta (no gene other than Pi b could be responsible for resistance). From the
analysis of BC1F2 lines of CO 39/IR50//CO 39, Pi b gene was estimated to be present in addition to Pi ta and Pi k-s. The F2 population of IR24/IR64 segregated only one susceptible plant upon inoculation with isolates BN111 (avirulent to Pi 20) and V850196 (avirulent to Pi k-s). The susceptible plant had only one lesion, which was assumed to be the result of contamination of a spore of another blast isolate. These results indicate that IR64 has Pi 20 and Pi k-s as expected. However, resistance reactions of IR64 were similar to those of Reiho, which has Pi ta-2. Pi ta-2 is an allele on Pi ta, and Pi 20 is closely linked to Pi ta. Therefore, IR64 may also have Pi ta-2. Another assumption is that Pi ta-2 is a combination of Pi ta and Pi 20. The F2 population segregated for susceptibility when inoculated with isolate BN209, which is avirulent to Pi b. These results indicate that IR64 does not possess Pi b. The F2 population of IR24/ IR56 segregated no susceptible plants upon inoculation with isolates BN209 and V850196. Results of analysis with BN209 indicated that IR56 has Pi b gene. Isolate V850196 is avirulent to Pi k* and Pi k-s, and lack of segregation of the IR24/IR56 population to this isolate supports the conclusion that Pi k* in IR56 and Pi k-s in IR24 are allelic.
COLD TOLERANCE
A collaborative program with the Rural Development Administration (RDA), Korea, was initiated to incorporate NPT traits into rice grown in temperate regions.
Table 9. Allelism testsa for Pi b, Pi k-s, and Pi 20 in IR cultivars. IRRI 1997. Population or cultivar IR24/IR36 (F2) IR24/IR50 (F2) IR24/IR60 (F2) IR24/IR64 (F2) IR24/IR56 (F2) IR24 IR36 IR50 IR60 IR64 IR56
a
BN209 R 275 212 352 263 217 15 15 17 28 1 15 M7 9 4 5 5 2 0 0 0 0 1 M+ 5 3 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 S 0 45 1 29 0 1 0 2 0 0 0 R 262 259 370 294 227 14 17 19 26 4 16
V850196 M28 5 13 5 8 1 2 2 0 0 2 M+ 5 7 3 3 0 1 1 0 0 S 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 R
BN111 MM+ S R 201 214 281 226 170 0 17 27 26 1 7
IK81-25 M4 1 12 9 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 M+ 6 4 27 9 13 0 0 0 0 0 0 S 62 66 46 60 36 15 0 0 0 0 0
300
R=resistant; M=moderately resistant; S=susceptible.
11
Improved germplasm for the tropics and subtropics. Indica/japonica hybridization using the wide compatibility gene in an improved plant type background produced six cold-tolerant lines with a high-yielding plant type. The cold tolerance of these lines was derived from japonicas Hayayuki, Koshihikari, and Yunlen 8. The indica parent was IR64. The cross with Hayayuki produced three promising lines (IR70304-2B-1-2, IR70304-2B-1-2, and IR70304-2B-3-2). The cross with Koshihikari produced two lines (IR7035-2B-11-2 and IR70305-2B11-3) and the cross with Yunlen 8 produced one line (IR70306-2B-10-2). Seedling cold tolerance of the new lines was confirmed with 12 C irrigation water and in field tests at a high-altitude (1200 m) site in the Philippines. The six cold-tolerant lines are similar to IR64 in other characteristics and were included in 1997-98 farm field evaluations in West Bengal, India. New plant type for temperate regions. Rice is always transplanted in the temperate regions of Asia but, because of increasing labor costs, direct seeding is gaining popularity. Lodging resistance of direct-seeded temperate japonicas is low. Furthermore, the yield potential of temperate japonicas is not as high as that of the indicas. Because NPT is designed to increase both yield potential and lodging resistance, a shuttle breeding program was initiated with the National Crop Experiment Station (NCES), RDA, to incorporate NPT traits in temperate japonicas. One hundred and twelve single crosses were made at IRRI using 24 Korean japonicas and 20 advanced NPT lines. Sixty-four crosses were evaluated as F2 and selected at NCES. All materials were advanced at IRRI by single seed descent and rapid generation advance, and will be grown in Korea during 1998. Elite NPT lines were evaluated for cold tolerance. Three lines showed excellent cold tolerance and several were moderately tolerant. Hybrid rice Hybrid rice research at IRRI aims to increase rice yields beyond the level of high-yielding semidwarf inbred rice varieties by exploiting the phenomenon of hybrid vigor. During 1997, 238 elite inbred lines were tested for their ability to maintain sterility and restore fertility of three cytoplasmic male sterility
(CMS) systems. In all, 623 test crosses were evaluated and 11 new backcrosses were initiated to develop new CMS lines. The backcross nursery consisted of 92 genotypes for conversion into CMS lines in BC1 to BC6 generations. Seeds of 790 hybrids were produced and 1,185 hybrids were evaluated in observational yield trials (808), preliminary yield trials (290), and advanced yield trials (87). Twenty-two hybrids were nominated for evaluation in the national coordinated trials coordinated by PhilRice. Twenty-six hybrids were nominated for inclusion in the International Rice Hybrid Observation Nursery (IRHON).
RELEASE OF IRRI HYBRIDS
The IRRI-bred hybrid IR68284H (IR58025A/ IR34686-179-1-2-1R) was released by the National Seed Industry Council of the Philippines as PSBRc72H (Mestizo). PSBRc72H is about 115 cm tall, matures in about 125 d, is resistant to blast, and BB (pathotype 1), and moderately susceptible to BPH and GLH. It has long slender grain with some chalkiness, soft gel consistency (GC), and intermediate amylose content (AC). It yielded about 15% higher than IR68, IR72, and PSBRc2 in trials.
ELITE RICE HYBRIDS
Twenty-one IRRI hybrids showed at least 1 t ha-1 yield advantage over check varieties in advanced yield trials during 1997 at IRRI. Four of those hybrids (Table 10) yielded consistently higher in both seasons. Results from the 1996 IRHON at 29 sites in 14 countries indicated that IRRI hybrids outyielded local check varieties by at least 1 t ha-1 at 15 sites in China, Philippines, Vietnam, India, PakiTable 10. Yield of four elite rice hybrids identified in advanced yield trials. IRRI, 1997. Yield (t ha-1) Hybrid or check variety DS IR58025A/IR58082-126-1-2R IR58025A/IR56381-139-2-2R IR68897A/IR62171-122-3-2-3-3R IR58025A/IR23352-7R PSBRc4 (check) PSBRc20 (check) LSD (5%) LSD (1%) 7.7 7.6 7.4 7.3 5.7 6.0 0.8 1.1 WS 5.3 5.4 5.6 5.4 3.9 4.4 0.8 1.0
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Table 11. Cytoplasmic male sterile (CMS) lines designated at IRRI, 1997. Designation IR72795A IR73318A IR73319A IR73320A IR73321A IR73322A IR73323A IR73324A IR73325A IR73326A IR73327A IR73328A IR73793A IR73794A IR73795A IR73796A Parentage IR62829A/7*IR64446-7-10-2-2-2 IR68885A/7*IR68950-6-2-1-3-7-74 IR68896A/7*IR68950-8-2-5-7-1-11-4 IR68896A/7*IR68951-4-2-3-1-8-9-3-4 IR68895A/7*IR68952-7-3-3-5-3-9-1 IR68885A/7*IR68953-6-1-1-11-2-1-2 IR68896A/7*IR68953-3-3-8-9-2-10-4 IR68896A/7*IR68955-2-1-4-3-5-5-4 IR54755A/8*E 7034 IR69700/7*IR68 IR62829A/8*IR65497-50-2-3-9-7-7-3-4-12-2-3 IR68885A/7*IR68950-8-1-10-4-7-6-3 IR68895A/8*IR68950-6-1-10-8-3-2-1-1 IR68895A/8*IR68953-2-3-3-2-8-4-5-1 IR68895A/8*IR68955-2-1-4-3-2-4-7-1 IR68273A/7*IR65600-129-1-1-2 Remarks New plant type
Japonica line for temperate countries O. glumaepatula cytoplasm
New plant type
stan, Egypt, and Iran. However, most of the sites in China and some sites in Vietnam, Bangladesh, and India had local checks that yielded higher than the hybrids.
NEW CYTOPLASMIC MALE STERILE (CMS) LINES
Sixteen new CMS lines (Table 11) were bred at IRRI. Most of those were indicas derived from lines developed in a maintainer breeding nursery. Use of natural temperature variation for breeding thermosensitive genic male sterile (TGMS) lines. Plant breeders involved in breeding TGMS lines consider it essential to have growth chamber facilities. However, such facilities are expensive, provide only a limited space, and are not readily available in many national agricultural research systems (NARS). The most practical way to handle large number of TGMS lines is to use natural temperature variations occurring over seasons and sites. Results reported earlier (IRRI Program Report for 1993) indicated that TGMS line Norin PL 12 showed good sterility/fertility reversion at different sites and seasons in the Philippines in response to prevailing temperature variations. Norin PL 12 was used to develop a TGMS breeding procedure that uses temperature variations occurring during different seasons in the Philippines. The procedure includes: q Identification of a period of at least 4 wk during a year when maximum temperature is lower than 30 C to induce fertility in TGMS lines, and a period when the maximum
temperature is 30 C or higher (suitable for sterility expression in TGMS lines). This was done by reviewing the past 15 yr of data for maximum and minimum temperature at IRRI. The review indicated that the maximum temperature is lower than 30 C from Nov to Mar. Maximum temperature ranged from 31.5 to 33.0 C during Apr-Jun. Although mean maximum temperature for July-Oct was higher than 30 C, daily maximum temperature fluctuated due to intermittent rains and cloudy weather. q Seeding of the F 2 populations and F 3-F 6 progeny rows of the crosses involving TGMS parents at a time so that their critical growth stage (5-15 d after panicle initiation) coincided with a time suitable for sterility expression of TGMS plants. This was achieved by seeding in Jun-Jul (for WS) and Jan (for DS). q Selecting plants possessing panicles with and without seed set on the same plant (suspected TGMS plants) in segregating progenies and collecting their seeds. q Ratooning of suspected TGMS plants and evaluating these for complete pollen and spikelet sterility in the panicles. This was achieved when the suspected TGMS plants were ratooned in Apr (for DS) and Sep-Oct (for WS). q Retrieving remnant seed of the ratooned TGMS plants that showed complete pollen and seeding their progenies in Nov and Feb to confirm their fertility induction and sterility
13
expression under the field conditions. The suspected TGMS progenies were also multiplied at Lucban, Philippines (altitude about 500 m) where the maximum temperature was lower than 30 C.
ELITE BREEDING LINES
IR LINES NAMED AS VARIETIES
Ten IRRI breeding lines from the irrigated breeding program were named as varieties in seven countries (Table 12). This brought the number of IRRI breeding lines named as varieties by national programs to 295.
Thirty-five breeding lines were evaluated in PhilRice-coordinated trials at 10 sites in the Philippines. Several promising lines were identified and are in INGER nurseries. Some of the most advanced breeding lines are q IR59548-122-1-4-1. This line matures in 129 d. It has excellent, long slender grains with intermediate AC and gelatinization temperature (GT). It is resistant to blast, BB, BPH, GLH, and tungro. q IR60923-94-4-3-4-4. This line matures in 130 d and has long, slender grains with intermediate AC and GT. It has grain quality similar to IR64. It is resistant to blast, BB, BPH, GLH, and has excellent tolerance for tungro. q IR60913-42-3-3-2-2. This high-yielding line matures in 129 d. It has good grain quality with long, slender grains, high AC, and intermediate GT. It is resistant to blast, BB, GLH, and tungro. q IR62079-67-1-2-1-2. This line matures in 126 d. It has grain quality similar to IR64 and long, slender grains with intermediate AC and GT. It is resistant to BB and has excellent field tolerance for tungro. q IR62082-40-3-2-2-2. This line matures in 126 d. It has excellent grain quality with long, slender grains and intermediate AC and GT. It is resistant to BB, BPH, GLH, and tungro virus. q IR62141-114-3-2-2-2. This line matures in 115 d. It has medium-long, slender grains with intermediate AC and GT, and excellent grain quality. It is resistant to blast, BB, BPH, and GLH and has excellent field tolerance for tungro. q IR64683-87-2-2-3-3. This line matures in 123 d. It has long, slender grains with intermediate AC and GT. It is resistant to blast, BB, BPH, and GLH and has excellent field tolerance for tungro.
Reversing trends of declining productivity

Grain yields in double- and triple-cropped irrigated lowland rice measured at research stations do not reflect conditions in farmers fields. Average farmlevel yields continue to increase in nearly all Asian countries, although the rate of increase is slowing. The increase in on-farm yields could be due to intensification of cultivation in areas only recently planted to rice. If true, that could mask a decline in yields on farms that have been intensively cultivated for many years. Farmers often claim that they use increased fertilizer just to maintain yields, especially on lands intensively cultivated. Socioeconomic and biophysical data are being collected for a project titled Reversing Trends of Declining Productivity in Intensive Irrigated Rice Systems (RTDP). A key feature of the RTDP project is the collection of socioeconomic and biophysical indicators to generate a data set that allows investigation of issues that could not be analyzed with only one type of data. Characterization of rice farms and input use Collection of socioeconomic and biophysical data in the RTDP project began in 1995 at five sites with a rice - rice cropping system and tropical climate Central Plains, Thailand; Central Luzon, Philippines; Tamil Nadu, India; Mekong River Delta, Vietnam, and West Java, Indonesia. The research was expanded in 1997 to sites with rice - rice - maize (Red River Delta, Vietnam), hybrid rice - rice (Zhejiang Province, China), and rice - wheat (Pantnagar, India). This report focuses on characterizing rice farms at original five sites during 199596. Collaborating NARS institutions are listed in Table 13.
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Table 12. Breeding lines from the irrigated program named as varieties. IRRI, 1997. Breeding line IR1529-430-3 IR9763-11-2-2-3 IR13240-108-2-2-3 IR18348-36-3-3 (IR64) IR33380-7-2-1-3 IR44595-70-2-3-3 IR59552-21-3-9-2 IR59673-93-2-3-3 IR59682-132-1-1-2 IR60819-34-2 Name given IR1529 Tsiresindrano FKR44 INIAP11 BRRI-Dhan 34 ASD20 PSBRc64 MTL 147 PSBRc52 PSBRc54 Country where named Argentina Madagascar Burkina Faso Ecuador Bangladesh India (Tamil Nadu) Philippines Vietnam Philippines Philippines Main characteristics High yield Drought tolerance High yield, early maturity High yield, good grain quality High yield Very early, resistant to stem borer and leaffolder High yield, medium maturity Very early, high yield High yield, good grain quality High yield, early maturity
Table 13. Collaborating institutions in the project Reversing Trends of Declining Productivity in Intensive Irrigated Rice Systems, Phases I and II. Site Farms (no.) Av age of farmer (yr) Av education of farmer (yr)
Phase I (1994-96) Cuu Long Delta Rice Research Institute, Mekong River Delta, Vietnam Philippine Rice Research Institute, Central Luzon, Philippines Research Institute for Rice, West Java, Indonesia Pathum Thani Rice Research Center, Central Plains, Thailand Tamil Nadu Rice Research Institute, Tamil Nadu, India Phase II (1997-2000) Vietnam Agricultural Science Institute, Hanoi, Vietnam G.B. Pant Univ of Agric and Technology, Pantnagar, U.P. India Zhejiang Agricultural University, Zhejiang Province, China
a
32 36 30 26 30 24 26 25
47 50 42 47 46 48 42
6.8 7.4 7.3 4.7 10.1 7.0 6.9
School years.
FARM SIZE
The mean area planted to rice was largest among farmers at the sites in India, Thailand, and the Philippines. The average farmer in those sites had about 2 ha of rice, sometimes scattered over more than one plot. Mean area planted in Indonesia and Vietnam was about 1 ha farmer-1. There was a large variation around the means, however, as seen in Table 14. Average rice production was relatively similar across sites, ranging from about 9.5 to 10.5 t ha-1 yr-1. Yields varied widely across farms. Some farmers recorded yields for one crop in excess of 10 t ha-1, while other farmers recorded yields of less than 2 t ha-1. Most farms at the project sites are owner-operated. The only site at which a majority of operators function under lease holding or share tenancy arrangements was Central Luzon, where owner-operators constituted about 40% of the sample farmers. Owner-operators constituted more than 90% of
sample farmers in Tamil Nadu and the Mekong River Delta, 75% in West Java, and 60% in the Central Plains, Thailand.
INPUT USE
Fertilizer. All farmers at all sites used significant amounts of N fertilizer. Mean application rates (across farmers and across seasons) were about 100 kg N ha-1 in the Central Plains and the Mekong River Delta, and were in excess of 110 kg N ha-1 in Central Luzon, West Java, and Tamil Nadu (Table 14). The heavier use of N fertilizer in the latter two sites was probably due to lower fertilizer prices. More N fertilizer was applied in the DS than in the WS, although the reverse was true in the Mekong River Delta. Nitrogen fertilizer was typically applied in 2 or 3 splits at the sites in Central Luzon, the Mekong River Delta, and the Central Plains. Farmers in West Java commonly applied N in one or two splits, while in Tamil Nadu, four or five split
15
Table 14. Field areas and associated inputs managed by irrigated rice farmers in five regions of South and Southeast Asia. Data are average of one DS and one WS, 1995-96. Central Plains, Thailand Field area (ha) Mean Min Max N fertilizer (kg ha-1) Mean Min Max P fertilizer (kg ha-1) Mean Min Max K fertilizer (kg ha-1) Mean Min Max Insecticide (kg ai ha-1) Mean Min Max Herbicide (kg ai ha-1) Mean Min Max Fungicide (kg ai ha-1) Mean Min Max Molluscicide (kg ai ha-1) Mean Min Max Land preparation (d ha-1) Mean Min Max Crop establishment(d ha-1) Mean Min Max Crop care (d ha-1) Mean Min Max Harvesting/threshing (d ha-1) Mean Min Max Central Luzon, Philippines West Java, Indonesia Mekong River Delta, Vietnam Tamil Nadu, India
2.08 0.96 3.52 101.74 36.11 158.65 20.53 7.45 53.40 0 0 0 0.95 0 3.25 0.79 0 5.91 0.08 0 0.46 0.07 0 0.73 4 1 7 1 0.3 2 5 1 11 6 2 29
1.85 0.35 5.00 110.07 11.82 306.00 12.91 0 73.42 19.33 0 139.44 0.25 0 2.44 0.31 0 0.89 0.02 0 0.61 0.14 0 1.13 11 2 33 17 0 182 5 0 39 32 10 125
1.23 0.10 4.97 120.54 65.07 205.36 18.15 0 62.47 21.59 0 61.53 0.67 0 3.21 0.85 0 2.79 19 4 63 19 12 31 28
0.91 0.23 3.60 101.63 46.21 165.08 15.34 2.94 45.64 5.96 0 97.53 0.50 0 3.60 0.44 0 3.33 0.17 0 1.02 9
1.97 0.20 8.00 127.46 54.64 213.15 23.00 4.02 62.17 40.61 0 22.54 0.52 0 5.32 0.09 0 1.27 0.02 0 0.19 12 4 28 52 33 70 79 28 167 44 23 74
17
17 0 50
38
applications were the norm. The relatively high number of splits in Tamil Nadu was probably related to the low cost of labor in that area. Applications of P and K varied more widely across sites than in the case of N and some farmers did not apply P or K fertilizers. Phosphorus use was
highest in Tamil Nadu and Thailand, but wide variation among farmers at each site occurred. Average P use was only about 13 kg P ha1 per crop in Central Luzon. Thai farmers used no K fertilizer, whereas farmers in Tamil Nadu applied 40 kg K ha1 (Table 14).
16
While different use of N fertilizer across sites is probably due to prices, different usage of P and K fertilizer may be due more to soil characteristics and variation in farmers awareness of the importance of balanced crop nutrition. Usage of P and K generally varied less than N use among seasons but was still greater in DS at four of the five sites. In general, the low fertilizer K applied indicated a negative K input-output balance on many of the farms surveyed. Fertilizer cost across sites ranged from about 4 to 14% of the value of gross output. This measure varied widely, partially because different countries follow different pricing policies for rice. Total fertilizer cost, as a share of total input cost, is more uniform across countries at about 23-33% (Table 15). The only exception was in West Java, where fertilizer accounted for about 15% of total input cost. The low share of fertilizer costs in West Java was due to relatively low fertilizer prices (the Indonesian government subsidizes the purchase of N fertilizer) and relatively high prices for pesticides. Pesticides. Pesticide use typically contributed less than half as much as fertilizers to total production costs (Table 15). Pesticides accounted for 713% of total production costs at all sites, except at Tamil Nadu where the contribution was about 2%. Total pesticide use is greatest in the Central Plains with relatively heavy use of both insecticides and herbicides. The Central Plains was also the only one of the five locations where farmers used significant quantities of fungicide. Farmers in Tamil Nadu had low use of herbicides. That may be related to the low cost of labor in that area, which favored hand weeding. Relatively low pesticide use in Central Luzon was due to successful adoption of integrated pest management (IPM) practices by many farmers.
Significant numbers of farmers at some sites reported not using insecticides. Labor. Labor was by far the largest share of the cost of production in all countries (Table 15). Labor used was much more variable across sites than in the case of fertilizer and pesticides. High wages in Thailand cause farmers to economize on the use of labor. Hired labor was the most important labor source in Central Luzon, West Java, and Tamil Nadu, while family labor was the most important source in the Central Plains and the Mekong River Delta. Labor use in land preparation varied relatively less across sites than it did for crop establishment, crop care, and harvesting and threshing. While 100% of sample farmers in the Central Plains and the Mekong River Delta practiced direct seeding, all sample farmers in Tamil Nadu and West Java grew transplanted rice. Central Luzon farmers used direct seeding and transplanting, and some farmers used both, direct seeding one parcel and transplanting another parcel. Labor use for crop establishment in the Mekong River Delta was also relatively low due to the prevalence of direct seeding. Profits. Variation across sites in the average profits per hectare (Table 15) available to farmers or land owners depended primarily on rice price policy. Domestic rice prices in the Philippines are well above world prices and high by regional standards. Net return per hectare in Central Luzon averaged about $1,200 ha-1 crop-1 among sample farmers. Indias domestic rice prices are relatively low, and average net return in Tamil Nadu were about $300 ha-1 crop-1. The farmgate price of rice in Tamil Nadu averaged $120 t-1, compared with an average
Table 15. Comparative economic performance of irrigated rice production in five regions of South and Southeast Asia. Data are average of one DS and one WS 1995-96. Central Plains, Thailand Total revenue (US$ ha-1 crop1) Total costs (US$ ha-1 crop1) Net return (US$ ha-1 crop1) Profitability ratio Av cost shares to total production cost (% of total cost) Fertilizer Pesticides Labor Other 792.5 281.0 511.4 2.8 Central Luzon, Philippines 1494.1 302.6 1191.5 4.9 West Java, Indonesia 1240.7 463.6 777.1 2.7 Mekong River Delta, Tamil Nadu, Vietnam India 741.6 233.6 508.1 3.2 633.8 330.7 303.1 1.9
29.2 12.8 54.2 3.8
31.7 10.0 41.8 16.5
14.8 7.1 74.2 3.9
33.0 9.4 56.1 1.5
23.2 2.0 70.6 4.2
17
Table 16. Carbon balance (kg C ha1) for the zero and high fertilizer N treatments in maize - rice and rice - rice cropping systems of the Rice-Upland Crop Rotation Experiment for five consecutive crops, 1993-95. Maize - rice Zero N SOCa, 1993 WS, initial SOC, 1995 WS, harvest Change in SOC, 1993-95 C input ( 1993-95)b Mineralized C, 1993-95 Mineralized C as % of C input
a
Rice - rice High N 19,380 19,830 +450 (+2%) 7090 6640 (94%) Zero N 19,130 20,970 +1840 (+10%) 4930 3090 (63%) High N 19,410 22,150 +2740 (+14%) 7720 4980 (65%)
19,220 19,000 220 (1%) 4150 4370 (105%)
SOC = soil organic carbon in the 0-15 cm soil layer. bCarbon from roots and stubble returned to soil after harvest of rice or maize crops.
of $330 t-1 in Central Luzon. Although some of these price differences may be due to differences in the degree of competition in the respective marketing systems, national price policy plays an important role. All sites were relatively well served by supporting infrastructure. Soil N supply as affected by crop rotation and residue management Previous reports have associated long-term yield declines in on-station double- and triple-cropped irrigated rice trials with declining indigenous N supply (INS). While fertilizer N efficiency has been improved by applying N in congruence with crop N demand, INS is difficult to predict because it is not correlated with easily measured soil properties, such as organic matter content. On-farm and on-station observations suggest that crop management practices greatly affect the seasonal supply of soil N. Soil aeration may be a primary factor governing long-term, soil N-supplying capacity because the intensification of rice cropping has been accompanied by an increase in the duration of soil submergence.
RICE-UPLAND CROP ROTATION EXPERIMENT, 1993-95
flooded soil. The other system was a maize - rice (M-R) rotation. Rice and maize were grown in DS, and rice was grown in WS in both treatments. Crop rotations were assigned to main plots and three fertilizer N rates to subplots with 0, 95, and 190 kg urea N ha-1 in DS, and 0, 50, and 100 kg N ha-1 in WS. All treatments had 26 kg P and 50 kg K ha-1 applied at the beginning of each rice and maize cropping period. Weeds, insects, and diseases were controlled as required to avoid yield loss. The first rice cropping cycle was in 1993 WS, and the two double-crop treatments were imposed starting in 1994. The first DS maize cropping cycle in 1994 had little effect on plant growth and grain yield of the subsequent WS rice crop. Dry-season maize crop residues were incorporated earlier than rice crop residues in order to maximize differences in the soil aeration between M-R and R-R (Table 16). Because the difference in crop residue management could have affected the results, the time of crop residue incorporation was introduced as an additional treatment factor in sub-subplots after the 1995 DS crop. Crop residues were incorporated early (63 d before transplanting) or late (14 d before transplanting) in randomized sub-subplot treatments within the N rate subplots.
PLANT GROWTH AND GRAIN YIELD
A field experiment was established in 1993 in an irrigated lowland ricefield at IRRI. The effects of N fertilizer and crop residue incorporation strategies on plant performance and soil C and N cycling were investigated in two rice-based, annual, double-cropping systems with different durations of soil flooding. One system was continuous rice - rice (R-R) production in which IR72 was grown exclusively in
Fertilizer N treatments had the greatest impact on plant growth and grain yield regardless of the cropping system (Table 17). Grain yields were considerably lower in 1995 than in 1994 despite comparable plant N accumulation and plant dry matter (DM) production in corresponding N fertilized treatments
18
Table 17. The effect of crop rotation, fertilizer N application, and time of crop residue incorporation (RI) on plant N accumulation, aboveground dry matter (DM) production, and grain yield at maturity of rice in the Rice-Upland Crop Rotation Experiment. Values are means of four field replicates standard error. IRRI 1994 and 1995 WS. Treatment Previous N crop (kg ha-1) Rice Rice Maize Maize Rice Rice Maize Maize Rice Rice Maize Maize 0 0 0 0 50 50 50 50 100 100 100 100 RI Plant N (kg ha-1) 48 3 40 4 64 3 62 3 92 5 88 5 1994 WS DM (t ha-1) 7.2 0.4 6.8 0.4 9.6 0.3 10.1 0.2 12.1 0.3 12.9 0.3 Yield (t ha-1) 4.2 0.3 3.9 0.3 5.5 0.1 5.9 0.1 6.8 0.2 7.2 0.2 Plant N (kg ha-1) 42 35 40 37 70 62 61 66 100 95 84 88 1 3 5 3 4 1 4 3 2 5 8 7 1995 WS DM (t ha-1) 6.3 5.1 6.0 5.7 9.6 8.2 9.1 9.3 11.1 10.6 11.2 10.7 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.7 0.6 Yield (t ha-1) 3.0 2.5 2.9 2.8 4.4 3.9 4.1 4.2 4.6 4.6 4.4 4.4 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2
Early Late Early Late Early Late Early Late Early Late Early Late
in both years. This probably reflected lower solar radiation observed during the grain-filling period in 1995 and grain losses due to typhoon shortly before harvest in 1995 WS. Prolonged soil aeration during the 1995 DS maize cropping cycle appeared to have little positive effect on plant N uptake of the subsequent WS rice crop. Differences in N uptake, plant growth, and grain yield between crop rotation treatments were more likely due to differences in the amount and N content of incorporated rice and maize residues. In the M-R treatments, less than 12 kg residue N ha-1 (roots and stubble) were returned to the soil in all N treatments while about 20, 30, and 50 kg N ha-1 were returned with residues in zero-, medium-, and high-N treatments of the R-R system. The effects of early incorporation were greatest in the R-R system in zero and medium fertilizer N treatments. Although plant DM and grain yield were 13-24% greater with early than with late residue incorporation in R-R systems, the benefit from early incorporation was 5% or less for each of these parameters when 100 kg N ha-1 was applied. The positive effect of early incorporation on grain yield and plant DM appeared to reflect increased N uptake during the vegetative growth phase before panicle initiation. Extractable soil NH4+ N was also greater with early residue incorporation during the vegetative growth period (data not shown). Differences in plant N among residue incorporation treatments were greatest in N-fertilized plots. Differences in plant N uptake diminished toward maturity but were
still reflected in DM production and grain yield at harvest. In general, the amount and C-N ratio of residues seemed to determine whether the time of residue incorporation affected soil N supply and plant N uptake. Given the larger amounts of incorporated crop residues in the R-R system and their lower C-N ratios, plant N uptake during early growth stages was enhanced in early but limited in late residue incorporation treatments. The results may have been further influenced by soil aeration during decomposition. While early-incorporated residues decomposed mostly under aerobic soil conditions during fallow, late-incorporated residues decomposed in flooded, reduced soil. Late residue incorporation may have caused greater immobilization of applied fertilizer N during early growth stages of rice, because soil NH4+ N levels were lower with late incorporation and the period of rapid decomposition for late-incorporated residues overlapped the early vegetative growth period of the transplanted rice crop as demonstrated in an associated litter bag experiment. With early-residue incorporation, the period of rapid residue decomposition was completed before transplanting. Furthermore, plant N uptake beyond panicle initiation was greater in late than early residue incorporation treatments of the R-R system, indicating the release of immobilized N once corp residue has been largely decomposed with late residue incorporation. With smaller amounts of incorporated crop residues in the M-R system, there was little effect of residue incorpora-
19
tion time on both early- and late-season soil N supply, and late-season N supply was generally lower than in the R-R system.
CARBON TURNOVER
Although soil aeration had little effect on the soil N supply and plant N uptake, it is possible that effects will accrue with time. Significant differences in the C and N turnover were observed among the two cropping systems, and that could eventually affect the soil N supply. The turnover of incorporated crop residues and native soil organic matter (SOM) was apparently sensitive to the duration of soil submergence. The soil was submerged during 71% of the year in the R-R system while the period of soil submergence was only 31% in the M-R system. Between 1993 and 1995, soil organic carbon (SOC) increased by 10-14% in the R-R but changed little in the M-R system. Total soil nitrogen (TN) was affected similarly. A carbon balance, relating changes in SOC during five cropping cycles to total C inputs from crop residues, indicated that the greater increase in SOC in the R-R compared with the M-R system was predominantly caused by a slower C turnover in flooded soil. While an equivalent of more than 90% of the residue C inputs from roots and stubble was mineralized in the M-R rotation, the corresponding amount was only about 64% in the R-R system. One cropping season was not sufficient to estimate the effect of time of residue incorporation on SOC and TN, but both parameters were slightly greater in plots with late residue incorporation (data not shown). The results suggest that the increase in SOM in the R-R system was related to the predominantly waterlogged, reduced-soil conditions. Furthermore, there were indications that not only the quantity but also the quality, i.e. the chemical nature, of the SOM was affected by the anoxicsoil conditions in the R-R system. Limited oxygen availability slows the oxidation of phenolic subunits released during degradation of lignin in fresh crop residues, thereby leading to an enrichment of phenols in SOM. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that a decrease in quality of SOM resulting in lower soil N supply contributes to the yield decline in intensive irrigated systems. Feasible mitigation options to increase the soil N supply without forfeit-
ing the capacity to conserve SOC and TN in intensive irrigated rice systems are currently lacking. While early residue incorporation under aerated soil conditions may enhance the seasonal soil N supply without causing decreased SOC and TN, its longterm effects on the chemical nature of SOM and the soil N-supplying capacity remain to be clarified.
Improving pest management

Systems for sustainable farm-level IPM
HOST RANGE STUDIES OF A WEED BIOCONTROL AGENT
Sphenoclea zeylanica (gooseweed) is a common broadleaf weed species of wetland rice in South and Southeast Asia, the United States, the West Indies, and West Africa. It competes for light, water, and nutrients in rice systems, reducing yields by as much as 45%. Significant yield reductions in transplanted rice occur at weed densities as low as 20 plants m-2. Alternaria alternata f. sp. sphenocleae, isolated from blighted S. zeylanica collected in a ricefield near IRRI, is a promising biological weed control agent. Forty-eight plant species in 40 genera representing 20 families were screened against A. alternata f. sp. sphenocleae. Only gooseweed, the original host, was susceptible when inoculum was applied at 3.5 105 conidia mL-1 in the presence or absence of supplemental dew. All gooseweed plants were killed when subjected to a 14- to 15-h dew. Lettuce, soybean, common bean, winged bean, mungbean, string bean, banana, and some rice cultivars showed highly resistant reactions. Cabbage, radish, and okra showed highly resistant to moderately resistant reactions, while cotton showed moderately resistant to moderately susceptible reactions. Symptoms on cotton were restricted to the cotyledons. Further studies were conducted to characterize the damage and possible susceptibility of cotton to A. alternata f. sp. sphenocleae. One day after inoculation, minute flecks were observed only on the oldest leaves in six cotton cultivars tested. Younger leaves were not infected. Two weeks after inoculation, minute to pinhead lesions were present in cotyledonary leaves. Some of the cotyledonary leaves turned chlorotic and a few dropped off the plant. Microscopic examinations showed that the
20
spores did germinate on the diseased cotton leaves. Sporulation, however, was observed only on detached excised gooseweed leaves and no sporulation occurred on any of the other plant species evaluated. Gooseweed was the only compatible host plant of A. alternata f. sp. sphenocleae found.
DURABILITY OF BROWN PLANTHOPPER RESISTANCE IN IR64
Colonies of BPH established from three sites in the Philippines were selected for adaptation to four rice varietiesIR22 (no major resistance genes), IR26 (Bph1 gene), IR64 (Bph1 and additional moderate resistance from minor genes), and IR72 (Bph3). In each of the first 11 generations, and the 15th generation, the fitness of BPH from subcolonies reared on each of the varieties was measured with four tests: 1) survival to adult, 2) feeding rate, 3) developmental time, and 4) female weight. In three of the four tests, insects from all three sites showed slower adaptation to IR64 than to IR22, IR26, and IR72. In the developmental time test, the rate of adaptation on IR64 and IR72 was similar, and both varieties retained a significant level of resistance after 15 generations of selection. However, as measured by survival to adult, feeding rate, and female weight, the fitness on IR64 of BPH from two sites no longer differed from those on other varieties after 15 generations. IR64 has been widely grown for 10 yr at those two sites. After 15 generations of selection, IR64 remained resistant to BPH from Banaue, an isolated area where modern resistant varieties are not grown, as measured by all four tests. The results demonstrate the durability of BPH resistance in IR64. This durable resistance is attributable to numerous minor genes or quantitative trait loci. Earlier research demonstrated that high levels of BPH resistance are not necessary for successful BPH management in an area where insecticide use is low. Thus, IR64 and other varieties with moderate and BPH durable resistance can be an important component of sustainable IPM systems.
MONITORING OF TUNGRO IN THE PHILIPPINES
(RTSV), are associated. Outbreaks of RTD often occur without warning. This may be due to the limited information available to the farmer and extension workers about indications of an upcoming outbreak. During 1995-97, the incidence of RTD was followed in four endemic provinces of the Philippines. The objective was to determine the relative incidence of each of the two tungro viruses during WS and to determine any correlation between the planted varieties and the disease incidence. Results are classified based on the predominant varieties collected per province (Table 18). IR64 and PSBRc-based varieties were more prevalent in Isabela and Nueva Ecija provinces while a mixture of IR, PSBRc, and unnamed varieties were found in North Cotabato and Bohol provinces. In Isabela, the incidence of mixed infections by both tungro viruses was consistently high in all fields surveyed. RTBV-only infections were few but RTSV-only infections were common. In Nueva Ecija, the incidence of mixed infections in IR64 fields varied among years while that of mixed infections in PSBRc fields was consistently low. In North Cotabato, the incidence of mixed infections in fields planted with either IR or unnamed variety mixtures was low for the 3 yr, but the incidence in PSBRc fields was variable.
Examining global climate change

Comprehensive research on global climate change and rice started in 1991 with support of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. The research on climate impact on rice focused on increasing UV-B radiation (terminated in 1995) and CO2 temperature. The work on methane emission was broadened through a United Nations Development Programme/GEF-funded project in collaboration with national institutes in China, India, Indonesia, Philippines, and Thailand (since 1993) and a German Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ)-funded project on screening cultivars for mitigating flux rates (since 1996). CO2 temperature effects on rice quantified
Rice tungro disease (RTD) is the most important viral disease in the Philippines. Tungro is the only disease wherein two viruses, rice tungro bacilliform virus (RTBV) and rice tungro spherical virus
Experiments with open top chambers were terminated in 1996. Activities in 1997 consisted of evaluation of previously acquired data. One of the major
21
Table 18. Distribution of RTBV and RTSV viruses in four endemic regions of the Philippines and across 3 yr, IRRI. 1997. Province Varietya Fields surveyed (no.) 1995 Isabela IR64 12 18 2 PSBRc* 9 14 2 Nueva Ecija IR64 12 21 5 PSBRc* 6 7 6 North Cotabato IR* 10 25 (41%) PSBRc* 0 9 (36%) 14 3 Unnamed 6 27 (41%) 12 Bohol IR* 3 12 (38%) PSBRc* 1 0 10 25 Unnamed 4 10 5
a
Samples (no.) and their frequency (%) yr-1 1996 1997 RTBV and RTSV 65 540 (46%) 80 (50%) 270 (37%) 420 (36%) 80 (50%) 360 (48%) 630 (70%) 150 (20%) 180 (24%) 210 (23%) 180 (24%) 300 (40%) 562 0 270 241 (18%) 84 (20%) 180 (24%) 567 350 (80%) 90 (43%) 348 30 0 282 (31%) 743 (83%) 120 (57%) 283 (31%) 150 (18%) 50 20 70 71 51 11 2 20 7 8 3 7 4 12 6 20 5 8 8 0 4 3 5 0.5 0 15 0
Infection (%) RTSV RTBV
360 (50%)
0 3 1 0 1 0 0 0 5 0 1 7 0 15 5 12 1 1 11 1 0 1 7 0 0 0 0 0
33 23 8 26 12 28 50 6 6 38 8 9 21 12 18 6 18 7 11 3 1 10 20 10 2 0 20 0
* Signifies mixtures of varieties of IR or PSBRc.
22
questions addressed was the feedback effect of altered CO2 and temperature regimes on the emission of methane. Elevated CO2 resulted in a significant increase in dissolved soil methane relative to the control with ambient CO2 concentration. Consistent with the observed increases in soil methane, measurements of methane flux per unit surface area during 1995 WS and 1996 DS also showed a significant methane increase of about 50% at elevated CO2 concentrations relative to ambient conditions. Growth of rice at increasing air temperature did not result in additional stimulation of either dissolved or emitted methane compared with growth at elevated CO2 alone. The observed increase in methane emissions under high CO2 concentrations was associated with a large consistent stimulation of root growth. Results from this experiment suggest that as atmospheric CO 2 increases, methane emissions from tropical rice could increase substantially. Methane emission quantified and mitigation options developed The 1997 activities on methane emissions from ricefields focused on the impact of rice plants. Greenhouse and laboratory experiments demonstrated the impact of the nutritional status of the rice plants on methane emission. Root exudation and aerenchyma formation of rice plants are two factors involved in methane production, consumption, and transport. Rice grown under P deficiency adapts to the stress by changes in root physiology; roots become the dominant sink for photosynthates. Low P levels enhance root exudation and the development of root aerenchyma. These changes result in higher carbon source for methanogenesis, hence higher methane production and emission from soil. High values of dissolved methane and methane emission were apparently related to a chain of response mechanisms by the plant to P deficiency higher allocation of assimilates to the roots, enhanced root oxidation, and increased vertical transfer of methane. One of the major conclusions of this research is that methane emission is mitigated by preventing nutrient deficiencies. Field experiments at IRRI reiterated the pronounced differences in cultivars. Soils were treated with rice straw (5 t ha-1), which resulted in a high level of emission rates for all cultivars. However, IR72 showed a consistently
higher emission rate than the other cultivars. The average emission for IR72 was about 40% higher than the cultivar with lowest emission rates (PSBRc14). The interregional program on methane emission from ricefields further broadened the database on cultivar impacts in different rice systems. When emissions are generally low, as observed in the sandy loamy soils of northern India, the differences between cultivars are minor. At an experiment station in Delhi, methane emission of the local variety Pusa 169 was slightly higher (6%) than IR72 when both varieties were grown with intermittent irrigation. Likewise, in acid sulfate soils of Thailand, methane emissions were generally low (4.2 -4.4 g m2) for three high-yielding varieties (Poe-Thong, SPR1, and SPR60) in irrigated fields. These results indicate that different cultivars could modulate emission rates within a certain range, but that the magnitude of this range is set by other factors.
Improving rice - wheat systems

The 12 million ha of rice - wheat (R-W) systems in South Asia have seen impressive increases in rice and wheat production in the last two decades. However, there are now signs of stagnation in those increases. There is evidence of declining factor productivity and yields in R-W systems in some areas. Those yield trends are supported by on-farm and experiment station data throughout the region and strongly indicate a decline in soil fertility. The Rice-Wheat Consortium for the IndoGangetic Plains was formed in 1994. India, Nepal, Bangladesh, and Pakistan provide the leadership, in partnership with IRRI, the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center, the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, and the International Irrigation Management Institute. IRRI was asked to lead in developing nutrient management research and IPM technologies. Soil N supply and N fertilizer use efficiency in the R-W system of the piedmont of Nepal On-farm research to evaluate the productivity, indigenous N supply (INS), and N fertilizer response of a R-W cropping system was conducted around the villages of West Varualia and Bankasia in Rupandehi, Nepal, during the rice and wheat grow-
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Table 19. Rice and wheat grain yields as affected by management in Rupandehi, Nepal, 1996-97. Yield (t ha-1) Treatment West Varaulia Rice Researchers' practice (100 N-22 P-42 K) Farmers practicea Control (0 N-22 P-42 K) Mean CV (%) Whea Researchers' practice (70 N-22 P-42 K, single TD) Researchers' practice (100 N-22 P-42 K, double TD) Farmers' practicea Control (O N-50 P-50 K) Mean CV (%) Bankasia Site test Mean
4.3 a 3.6 b 3.6 b 3.8
4.1 a 4.0 a 3.0 b 3.7
ns ns * ns
4.2 a 3.8 b 3.3 c 3.8 13.5
2.9 a 3.2 a 2.3 b 1.6 c 2.5
3.8 b 4.5 a 3.2 b 1.4 c 3.2
* * * ns *
3.3 b 3.8 a 2.7 c 1.5 d 2.8 23.2
a Farmers' practice (NPK kg ha-1) in rice: West Varaulia = 53-14-0, Bankasia = 44-12-0, overall mean = 49-13-0. Farmers' practice in wheat: West Varaulia = 46-14-0, Bankasia = 65-18-0, overall mean = 54-16-0.
ing seasons from May 1996 to Mar 1997. Two levels of N (0, 100 kg N ha-1) and farmers nutrient management practice were tested in the rice season, and three levels of N (0, 70, and 100 kg N ha-1 ) and farmers practice were evaluated in the wheat season in 21 farms on loamy soils of the piedmont of Nepal. Researchers plots received 22 kg P and 42 kg K ha-1, while farmers applied on average 50 kg N ha-1, 17.6 kg P ha-1, and no K to each crop. In all treatments, rice and wheat yields were higher than the 0-22-42 kg NPK ha1 control plots except for rice in the farmers practice plots in West Varaulia (Table 19). The researchers treatment of 100-22-42 kg NPK ha1 resulted in higher yields of both rice and wheat than from the farmers practices, indicating that the farmers rate of fertilizer, especially N, was suboptimal. Delaying wheat planting reduced wheat yields, and the number of irrigations and crop duration had a positive relationship with wheat grain yield. Indigenous N supply, measured as total N uptake (TNU) from the zero N plots, and grain yields were higher in rice than in wheat (Table 20). Higher INS in rice was probably due to higher mineralization rates of soil organic N in the warm and moist conditions of the monsoon season compared with the cooler and drier wheat season. Indigenous N supply in rice was positively correlated with grain yield and TNU in both the farmers and researchers treatments. However, in rice, INS was negatively corre-
lated to clay content, probably due to restricted rooting in clayey soils. In wheat, the low INS values were not related to grain yield or TNU, indicating that N from fertilizer is more important than in rice. Wheat had higher N recovery efficiency (RE) and agronomic efficiency (AE) of N than rice. Recovery efficiency was higher in Bankasia than in West Varualia in both crops. The sandy, low-CEC soils of West Varaulia were probably conducive to higher NH 3 volatilization losses of the urea topdressings. In both crops, total N, 7-d anaerobic incubation for NH4+ and hot KCl-extractable NH4+ tests for soil N were poor indicators of INS. Site-specific N management for rice and wheat in the piedmont of Nepal should therefore focus on determining the grain yield response to N fertilizer for each farmers field. In rice, this could not be predicted by soil properties but by INS (negative correlation), while in wheat, AE was positively related to total N and CEC of soil. Recovery and balances of 15N-labeled urea in a R-W system as affected by rice residue management The sustainability of the highly productive R-W system in the low organic matter soils of northwest India is being questioned in the wake of complete removal of crop residues for consumption by animals (particularly wheat straw) and burning of crop
24
Table 20. Rice and wheat total N uptake and wheat grain (N%) as affected by N management in Rupandehi, Nepal, 1996-97. N uptake (kg ha-1) Treatment West Varaulia Rice Researcher practice (100 N-22 P-42 K) Farmers' practicea Control (0 N-22 P-42 K) Mean CV (%) Wheat Researcher practice (70 N-22 P-42 K, single TD) Researchers' practice (100 N-22 P-42 K, double TD) Farmers' practicea Control (0 N-22 P-42 K) Mean CV (%) Bankasia Site test Mean
80.99 a 55.94 b 55.60 b 64.18
66.17 a 54.36 b 36.98 c 52.03
* ns * ns
74.62 a 55.22 b 47.14 c 58.76 15.5
51.52 b 67.25 a 44.40 b 22.09 c 46.31
66.27 b 85.63 a 61.44 b 23.71 c 59.26
* * * ns
57.83 b 75.13 a 51.71 b 22.79 c 51.79 29.9
Wheat grain N (%) Researchers' practice (70 N-22 P-42 K, single TD) Researchers' practice (100 N-22 P-42 K, double TD) Farmers' practice Control (0 N-22 P-42 K) Mean CV (%) West Varaulia 1.35b 1.60a 1.42b 1.06c 1.36 Bankasia 1.38ab 1.49a 1.45a 1.32b ns ns ns * ns 1.36b 1.56a 1.43a 1.17c 1.38 13.5
a Farmers' practice (NPK kg ha-1) in rice: West Varaulia = 53-14-0, Bankasia = 44-12-0, overall mean = 49-13-0. Farmers' practice in wheat: West Varaulia = 46-14-0, Bankasia = 65-18-0, overall mean = 54-16-0.
Table 21. Wheat grain yield, N uptake, recovery efficiency, and 15N balance as affected by rice straw management. Ludhiana, India, 1996-97. Grain yield (t ha-1) (%) 2.8 b 5.1 a 5.1 a 5.0 a 4.9 a 4.8 a 5.5 Total N uptake (kg ha-1) (%) 55.4 c 107.3 ab 111.1 a 96.5 b 97.9 b 99.7 ab 5.9 Recovery efficiency by difference (%) 43.3 ab 46.4 a 34.2 b 35.4 b 36.9 ab 12.8 Recovery of 15N by plants Immobilization in the soil (0-15 cm) 19.1 a 25.4 a 26.2 a 21.9 a 19.5 a 17.0 Total 15N recovery (%) Losses (%)
Treatment to wheat
Straw removed, no N control Straw removed Straw burned Straw incorporated 20 DBSa Straw incorporated 40 DBS Straw incorporated 20 DBS +25%N CV (%)
a
40.9 a 40.8 a 34.4 bc 36.1 ab 30.4 c 7.9
68.3 a 68.7 a 66.0 ab 63.4 ab 54.8 b 8.4
31.7 b 31.3 b 34.0 ab 36.6 ab 45.2 a 14.9
DBS = days before sowing.
residues in the mechanically harvested fields. However, incorporation of residues at planting can reduce the availability of fertilizer N and yields. In a field study on a Fatehpur loamy sand (Typic
Ustipsamment), the effect of 6 t ha-1 rice residues incorporated into the soil 20 or 40 d before sowing (DBS) of wheat was compared with complete removal or burning of residues on the 15N-balance in
25
Table 22. Rice grain yield, N uptake, recovery efficiency (RE), and 15N balance of the 15N-labeled fertilizer applied to rice or preceding wheat as affected by previous rice straw management in wheat. Ludhiana, India, 1997. Grain yield (mg ha-1) Total N uptake (kg ha-1) Recovery efficiency by difference (%) 48.3 a 51.7 a Recovery of 15N by rice (%) 37.7a (40.4)a 34.0 a Immobilization of 15 N in the soil (%) 24.8 a 28.9 a Total 15N recovery (%) Losses (%)
Treatment
Straw removed , no N control 3.1 b 15 N labeled fertilizer applied to rice Straw removed + N120 (15N120) 4.9 a Straw incorporated 20 DBSa + N120 (15N120) 15 N labeled fertilizer applied to previous wheat Straw removed + N120 (15N120 ) Straw burned + N120 (15N120) Straw incorporated 20 DBS + N120 (15N120) Straw incorporated 40 DBS + N120 (15N120) Straw incorporated 20 DBS + N120 (15N120)c CV (%) 5.0 a
64.5 b 122 a 126 a
63.7 a 68.1a
36.3 a 31.9 a
4.9 a 5.0 a 4.9 a 5.0 a
122 a 126 a 124.8 a 130.6 a
48.3 a 51.7 a 50.3 a 55.1 a
6.7 b 5.0 b 5.4 b 5.4 b 6.5 b 19.4
15.1 b 14.2 b 14.1 b 9.5 b 14.9 b 22.5
a RE for 15N method with added N interaction adjusted; not significantly different from RE for 15N. bDBS= days before sowing. c25% N was applied at the time of straw incorporation. In all these plots, the remaining 75% N was applied in two equal split doses at sowing and just before the first irrigation at 23 d after sowing.
the wheat and the following crop of rice. Wheat grain yield, TNU, and AE were not influenced by rice straw management (Table 21). However, RE of fertilizer N (difference method) was lower with rice straw incorporation vs burning. Recovery of 15N by wheat was maximum (41%) when rice straw was removed or burned and minimum (30.4%) when 30 out of 120 kg N ha-1 15N-labeled fertilizer was applied along with straw incorporation at 20 DBS of wheat. Since yields were not affected in the latter treatment, the 42 kg straw N ha -1 was probably largely taken up by the wheat crop. However, this strategy of adding 25% of the urea N dose at time of straw incorporation resulted in the highest 15N losses (45.2%) and is therefore not environmentally sound. Inorganic N remaining at harvest in the 0-60cm soil profile, mostly nitrate, was 5.5% after wheat and 4.2% after rice. Rice straw management before wheat resulted in high residual NO3 (32 kg NO3 N ha-1) at rice harvest. Rice grain yields, N uptake, and RE were also not influenced by rice straw management (Table 22). Recovery efficiency estimated by 15N or difference methods agreed well in the wheat crop, but the difference estimates were higher in rice (Fig. 1). Between rice and wheat, RE estimates were surprisingly similar, except in rice with straw
incorporation at 20 DBS of wheat where RE by difference was higher than RE by 15N method. Accumulation of phenols and fatty acids in soil organic matter of rice-wheat soils Soil organic matter (SOM) levels have decreased in soils cropped long-term to R-W rotations. The possible contribution of declining SOM levels to a concomitant decline in rice grain yield remains uncertain. Also uncertain is whether the chemical nature of SOM has been adversely affected by intensive cropping. Two humic acid (HA) fractions were extracted from a composite soil taken from a long-term R-W field trial at G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, India. Concentrations of phenolic and fatty acid compounds in the HA fractions were measured by tetramethylammonium hydroxide (TMAH) thermochemolysis, a new quantitative method. Both HA fractions had rich arrays of phenols and fatty acids, nearly rivaling the diversity of compounds measured by TMAH analysis in HA extracted from double-cropped, irrigated rice soils. While the younger mobile humic acid (MHA) frac-
26
Recovery efficiency by difference 1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6
15
Wheat Rice
As in the R-R soils, the R-W MHA was about three times richer in phenols than was the R-W CaHA. The MHA was at least six times richer in phenols than was the CaHA in aerated soils at IRRI. These results imply that carbon cycling in R-W soils in South Asia resembles more that of R-R soils than that of rice-upland crop rotations of the humid tropics. Cool temperatures during the aerated soil conditions of the wheat season should slow mineralization of phenols, fatty acids, and other recalcitrant molecules, and the root systems of both cereal crops may supply large amounts of phenols. Use of the SPAD meter to time topdressing of N in rice - wheat The SPAD meter, a tool for determining the need and timing of N topdressings in irrigated rice in Southeast Asia, was tried in low-SOM R-W soils. Critical SPAD readings of 35 and 37.5, below which urea topdressings of 30 kg N ha were applied, were evaluated with and without basal N. Use of an overfertilized reference treatment, as recommended for SPAD use with maize in the United States, was also evaluated. Ninety percent of the overfertilized reference reading was chosen as another critical level in which 30 kg urea N ha-1 was applied. Two rice varieties were tested. Use of the SPAD meter plus basal N and a 37.5 critical level with a total of 90 kg N ha-1 resulted in yields equivalent to those from 120 kg N ha-1 in locally recommended splits. For the sandy soils of Punjab, India, the critical value of 35, which is recommended in the Philippines for transplanted rice, was too low, and yields were reduced. SPAD readings that are 90% of an overfertilized reference were near the 37.5 level. Basal N at time of transplanting was shown to be necessary in low N-supplying soils, and after that decision is made, the SPAD meter can be successfully used to manage the topdressings of N until flowering. The general N fertilizer recommendation for wheat in South Asia is 120 kg N ha-1 applied in equal splits at planting, crown root initiation 20-25 d after sowing (DAS), and maximum tillering. The second and third splits are applied just before irrigation to improve efficiency of the N. This is different from irrigated rice culture where N topdressing can be applied anytime. The SPAD
0.8 N
Recovery efficiency by
1. Relationship between recovery efficiency of N by difference method and that by 15N method for rice and wheat.
tion from R-W soil had large concentrations of some of the same compounds prevalent in MHA of R-R soils (oxidized forms of guaiacyl and syringl phenols, and palmitic and stearic acids), other major phenols in the R-W MHA were insignificant in R-R MHA. Many less common compounds in the R-W MHA were absent in R-R MHA. These differences were greatest for the more polar compounds and might reflect different suites of biochemical constituents in wheat crop residues vs rice crop residues. Concentrations of major phenols and fatty acids in the MHA fraction were comparable for the R-W and R-R soils. Concentrations of several phenol and fatty acid compounds in the R-W MHA were much greater than for a soil cropped to a rice-soybean rotation and for an upland rice soil at IRRI. The degree of SOM oxidation resulting from microbial activity is described by the ratio of concentrations of the acid and aldehyde forms of guaiacyl phenol. This ratio was 4.1 in the MHA of the R-W soil, considerably higher than the values of 2.3-3.2 recorded for MHA extracted from double-rice cropped irrigated soil and comparable with values recorded for aerated soils at IRRI. Similar trends were found in the older, polyvalent cation-bound calcium humate (CaHA) fraction.
27
Table 23. Nitrogen treatments for evaluation of the SPAD meter in determining the need for N at maximum tillering. Ludhiana, India, 1996. Basal N (kg ha-1) Crown root initiation N (kg ha-1) 0 30 30 40 40 50 50 60 60 Basal N + crown root (kg ha-1) initiation N 0 60 60 80 80 100 100 120 120 Maximum tillering N (kg ha-1) 0 0 30 0 30 0 30 0 30 Total N (kg ha-1)
Treatment
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0 30 30 40 40 50 50 60 60
0 60 90 80 110 100 130 120 150
meters role in wheat, therefore, might be to determine whether a topdressing is needed, and if so, how much. A preliminary field trial evaluated the use of the SPAD meter for determining the need for maximum tillering N in the DS at Ludhiana. Wheat cultivar PBW343 was planted on 28 Nov 1996 in 20-cm rows with P applied at the rate of 26.4 kg P ha-1. Nitrogen treatments are given in Table 23. SPAD readings were taken at maximum tillering (Feekes 5) on 30 Jan 1997. Grain yield increased linearly from 3.3 to 4.6 t ha with basal plus crown root initiation N rates of 60 to 120 kg N ha-1. Response of yield to maximum tillering N ranged from -0.12 t ha-1 to 0.95 t ha-1 on plots that received 120 kg basal N plus 60 kg N ha-1 of crown root initiation-N. Grain yield from plots that did not receive maximum tillering-N correlated positively with SPAD readings at maximum tillering (R2 = 0.65, data not shown). When grain yield response to maximum tillering-N was regressed against SPAD reading, the relationship was negative (Fig. 2, R2 = 0.60). The LSD for grain yield at P=0.05 for the difference between the 0 and 30 kg N ha-1 maximum tillering-N treatments was 0.2 t ha-1. This minimum significant grain yield response corresponds to a SPAD reading of 44. Thus if the SPAD reading at maximum tillering is less than 44, a topdressing of 30 kg N ha-1 should be applied. If the SPAD reading is greater than 44, no response to N is expected. This procedure needs to be repeated for additional seasons and sites.
Grain response to MT-N (t ha-1) 1.2 GYresp=6.86-0.15 *SPAD 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0 -0.2 38.0
R2=0.60
40.0
42.0
44.0
46.0
SPAD reading at Feekes 5
2. Relationship between wheat grain yield response to N at maximum tillering (MT-N) and SPAD readings.
Estimating phosphorus-supplying capacity of soils in a R-W system Olsen P is the most widely used index of available soil P for the R-W system in the Indo-Gangetic plains of South Asia. However, soil test values based on Olsen P frequently do not correlate with yield response to application of P. In such situations, soil P-supplying capacity can best be estimated by following procedures based on simulation of soil-root systems with both diffusion and mass flow contributing to the availability of P. Diffusion-
28
sensitive, mixed-bed, cation-anion exchange resins in uniformly shaped and sized capsules inserted into the soil without subsequent mixing simulate the soil-root system and provide an index of P bioavailability. Resin capsules were used to estimate P-supplying capacity of soils in a long-term field experiment at Ludhiana, India. Six treatments selected for the study are described in Table 24 and represent different P management systems followed for R-W for the last 7 yr. Resin capsules were placed at a depth of 5 cm in wheat rows of 15 plots on 2 Dec 1996 (24 d after planting wheat). Capsules were removed after 14 d and P adsorbed by the capsules was recovered. During the 1997 rice crop, capsules were placed in the soil 34 d after transplanting (DAT) and were retrieved after 14 d. Wheat responded significantly to application of P up to 26 kg P ha-1 (Table 24). Olsen P in the soil when estimated after the harvest of wheat was affected by the amount of P applied to wheat and thus was closely related to trends in the grain yield of wheat. The amount of P adsorbed by resin capsules during 14 d (resin adsorption quantity-RAQ, mol cm-2) of wheat growth provided an estimate of the P-supplying capacity of the soil. The trends in RAQ for different treatments were similar to those revealed by Olsen P. However, grain yield of rice was not correlated to P fertilization. On the other hand, estimates of RAQ P obtained during the active growth (30-45 DAT) of rice presented a picture of the P-supplying capacity of the soil similar to the trends observed in the grain yield of rice. Because wheat is grown as an upland crop, RAQ values recorded for wheat were 3-4 times less than those observed for rice. Olsen P, measured after the wheat crop and RAQ P, were significantly correlated with grain yield, P uptake, and the 7-yr P balance in wheat (Table 25). Only RAQ P was significantly correlated with rice grain yield or P uptake. The results of this study suggest that Resin capsules can be used for assessing soil P supply in situ in both wheat and rice crops. Differences in soil moisture and redox status between wheat and rice result in 3- to 4-fold differences in P supply to a strong sink such as a resin or a root. The current recommendation of applying only 26 kg P ha -1 is insufficient to maintain a
Olsen P AWc (kg ha1)
Olsen P ARc (kg ha1)
Olsen P BWc (kg ha1)
13.0 a 9.9 ab 13.0 a 7.5 b 11.0 a 15.7 Wheat 13 0 26 13 0 0 CV (%) Rice 26 26 0 13 0 39 4.70 ab 4.62 ab 3.97 b 4.38 b 2.73 c 4.99 a 9.4 15.1 a 14.0 a 11.0 b 12.8 b 7.7 c 15.3 a 8.3 5.40 ab 5.35 ab 5.71 a 5.27 ab 4.79 b 5.34 ab 7.4 18.9 a 17.8 ab 18.4 a 19.2 a 15.9 b 17.1 ab 5.8 +38.0 b 38.8 b 32.0 b 36.7 b 166.4 c +43.7 a 10.9 0.075 a 0.070 a 0.043 b 0.044 b 0.077 a 18.7 0.240 a 0.210 ab 0.239 a 0.234 a 0.173 b 10.5
16.3 a 15.7 a 12.4 b 14.4 b 6.9 c 16.9 a 6.0

a
13.3 a 9.3 bc 14.0 b 10.9 b 7.8 c 9.9

P applied P removed by grain and straw; bRAQ = resin adsorption quantity, 14 d; cBW = before wheat; AW = after wheat and before rice; AR = after rice.
Table 24. Grain yield, P uptake, P balances, and soil P tests for a R-W rotation. Ludhiana, India, 1996.
Rice 1997 Wheat 1996-97 Treatment
Kg P ha1 on
Grain yield (t ha1)
P uptake (kg ha1)
Grain yield (t ha1)
P uptake (kg ha1)
Net P balance in 7-yr rotationa (kg ha1)
RAQ Pb wheat (mol cm2)
RAQ P rice (mol cm2)
29
Table 25. Correlation between soil tests for P and yield of wheat and rice, P uptake, and the total long-term P balance for R-W. Ludhiana, India 1997. Grain yield (kg ha-1) Wheat RAQb P, (mol cm-2) Olsen P AWc, (kg P ha-1) Olsen P BWc, (kg P ha-1) Rice RAQb P, (mol cm-2) Olsen P AWc, (kg P ha-1) Olsen P BWa (kg P ha-1)
a
P uptake (kg P ha-1)
P balance (kg P ha-1)
Olsen P Aa (kg P ha-1)
Olsen P Bb (kg P ha-1)
0.78** 0.90** 0.42
0.85** 0.87** 0.43
0.65** 0.92** 0.65**
0.81** 0.44
-0.02 0.44
0.57* 0.31 0.33
0.67** 0.45 0.57*
0.71** 0.73** 0.89**
0.56* 0.48
0.55* 0.48
A = measured after wheat or rice crop, B = measured before wheat or rice crop, bRAQ = resin adsorption quantity; cAW = after wheat and before rice, BW = before wheat.
Table 26. Injury variables used to describe 251 individual fields in a rice pesta and yield loss study in a rice - wheat system. Uttar Pradesh, India, 1997. Symbol Variable Unit
Cropping practices and crop status EST Crop establishment method FERT N, P, and K fertilizer input PC Previous crop PD Planting date WS Water stress ratings accumulated over the crop cycle DVS Crop development stage unit Y Grain yield Injuries due to pathogens BS Area under progress curve of proportion of leaves affected by brown spot NB Maximum proportion of panicles affected by neck blast ShB Maximum proportion of tillers affected by sheath blight Injuries due to insects AW Maximum number of armyworms per hilla DH Maximum proportion of tillers with deadhearts WH Maximum proportion of panicles with whiteheads Injuries due to weeds WA Area under progress curve of % weed infestation above the rice crop canopy WB Area under progress curve of % weed infestation below the rice crop canopy
a
kg ha-1 Julian day dsu kg ha-1 % dsu % % no. of insects % % % dsu % dsu
Or per 10 cm-2 quadrat in direct-seeded crops.
positive P balance and high soil P supply in sandy soils of the Punjab region over the longer term. A characterization of rice pests and quantification of yield losses in the R-W system of India The relationship between rice cropping practices, biotic constraints, and rice yield levels in the east-
ern part of Uttar Pradesh, India, was studied in 1993-95 in farmers fields representative of the R-W system of South Asia. Data collected in two villages in the Faizabad District during four visits in individual fields are summarized in Table 26. Injury variables were derived from time-dependent information on diseases, insects, and weeds. Variation in yields were broad (1-7 t ha-1). This reflected a wide variation in patterns of cropping
30
Table 27. Description of clusters of patterns of cropping practices and of disease, insect, and weed injury profilesa in a rice pest and yield loss study in a rice-wheat system. Uttar Pradesh, India, 1997. Variableb P (chisquarec test)
Clusters
Patterns of cropping practices PR1 PR2 EST Ds Tr PD Medium Medium MAN No No FERT Medium Med.-high PC Wheat Wheat WS Med.-high Low nd 76 35 Disease profiles DI1 DI2 BLB Absent Absent LB Variable High BS Med.-high Medium NBS Med.-low High ShB Med.-high Absent ShR Med.-high Medium NB Present Present GLD Low Medium n 54 26 Insect profiles IN1 IN2 AW Present Present BPH Low Absent LF Variable Variable WM Variable Low WH Med.-high Med.-low DH Med.-high Absent n 89 28 Patterns of weed infestation WD1 WD2 WA Medium Absent WB Medium Medium N 192 15
a c
PR3 Tr Medium No Medium Legume/ Potato Medium 26 DI3 Absent Low Medium Med.-low Med.-high Med.-low Absent High 61 IN3 Absent Low High Low Med.-low Absent 31 WD3 High Medium 24
PR4 Ds Med.-late No Med.-low Wheat Med.-low 45 DI4 Absent Low Low Absent Low Low Absent Low 25 IN4 Absent High Variable Variable Med.-high Variable 103 WD4 Medium Absent 20
PR5 Ds Med.-early Yes Low Misc. Variable 7 DI5 Absent Low Medium Med.-high Absent Med.-low Absent Variable 41
PR6 Tr Medium No Med.-low Fallow Med.-low 33 DI6 Present Low Medium Med.-high Low Med.-low Present Low 44
PR7 Tr Med.-early Yes Medium Wheat Med,-low 29
0.01 0.0005 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001
<0.0001 <0.0001 0.002 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001 <0.0001
<0.0001 0.0002 0.0015 0.06 <0.0001 <0.0001
<0.0001 <0.0001
Groups are derived from cluster analyses using reciprocal neighbor method and a chi-square distance. bVariables are listed in Table 26 Probability of wrongly rejecting the null hypothesis of independence between the two considered variables in a contingency table. Contribution of variables to clustering is indicated by a chi-square test using contingency tables of the form (groups x variable). Only variables with large chi-squares (P<0.10) are indicated. dCluster frequency.
practices and inputs. A large number of diseases and insect pests were observed during the survey.
CLUSTER AND CORRESPONDENCE ANALYSES
Seven patterns of cropping practices (PR1 to PR7) were distinguished using cluster analysis (Table 27). As an example, cluster PR4 represents an extensive, conventional R-W system, with low labor (direct seeding) and resource (no manure and low fertilizer) input, while PR2 (transplanting, high mineral fertilizer input) and PR7 (transplanting, use of manure) represent some degree of intensification.
PR3, PR5, and PR6 (fallow) represent departures away from the conventional R-W succession. Six disease profiles (DI1 to DI6) were defined from cluster analysis. For example, disease profile DI1 corresponds to a range of diseases occurring in the course of a cropping season: brown spot, sheath blight, sheath rot, and neck blast. Similarly, four insect injury profiles (IN) were defined. For instance, IN1 accounts for fields with comparatively high deadhearts and whiteheads, and with high levels of armyworms. Four weed infestation profiles (WD) are also distinguished. The first (WD1), and by far the largest, corresponds to medium, and mostly
31
Axis 2 0.75
a IN3 PR5 DI2 WD3 PR4 WD2
Axis 2 0.75
b
PR5
Direct seeding, early planting manure application, low fertilizer, previous crop: miscellaneous
0.5
WD4
Y1
0.5
PR4
0.25
PR3
DI3
0.25
PR3
Direct seeding, late planting no manure, medium-low fertilizer, previous crop: wheat Direct seeding, no manure, Transplanted rice, medium fertilizer, previous no manure, medium crop: wheat, water stress fertilizer, previous Transplanted rice, crop: legume or potato PR6 no manure, low PR7 fertilizer, previous Transplanted rice, crop: fallow early planting, manure PR2 application, medium Transplanted rice, early fertilizer, previous planting, no manure, high crop: wheat fertilizer, previous crop: wheat, low water stress
Y2
DI6
PR1
0
IN2 IN1
-0.25
IN4 PR1 PR6 WD1 PR7 DI5 Y3 Y4 DI1 PR2 DI4 Y5
0
PR DI IN WD Y
-0.25
-0.5 -0.75 0.75

c
-0.5
-0.25
0.25
0.5
0.75
-0.5 -0.75 0.75

d
-0.5
-0.25
0.25
0.5
0.75
0.5
WD4
IN3
LF
DI2 WD3
LB, NBS, NB Some weeds above crop High weeds WD2 Some weeds above crop below crop
0.5
Y1
0.25
0.25
Y2
DI3
ShB, GLD
DI6
BLB,NB
0
IN2
AW
IN4 WH, BPH WD1 Moderate weed infestation DI5 NBS DI1 BS, ShB, ShB, NB DI4 Few diseases
0
Y4 Y3 Y5
IN1
AW, DH, WH
-0.25
-0.25
-0.5 -0.75
-0.5
-0.25
0 0.25 Axis 1
0.5
0.75
-0.5 -0.75
-0.5
-0.25
0 0.25 Axis 1
0.5
0.75
3. Correspondence analysis between patterns of cropping practices, injuries and yield. (a) Projection of classes on axes 1 and 2 (the figures indicate chi-square distance along these axes). Closed squares: cropping practices (PR), open diamonds: disease profiles (IN), open triangles: yield levels (Y). (b) Plot of the Clusters representing patterns of cropping practices, and their main features. (c) Plot of the clusters representing injuries and their main features (symbols are explained in Table 1). (d) Pathe of increasing yield levels.
moderate weed infestation below and above the rice crop canopy. Three contingency tables were used in a correspondence analysis: (PR DI), (PR IN), and (PR WD), and used to describe yield variation. The two first axes accounted for 42.2 and 33.4% of the information, and were retained in further analyses. Figure 3 shows the projection of the various classes on the plane defined by axes 1 and 2. In Figure 3B, progression from PR4, to PR1, to PR7, and PR2 indicates a progressive intensification of the system. Figure 3C focuses on injuries. Cluster DI1 (many disease injuries) is located in the area of comparatively high intensification levels. The successive
yield classes are shown in Figure 3D, and are linked to show a path of increasing yield levels. This path corresponds to decreasing injuries from weeds. The analysis indicates that medium to high yields are associated with a range of disease injuries, from few to many. It also highlights the special linkages of PR6 (occurrence of a fallow period) with medium to high yields.
PRINCIPAL COMPONENT ANALYSIS AND MULTIPLE REGRESSION
Four factors generated by a principal component analysis involving injury variables and crop man-
32
Table 28. Yield loss estimates for selected injuries in a rice pest and yield loss study in a rice-wheat system. Uttar Pradesh, India, 1997. Injury WA WB DH BS ShB ShR NB All injuries combined
a
Mean yield lossesa Absolute (t ha ) 0.310.06 0.340.07 0.460.07 0.330.03 0.320.06 0.020.02 0.060.02 1.430.27
-1
Maximum yield losses Absolute (t ha-1) 2.77 2.64 2.63 2.43 3.49 0.12 1.37 Relative (%) 55.2 52.6 52.4 48.4 69.5 2.4 27.3
Relative (%) 6.21.2 6.81.4 9.21.4 6.60.6 6.41.2 0.40.4 1.20.4 28.55.4
Estimates are followed by their confidence interval at P <0.05.
agement variables were retained in a stepwise, forward, multiple regression of yield variation: Y = 3.59 - 0.63 F(1) + 0.38 F(2) + 0.49 F(4) - 0.52 F(5) The regression accounted for 74.1% of yield variation (n = 251, F = 175, P < 0.0001), with all terms significantly (P < 0.0001) contributing to the regression. Yield loss estimates. The above regression model was used to produce yield loss estimates for each injury (Table 28). The largest individual yield reduction was attributable to deadhearts (0.46 t ha1 and 9.2% of the mean attainable yield), followed by weeds below the rice crop, brown spot, sheath blight, weeds above the rice crop, neck blast, and sheath rot. Maximum yield losses were large and comparable in magnitude except for sheath rot, which was small, and neck blast. When all injuries were considered simultaneously, and set to their average values, a yield reduction of 1.4 t ha1 was computed, corresponding to 28.5% of attainable yield.
established. In this system, the timing of N application before PI is decided based on tiller number and tillering rate and that after PI is based on leaf N content determined by chlorophyll meter or leaf color chart. This system will be evaluated in a farmers field and CRFs plot at IRRI in the 1998 DS under Project CE4. q A paper, Upper thresholds of nitrogen uptake rates and associated nitrogen fertilizer efficiencies in irrigated rice, has been published in the March-April 1998 issue of the Agronomy Journal. Identifying tillage, water, and weed interactions Initiated investigations into the effects of large-scale dry land preparation on water use efficiency in Muda Irrigation Scheme (Malaysia). q Verified that semi-dry rice (established on dryplowed soil using premonsoon rainfall and subsequently irrigated) advanced crop establishment and improved water use efficiency of irrigation systems in Central Luzon (Philippines). Confirmed for this practice, that when weed infestations were severe, a combination of hand and chemical weeding was necessary for highest yield; chemical weed control was only sufficient when infestations were low. q Organized, in collaboration with the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) and Chinese and Indian partners, two field visits to investigate water-efficient riceq
Progress of unreported projects

Improving nutrient management A field experiment on physiology-based N management for yield maximization of hybrid rice was conducted at the PhilRice farm in the 1997 DS. Results confirmed the previous finding that heterosis was highest under optimal N management. q A N management strategy based on tillering dynamics and leaf N status has been
q
33
based irrigation systems (under the CGIAR System-Wide Initiative in Water Management, SWIM). In the same context, completed an annotated bibliography of relevant literature. A state of the art paper on strategies for increasing water use efficiency and productivity of water in rice-based irrigation systems is under review. q Conducted field trials on ridge-grown rice with limited irrigation to investigate options for mechanical weed control. Varietal differences shown to be of major significance in early establishment phase. q Concluded from socioeconomic analysis of 35 districts in the period (1980-94) that the area of wet-seeded rice in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam, is likely to increase in the future as irrigation and drainage facilities are expanded. q Concluded that population density and the level of per capita income were the major socioeconomic determinants of the incidence of different methods of crop establishment. Direct-seeding methods are more common in countries with high per capita income (Thailand, Malaysia) and low population density. In countries with high population density and low per capita income (Bangladesh, Indonesia, India), transplanting is the dominant method. The effects of these variables are modified by factors such as climate, irrigation facilities, and the level of price support on rice and are the main reasons for the prevalence of transplanting methods in Japan, Korea, and Taiwan. Moreover, high wage rates have led to the adoption of mechanical transplanting in these latter countries. q Completed a two-season experiment on the effects of early flooding on the population dynamics of an ecotype of Echinochloa crusgalli in wet-seeded, flooded rice. Population fluctuations were dominated by the fate of seeds in the fallow period and the likelihood of seed incorporation into the soil profile. Advancing flooding date by 10 d resulted in a 45% reduction in population growth rate. q Measured the persistence of buried seed populations of E. crus-galli in relation to burial depth. No differences were detected between shallow and deep buried seeds. The
continual loss of seeds from the seed bank in wet soil due to germination and decay was abruptly halted during dry fallow periods when seed dormancy was induced, carrying through the next cropping season. Developing postharvest technology Optimized blower and other components for the SRR (low cost) dryer, resulting in reduced drying time (from 4 d to less than 2 d). q Adapted SRR for construction in Philippines using locally available materials. One blower unit each was commissioned to PhilRice and NAPHIRE for initial testing. q Pilot-tested SRR with farmers and other end users to gauge acceptability of the technology in Philippines (e.g., SRR tested in Guimba, Calauan, and with PhilRice in Quirino Province in collaboration with PhilippineGerman Community Forestry Project). q Commercialized SRR-1 dryer in Vietnam; 300 units sold to individual farmers through March 1997. q Commissioned and tested SRR prototypes in India, Myanmar, and Bangladesh through CREMNET with UAF staff (but unfortunately without AED staff) and with the ATIAMI project in Indonesia. q Distributed SRR prototypes and blueprints of the modified design to collaborating NARS and other interested parties. q One hundred and thirty stripper gatherer (SG) harvesters were sold by Philippine manufacturers with 52 sold unsubsidized to farmers. q Twelve manufacturers have built the SG harvester in the Philippines, 2 in Indonesia, 1 in Vietnam, 1 in Thailand, and 2 in Senegal. q Sent SG harvesters to universities and research centers in 14 countries. q Produced SG operators manual and two training videos. q Promisingly addressed SG mobility problem by collaborating with two private companies (ARC and Morallo) to develop an improved wheel and to reduce weight. (The Morallo SG presently represents the best machine available.)
q
34
Built a prototype SC1500 stripper combine harvester. q Collaborated with FAO to draft a compendium on postharvest management of rice for display on the FAO World Wide Web. q Collaborated with FAO to run a postharvest email conference, which drew on the expertise of experts around the world. q Collated data and options for postharvest management systems and developed decision support systems for postharvest and postproduction management. q IRRI provided its high-moisture hulling prototype to the faculty for further research in this area. q Identified and tested an improved micro-mill rotor. This makes the one-pass micromill more robust and viable.
q
landless laborers were also able to sustain their level of living primarily because of increased nonfarm employment opportunities within and outside the village.
Program outlook
The program will work toward identification and quantification of key biotic and soil organic determinants of sustainability and ecological resilience of intensive irrigated rice systems. Constraints to nutrient supply will be addressed, and appropriate approaches through site-specific nutrient management technologies will be developed in partnership with NARS and farmers. Quantification of the dynamics of physiological demand for N and the supply capacity of the root system will be pursued as a component in improving the N model of rice growth and grain yield that includes interactions with abiotic stresses. Pest problems will continually be characterized and practical pest management strategies generated for intensive irrigated rice systems. Emphasis will be on the adaptation of IPM for diverse production systems. Key nutrients and pest constraints in R-W systems will continue to be investigated in order to develop strategies for sustainable nutrient and pest management. Additional efforts to improve production efficiency will include activities to continue to focus on the development of management practices for improved water use at the farm and irrigation-system levels. This includes optimal water management, weed control, and tillage practices for direct-seeded rice, as well as efforts to improve understanding of processes of water quality degradation from agrochemicals and to develop feasible options for the alleviation. Policy options for water-efficient rice production systems will be evaluated. The program will maintain its efforts to improve irrigated rice yield potential through new rice plant types and hybrid rices. An important new dimension will be the incorporation of a systems approach that will integrate understanding of determinants of yield with the breeding process. Further improvement of grain filling in the NPT is expected to improve yield potential. The effort to develop two-line hybrids and reduce seed costs will continue to emphasize TGMS.
Sustaining the irrigated lowland resource base Completed an economic analysis of the deterioration of an irrigation system in Laguna, Philippines. The system has lost 30% of its service and irrigated areas in the lower reaches within the last decade due to resource constraints and poor quality of operation and maintenance. A lateral in which farmer beneficiaries organized themselves into a well-functioning irrigation association succeeded in avoiding performance deterioration. The deterioration did not have adverse effect on rice production as farmers invested in irrigation pumps with shallow tubewells. q As a component of the Japan-IRRI shuttle research, we have analyzed the Social Sciences Divisions long-term data set generated from nine surveys during 1966-96 in a typical irrigated village in Laguna to illustrate a pattern of long-term socioeconomic change induced by the green revolution in Asian economies. The findings show that rapid population growth has resulted in sharp reduction in average farm size. The average farm households increased significantly in real terms despite worsening land-man ratio and substantial decline in real price of rice. The
q
35
An important new dimension will be the Irrigated Rice Research Consortium (IRRC), which includes IRRI and the NARS of China, India, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam. The IRRC will provide an institutional framework within which the various international research efforts can link and better benefit from each others experiences and outputs. Two SDC-supported projects, the IPM Project (within the IPMNet), and the RTDP Project (within INMNet) have been formally linked in a consortium mode, thus establishing nutrient and pest interaction research in intensive irrigated systems. The IRRC will eventually include other aspects of irrigated rice research, such as hybrid rice, IRRIs participation in the systemwide program on water management, and global climate change. The IRRC will link with the Rice-Wheat Consortium, where there is mutual interest.
36
Research programs Rainfed lowland rice ecosystem
CHARACTERIZING AND ANALYZING ENVIRONMENTS 38 Agroecological analysis of eastern India (APPA) 38 Soil variability in a rainfed lowland rice area in Thailand (SS, SWS) 39 Synthetic aperture radar for delineating rice cropping systems (SS, SWS) 40 Temperature of rice spikelets: thermal damage and thermal burden (APPA) 42 Fallow period arthropod acitivity in the rainfed lowland rice ecosystem (EPP) 43 RAINFED LOWLAND RICE RESEARCH CONSORTIUM 44 Consortium research themes 44 Analysis of intensive cropping system in rainfed lowlands of Ilocos Norte, Philippines (SS) 44 Groundwater dynamics and quality in intensive cropping systems in Batac, Philippines (SWS) 45 Improving productivity of rainfed lowland rice-based cropping system (SWS) 46 Sustainability of diverse lowland rice-based cropping systems (SWS) 47 Analysis of drought by use of on-farm reservoirs (SWS) 48 Characterization of the blast population using DNA fingerprinting (PBGB, EPP) 49 PROGRESS OF UNREPORTED PROJECTS 52 Managing crop, soil, and water resources for enhanced productivity and sustainability 52 Germplasm improvement 53 PROGRAM OUTLOOK 54
Rainfed lowland rice ecosystem
Rainfed lowland rice is grown on about 48 million ha and contributes 18% of the global rice supply. Because the rainfed lowland ecosystem depends on rainfall, unreliable onset and distribution of rains result in low average yield. Nevertheless, the ecosystem has high potential for increasing productivity. The rainfed lowland rice ecosystem programs objectives are better understanding of anthropological, socioeconomic, and biotic components to identify major constraints and opportunities for improvement; better technology for managing soil, water, and crop to achieve high yields; and high-yielding germplasm adapted to overcome the constraints of poor soils, drought, and submergence. Those objectives are pursued in collaboration with national agricultural research systems (NARS) through the Rainfed Lowland Rice Research Consortium (RLRRC).
Characterizing and analyzing environments

The project seeks to quantify environmental and socioeconomic components of rainfed agroecological systems and to analyze the interactions among the components. Main activities include developing a methodology and database for characterizing agroecological systems at different scales and quantifying biotic stresses in rainfed ricefields. Agroecological analysis of eastern India A macro-level agroclimatic analysis for eastern India, covering a rice-growing area of more than 27 million ha was completed in collaboration with the Indira Gandhi Agriculture University, Raipur, India. The analysis used 50-yr data on daily rainfall (R), solar radiation, and minimum and maximum temperature at 44 meteorological stations. Potential evapotranspiration (PET) was computed by Penman equation. Actual evapotranspiration (AET) was computed using rainfall and PET. Moisture availability periods were divided into three subclasses: q Moist period I at the beginning of the rainy season. q Moist period II at the end of the rainy season when PET > R >PET/2. q Humid period when rainfall exceeded the PET. The annual duration of moisture availability is sums of the number of days in the three subclasses. Root-zone water storage of heavy textured rice soil was assumed as 250 mm and the weekly root-zone water balance calculated for each station. Where R> PET, the excess water recharged the root zone until maximum storage. Where R<PET, rice could still
38
Table 1. Descriptive statistics and the proportion of variance accounted for by 1:100,000 soil map (RVc1) and updated farmers classification (RVc2) of the relative variance (RVc) of soil particle size distribution (based on 278 samples) for the URLRA study area in northeast Thailand, 1996. Mean Sd Minimum value 1.0 0.1 23.3 Lower quantile 5.3 12.1 60.9 Median Upper quantile 10.4 27.9 82.2 Maximum Skewness value 48.4 54.1 92.5 2.60 0.77 -0.96 Da RVc1b 0.01 0.05 0.05 RVc2b 0.21 0.25 0.30
Clay Silt Sand

a
9.4 20.5 70.1
7.2 10.5 15.0
7.2 18.2 73.1
0.21* 0.11* 0.10*
Komolgorov-Smirnov maximum D value; *=significant deviation from normal distribution at P < 0.01. bRVc1=1:100,000 soil map, RVc2=updated farmersclassification.
use water stored in the root zone until the wilting point. The annual duration of moisture availability varied considerably across eastern India. It was shortest in Uttar Pradesh, averaging 135 d (115-157 range), and increased toward the east. It was 151 d in Madhya Pradesh (137-181 range), 157 d in Bihar (134-174 range), 179 d in Orissa (161-206 range), 193 d in West Bengal (161-206 range), and 270 d in Assam (240-314 range). Mizoram State had a duration of moisture availability of 279 d, and Meghalaya State 308 d. Rice in eastern India is often established within a few weeks after the onset of rainfall irrespective of the varietal duration. The long-duration varieties thus tend to suffer more from water stress from wk 39 onward than do the medium- and short-duration ones. The analysis provided a basis for preparing cropping calendars and defining crop duration to avoid or minimize risks of crop water deficit in rainfed ecosystems. Soil variability in a rainfed lowland rice area in Thailand It is generally recognized that rainfed lowland rice environments are highly variable, but it is difficult to document such variability beyond the individual field and farm levels. Conventional sources of land information, including soil taxonomic maps, are of limited use for agronomic management. A 1996-97 study in a 40,000-ha rainfed lowland rice area in the Ubon Ratchathani Land Reform Area (URLRA), Thailand, investigated ways to map soil heterogeneity in a rainfed lowland rice area. A soil survey, in cooperation with the Thailand Department of Land Development, used equivalent
sampling densities for generating maps at 1:100,000 scale. Soil samples were collected at 0-15 cm and 15-35 cm depths at each sampling site for analysis of soil physical and chemical properties. Soil profile descriptions were recorded and field tests for estimating soil texture (finger-feel method) were made. The quantitative data provided information against which methods developed under relatively data-poor conditions could be compared. Analysis of 278 topsoil samples and 273 subsoil samples indicated sandy and generally low-fertility soils. It was found that not more than 5% of the regional variability for soil texture could be explained by the soil classification in the existing 1:100,000 soil map for the area, as indicated by the value of the complement of the relative variance, RVc (Table 1). The sample data were further stratified according to three distinct landscape positions within micro-watershedsrecognized by farmers as low, medium, and high fieldsplus two additional categories to distinguish areas revealed by the soil survey to have distinct pedological characteristics. These are areas with an upper, but very deep loamy sand horizon and areas along major creeks and subjected to flooding and alluvial deposit. The five topographical-pedological categories were manually mapped with the guide of scanned, panchromatic aerial photographs and a digital elevation map within a geographic information system (GIS) environment. This constituted the soft information layer used also to interpolate and generate surfaces of soil properties. The within-unit variability of the sample data improved when the five topographical-pedological categories were taken into consideration, but even then the RVc did not exceed 30%. This shows that there is considerable short-range variability in the
39
C
80.0 78.0
Loamy sand
76.0 74.0 72.0
Sandy loam
70.0 68.0 66.0
Loam+
64.0 62.0 60.0
1. Interpolated soil texture class maps: A is based on categorical field-estimated data incorporating farmers landscape classification, B is a reference soil map derived from GIS classification of map C, and C is a sand-content map generated using sequential indicator simulation with prior means. IRRI, 1997.
soil properties that poses a challenge in modeling and mapping on a regional scale. Various interpolation approaches using GIS and geostatistical techniques were compared in modeling and mapping the heterogeneity of soil properties. Combinations of existing soil maps, quantitative soil data, rapid field test estimates, and soft information reflecting farmers classification were used. The results reported here are for soil texture, represented by three broad classesClass 1 consisting of loamy sand, Class 2 of sandy loam, and Class 3 of all other soil texture classes heavier than loam. Figure 1 summarizes the results of the most promising approach found. Map A is the result of using the technique of soft indicator kriging with prior means to map the categorical soil texture data from rapid field estimates, using the accessory soft information derived from farmers landscape classification. Map B is based on the classification of the sand content map (Map C). Map C was in turn generated by the geostatistical technique of sequential indicator simulation with prior means, using high-cost, laboratory-determined data. The visual similarity between Map A and the reference map indicates that direct mapping of field data, supported by soft information, is indeed practical and feasible. This study confirms that regional-scale soil taxonomic maps do not effectively capture the heterogeneity of rainfed lowland rice environments. Complex geostatistical approaches did not perform bet-
ter than simple interpolation techniques if the density of sampling of quantitative data was not sufficient to capture the short-range variability, as is seen in the case of soil particle size distribution. Geostatistical techniques outperform other tested techniques, however, once soft information is integrated into the spatial estimation procedure. Synthetic aperture radar for delineating rice cropping systems Various rice and rice-based cropping systems are practiced in the Mekong River Delta (MRD), Vietnam. Direct seeding technology and improved water control to prevent saline water intrusion have developed since the introduction of short-duration varieties. It is possible in some areas within the rainfed environment to grow two rice crops. A study in collaboration with the University of Can Tho and the Centre for Remote Imaging, Sensing and Processing (CRISP), National University of Singapore, identified where, and under what conditions, intensified rice cropping in rainfed lowlands occur and dry direct seeding is practiced. The objective was to provide the basis for identifying possible areas where this cropping practice is likely to spread, as infrastructure development projects are implemented in the MRD. Remote sensing techniques using multidate synthetic aperture radar (SAR) imagery from the European remote sensing satellite (ERS-2) were devel-
40
Table 2. Rice cropping systems in the study area, Mekong River Delta, Vietnam, 1996. Map class 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
a
Code RF1RICE RF2RICE (W-W) RF2RICE (D-W) RF1RICE (D2VAR) 12RICE (W-W) S12RICE (MIXED) RF2RICE (MIXED) 12&3RICE R-SH NRICE (ANNUAL) NRICE (PERENNIAL)
Description of land use-rice cropping systema Rainfed single rice (transplanted Mua) Rainfed double rice (wds HT-wds TD) Rainfed double rice (dds HT-wds TD) Rainfed single rice (dds with 2 varieties) Irrigated double rice (wds HT-wds DX) Supplementary irrigated double rice (wds HT-wds TD) Rainfed double rice (mixed; wds HT or dds HT-wds TD) Irrigated, mixed triple, or double rice Rice-shrimp and shrimp-based cropping Nonrice annual crops Nonrice perennial vegetation Total
Area (000 ha) 68.4 63.8 21.2 14.4 42.9 20.5 24.1 20.6 19.6 41.9 11.1 348.5
Area (%) 10.6 18.3 6.1 4.1 12.3 5.9 6.9 5.9 5.6 12.0 3.2
HT=He Thu crop: summer-autumn rice crop usually from May-Jun to Aug-Sep; TD=Thu Dong crop: rainy season rice crop (usually from Aug-Sep to Nov-Dec) using modern short-duration varieties; Mua=rainy season rice crop (usually from Jul-Aug to Dec-Jan) using traditional varieties; DX=Dong Xuan crop: winter-spring rice crop usually from Nov-Dec; to Feb-Mar; wds=wet direct seeded; dds=dry direct seeded.
oped to monitor the growth patterns of the rice crops and to subsequently delineate and map the cropping systems. Radar imagery was used because the availability of cloud-free optical data is severely limited during the rainy period. The study was confined within a 100 km by 100 km area covered by one ERS-2 scene that included parts of Can Tho, Soc Trang, and Bac Lieu provinces. Seven descending-mode ERS-2 images were acquired at 35-d repeat intervals between 5 May and 1 Dec 1996. CRISP developed a method of classification of the rice cropping systems by thresholding the change indices (CI), which were derived from the change in the backscattering coefficient expressed in dB in the consecutive pairs of multidate SAR images. Six CI maps were generated from the series of seven SAR images. A threshold of 3 dB was applied to each CI map to produce a threshold-change-index (TCI) map with three classes, whereby the pixels were classified as having a constant (-3 dB < CI < +3 dB), decreasing (CI < -3 dB), or increasing (CI > +3 dB) backscattering over the corresponding time period. Five TCI maps (covering the period from 9 Jun to 1 Dec 1996) were used in the classification. By combining the five TCI maps, a total of 243 possible classes could be formed. Each pixel was assigned a class number, termed as change index class (CIC), according to CIC = ( 3i-1 ti) where ti is the pixel value of the ith, (i = 1, 2, ..., 5)
TCI map, which assumes one of the values 0 = constant backscatter, 1 = decreasing backscatter, or 2 = increasing backscatter. An automatic clustering procedure was used to group the CICs based on closeness of their backscattering time profile, which indicates similar temporal pattern in response of the surface feature to radar backscattering. Initially 33 groups of CICs were obtained. It was inevitable that, in a few cases, one CIC group is found to represent more than one rice cropping system due to similarity of their backscattering profiles within the period monitored. This could arise because of similar backscatter response by different surface cover, e.g. between a weedy, unplowed field and one with a rice crop canopy. On the other hand, multiple CIC groups might represent the same cropping system, except that the crop calendars were shifted in time at different locations due to local hydrological conditions. In this case, these CIC groups were merged. The 33 groups were finally reduced to 11 land use-rice cropping system categories described in Table 2. Five categories of the 11 map classes relate to the double-cropped rainfed rice. Map Class 4 is a cropping system whereby two varieties with different growth periods are sown at the same time at the start of the rainy season, usually in late May-early Jun. The short-duration variety is harvested in Sep, while the long-duration variety is left in the field and harvested in Nov-Dec. This is equivalent to telescoping the summer-autumn rice and the rainy season rice. Map Class 6 occurs in areas where the first crop is direct seeded, and the second rice crop re-
41
ceives supplementary irrigation toward the end of its growing season. Altogether, the double-cropped rainfed rice, whereby direct seeding is used for the summer-autumn crop, accounts for 144,000 ha, or 41% of the study area. The area of wet direct seeding of the summer-autumn crop was much more extensive than that under dry direct seeding and occurred mainly in Bac Lieu Province, and also in the lower lying parts of Soc Trang Province. This may be attributed to the longer rainy season in Bac Lieu Province, where farmers can afford to wait until adequate soil moisture has accumulated. Dry direct seeding was found in a more contiguous pattern in the relatively higher parts of Soc Trang Province. Temperature of rice spikelets: thermal damage and thermal burden Measurement of air temperature, temperature of spikelets on healthy panicles and those on whiteheads, spikelet transpiration, and spikelet resistance to water loss allows the boundary layer resistance of the spikelet to be estimated using simple equations. Furthermore, thermal characteristics of the environment useful for crop ecology can be quantified. The temperature of an inanimate object can be expressed as the sum of air temperature and a temperature term called the thermal burden. Thermal burden depends on the environment and the size and shape of an object. For a limited temperature range relevant to higher air temperatures and for spikelets close to the top of the canopy, the energy balance is simplified as TS = T A + T B [1]
lent to radiation increment used by animal physiologists and can be written as TB = [Ip - 117]/[ 14 + (cp /rb)] [3]
where I p represents visible shortwave or photosynthetically active radiation (PAR, 400-700 nm,Wm-2), is the density (kg m-3) and cp is the specific heat capacity of air (J kg-1 K-1); rb is the boundary layer resistance (s m-1) to sensible heat for upper and lower surfaces together. Thus the boundary layer resistance can be determined. This is an extremely difficult parameter to determine by any other means. The principle of energy conservation can be applied to the transpiring and nontranspiring spikelet. The difference in sensible heat and radiant heat is balanced by the energy dissipated in transpiration. It can be shown that the dependence of the transpiration rate (E kg m-2 s-1) on radiation and the fraction of the thermal burden offset by transpiration is E = f (Ip - 117) / ; [4]
where is the latent heat of vaporization of water, J kg-l. Equation 5 gives the value for spikelet resistance at any value of f: rSp = [2 cp (el - ea) ] / [ f ( Ip -117)]1.85 rb [5]
where TS is nontranspiring spikelet (whitehead) temperature (C), TA is air temperature, and TB is the thermal burden. Transpiration in an undamaged spikelet can offset some part, f, of the thermal burden so that its temperature, T'S, is given by T'S = TA + TB (1- f) [2]
thus the fractional offset f can be determined by measuring spikelet temperature and air temperature as described above. The thermal burden is equiva-
where is the psychrometric constant Pa K-1 , ea is the vapor pressure of water vapor in the bulk air (Pa), and es is vapor pressure of water vapor in saturated air in the leaf (Pa). The maximum thermal burden for vegetation is about 20 C, which when added to air temperatures in excess of 20 C would, in the absence of transpiration, cause irreversible thermal damage to rice and many other plant species. At an air temperature of 40 C, rice is completely sterile. At about 37 C, it is 50% sterile, although the tissue temperatures for those air temperatures are unknown. Measurements were made in an experimental crop of IR72 grown at IRRI during 1997 dry season (DS). The crop was transplanted on 27 Jan. Measurements with a thermocouple thermometer were made between 1045 and 1200 hours on 8 Apr, at about mid-flowering. Adjacent pairs of panicles were identified where one of the pair had suffered a recent stem borer attack and was developing as a
42
Table 3. Mid-day measurements of temperatures (mean and SE) and calculated values of thermal burden, resistances and transpiration for IR72 spikelets (9-12 spikelets measured per panicle). The pairs of panicles consisted of one normal panicle and an adjacent panicle (whitehead) recently severed by a stem borer. IRRI, 1997. Low-resistance High-resistance panicle panicle Unshaded air temperature (TA + T) C 32.5 0.1 Live panicle spikelet temperature (TS + T ) C 33.6 0.2 Whitehead panicle spikelet temperature (TS + T) C 37.8 0.4 Thermal burden (C) 5.3 Boundary layer resistance (s m-1) 18.1 Transpirational offset fraction f 0.79 Spikelet resistance (s m-1) 173 Rate of spikelet transpiration (mg m-2 s-1) 121
32.2 0.1 36.1 0.1 37.6 0.1 5.4 18.5 0.27 851
cylinders (0.16 m-2) driven into the soil (15 cm depth) at six sites. Water was added to cylinders on each of 2 d to flush out crevice-inhabiting invertebrates. Analysis of the invertebrates, after they were sorted into their respective functional groups, revealed a preponderance of scavengers (detritusfeeding) invertebrates followed by predaceous arthropods, plant-feeding (phytophagous) arthropods, and parasitoid wasps (Fig. 2). Day 2 catches show that additional arthropods, especially scavengers, phytophages, and predators, went uncaptured in Day 1 catches and underscores the need to conduct repeated samplings to capture the crevice-dwelling fauna (Fig. 2). Densities (no. m-2) per sampling date fluctuated with fallow-season age from 400+ individuals at 25-26 DAH, to 170+ on 33-34 DAH, to 300+ on 39-40 DAH.
41.3
Population density (no. m-2) 300
Phytophages
Predators
Parasitoids
Phytophages
Predators
Parasitoids
Fallow period arthropod activity in the rainfed lowland rice ecosystem Rainfed lowland fields in Tarlac, Philippines, were sampled for arthropods during 1996 DS (Apr-May). Arthropod sampling was conducted on 25-26, 3334, and 39-40 d after harvest (DAH) using metal
2. Two-day population densities (no. m-2) of creviceinhabiting invertebrates sampled from rainfed lowland fields in Masalasa, Tarlac, Philippines, at three fallow periods 25-26, 33-34, and 39-40 d after harvest (DAH), 1996 DS.
Phytophages Predators Parasitoids Scavengers
Scavengers
Scavengers
whitehead. Temperature measurements were made consecutively for spikelets of both panicles and for air temperature adjacent to the panicles. Typical results are shown in Table 3. The reason for the difference in spikelet resistance can probably be attributed to panicle age. The spikelet resistance value of 173 s m-1 is comparable with other estimates made at IRRI. At air temperatures of 32 oC, thermal damage could occur in irrigated rice, and where rice is water stressed (where tissue temperatures would be higher), damage would be highly possible. It is interesting to note that between 14 and 24% of spikelets in irrigated IR72 remain unfilled at IRRI and that the percentage varies from year to year even though the total number of spikelets remains constant. This suggests that differences in air temperature, irradiance, and windspeed could give rise to thermal burdens that cannot be offset.
250 200 150 100 50 0 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 26 DAH 34 DAH 40 DAH 25 DAH 33 DAH 39 DAH
43
Published studies have shown that detritus feeders may function as prey for early-season natural enemies (e.g., spiders) in irrigated rice ecosystems. The same predator-prey mechanism may be present among crevice-inhabiting, fallow-period arthropods of the rainfed lowland rice ecosystem.
Rainfed Lowland Rice Research Consortium

The RLRRC is a collaborative research network between IRRI and NARS partners in Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Philippines, and Thailand. RLRRC was established in 1991 and has been supported by Asian Development Bank and the Directorate General for International Cooperation, The Netherlands. Overall policies and directions are established by a steering committee of representatives of all NARS and IRRI, and management and coordination rest with IRRI. Consortium research themes Research is at seven RLRRC sites under seven research themes: q characterization of rainfed subecosystems using remotely sensed data, q germplasm improvement for South and Southeast Asia, q physiology and genetics of drought and submergence, q crop establishment and intensification, q nutrient management use efficiency and interaction with drought and crop establishment, q analyses of pathogen population dynamics and resistance breeding using biotechnology, q risk analyses and management of technology generation and adoption.
ANALYSIS OF INTENSIVE CROPPING SYSTEMS IN RAINFED LOWLANDS OF ILOCOS NORTE, PHILIPPINES
Monitoring of rice production practices in selected areas of Ilocos Norte was initiated in 1991. The production systems of 50 selected farmers were surveyed from 1991 to 1993. The sampling design was changed in 1994 wet season (WS) to expand the sample size to 100 and to include data from all par-
cels cultivated by a farmer irrespective of the cropping pattern followed. Farm size, tenure, and cropping patterns. The average farm size of the sampled farmers is 1.1 ha. Almost 58% of the area is cultivated by tenants. Landholdings are fragmented, with an average of three parcels per farm household. Almost all land is planted to rice in WS, and upland crops are grown on some upland fields not suitable for rice. Garlic, maize, mungbean, and tomato are the four major crops, occupying more than 75% of the area planted in DS. Sweet pepper is grown on about 5% of area planted but is an important source of cash income. The overall cropping intensity is about 180%. Rice production. Rice is the main WS crop. Modern rice varieties, including BPI Ri10 and various IR varieties, are most commonly planted. The average yield of rice (1994-95) was 3.7 t ha -1. Chemical fertilizers are applied at a high rate of about 203 kg ha-1. Fertilizer is the major expense of production and accounts for about 40% of the total cash cost. The return over cash cost of rice production is $636 ha-1. If family labor is valued at the market wage rate of $4 d-1, the net return from rice production drops to $512 ha-1. Dry-season cash crops. Garlic, mungbean, sweet pepper, tomato, and maize are the major DS crops. Groundwater is used for irrigation. The DS crops are major sources of cash income, generating as much as $1,700 ha-1 in profits. Irrigation of the DS crops ranges from 1 for mungbean to 16 for sweet pepper, which is irrigated about once a week. Farmers use as much as 500 kg NPK ha-1 for the DS crops. Excess N moves to deep soil layers where it is prone to loss through leaching as nitrate into groundwater or emission of nitrous oxide into the atmosphere, or both. Both processes cause environmental pollution. Similarly, large quantities of insecticides and fungicides used to protect the DS crops can have negative effects on human health. Farmers may not explicitly consider these costs in their calculations and hence may adopt practices that ultimately lead to the unsustainability of the production system. The estimated input index, output index, and the total factor productivity (TFP) index are presented in Figure 3. The input index increased over time but the output index rose after an initial decline in 1993.
44
Index 170 Output
140 Input 110
80 TFP 50 1992 1993 Year 1994 1995
3. Total factor productivity (TFP) and input and output indexes for Ilocos Norte, Philippines, 1992-95.
As a result, the initial decline in TFP was reversed. No clear trend in TFP is discernible from these estimates. The lack of any clear pattern of a downward trend in TFP should not, however, be taken to imply that rice production system in Ilocos Norte is sustainable. First, the time period analyzed is too short to separate any underlying long-term trend in TFP from random variations due to price and weather shocks. Second, and more important, the TFP estimates derived do not capture the effects of externalities. In principle, these effects can be included in economic analysis but the necessary data required for valuing the externalities were not available.
GROUNDWATER DYNAMICS AND QUALITY IN INTENSIVE CROPPING SYSTEMS IN BATAC, PHILIPPINES
land use and farm input in a highly diversified, intensive agricultural area at Magnuang, Batac. Monthly groundwater depths, NO3 N, Cl-, HCO3-, EC, and pH were determined for 19 agricultural and domestic wells. The area irrigated by each well and the proportion of the area under different cropping systems were recorded. Pepper had high DS irrigation requirement and caused greater decline in groundwater level than for other crops. The aquifer was, however, fully recharged, irrespective of the decline during DS. Recharging of the wells by rainfall occurred even though the annual rainfall in the study period (1,432 mm) was less than the 2,000 mm mean for the past 10 yr. The data implied no overdrafting of the groundwater resources during the observed period, but longer time-series data are needed for any conclusions on whether groundwater depletion is likely in the study area. EC and HCO3- in all wells exceeded the FAOs threshold quality for irrigation and were not related to farm management practices. The mean NO3 N concentration of 40% of sampled wells was above WHOs safe limit for drinking water. Mean NO3 N concentrations in the wells were highly correlated (p<0.001) with amount of N fertilizer used in the service area (Fig. 4) and inversely correlated (p<0.001) with the percentage of the wells service area that was put under rice cultivation in WS (Fig. 5). This may be attributed to the denitrification process in the flooded fields and less fertilizer N input for rice compared with other crops.
NO3 N (mg L-1) 25 20 >95% of area under WS rice 30-85% of area under WS rice <20% of area under WS rice y = -0.77 + (0.014**0.004) x r2 = 0.445**
Farmers in Batac, Ilocos Norte, apply high rates of fertilizer N (120 kg ha-1 for WS rice and 340 kg ha-1 for DS upland crops). Irrigation for DS crops comes solely from shallow tubewells, which are also a source of drinking water. There is a lack of understanding the dynamics of water quality, especially nitrate contamination of groundwater. This knowledge is important for future land-use planning and management options for mitigating pollution and health hazards in the area. A study from Oct 1994 to Mar 1996 assessed groundwater dynamics and quality in relation to
15 10 5 0 0
200
400 600 Total N fertilizer (kg ha-1)
800
4. Relationship between total N fertilizer and mean groundwater NO3- N (Oct 1994-Mar 1996). The dotted lines represent the 95% prediction interval.
45
NO3 N (mg L-1) 25 20 15 10 5 0 5 0 y = 18.80*** (0.16*** 0.017) x r2 = 0.84*** 20 40 60 80 Percent of area under WS rice 100
5. Relationship between mean groundwater NO3 N (Oct 1994-Mar 1996) and the WS rice area expressed as percentage of the total area serviced by the wells. The dotted lines represent the 95% prediction interval.
The present N application practice in upland rice - upland cash crop caused severe nitrate pollution of groundwater. Growing rice in the rainy season may reduce nitrate groundwater pollution but may increase the high amount of nitrous oxide emissions. Better N and water management, or planting a suitable nitrate catch crop after pepper, may reduce the amount of NO3 N leached into the groundwater.
IMPROVING PRODUCTIVITY OF RAINFED LOWLAND RICE-BASED CROPPING SYSTEMS
A long-term field experiment was started in 1994 DS at Mariano Marcos State University (MMSU), Batac, to determine the effects of indigo (Indigo tinctoria) on the productivity of rainfed lowland rice-based cropping systems: rice - tomato, rice -tobacco/soybean, rice - maize, and rice - garlic. Soil at the experimental site is an isohyperthermic Ustic Eutropept, clay loam, pH of 7.7-7.9, organic C 0.260.47%, total N 0.047-0.06, Olsen P < 3 mg kg-1, and exchangeable K 0.3-0.8 cmole kg-1 in the 0-25 cm layer. The experiment was a strip-split-plot design with cropping sequence as the horizontal factor, WS inorganic N treatment as the vertical factor, and indigo as the subplot. Indigo was grown as an intercrop during DS and incorporated as green manure for WS rice. Indigo seeds were sown along the rows of the DS crops 1 mo after planting. All DS crops were fertilized at the recommended rates for each crop: garlic
90-26-50, maize 120-26-50, soybean 60-13-25, and tomato 180-26-117 kg NPK ha-1. Nitrogen was applied in split application at planting and 1 mo after planting. Dry-season crops were harvested Feb-Mar and indigo was left in the field until Jul-Aug. Indigo incorporated as green manure coincided with land preparation for the succeeding rice crop. The rice crop, with and without indigo green manure, received three levels of urea N (0, 60, and 120 kg ha-1) in split application at transplanting and panicle initiation. Phosphorus and K were applied before transplanting rice in all treatments at rates of 15 kg P and 25 kg K ha-1. Plant N concentration, biomass, and N accumulation of intercropped indigo in 1994 and 1995 were not significantly affected by the companion DS crop and inorganic N applied to the preceding rice crop. There was also no interaction between the companion DS crop and WS inorganic N level in terms of these parameters in both years. Plant N concentration, biomass, and N accumulation of indigo averaged respectively 2.06%, 2.9 t ha-1, and 57.6 kg ha-1 in 1994 DS and 2.42%, 2.3 t ha-1, and 56.7 kg ha-1 in 1995 DS. DS crop yields were generally not affected by indigo intercrop but indigo green manure had a positive effect on rice yields. Analysis of variance showed that rice yields were significantly (p<0.05) affected by inorganic N levels and indigo green manure in 1994 and 1995. Rice yields of indigo treatments averaged over all cropping sequences and inorganic N levels were about 45% higher than for non-indigo treatments in both years. Cropping sequence had a significant interaction with indigo rice yields in all cropping sequences except rice maize in 1994. The following year indigo increased rice yields in all cropping sequences (Table 4). There was a significant interaction between inorganic N and indigo green manure in terms of rice yield in 1995 but not in 1994. Rice yields in 1994 responded linearly to increasing inorganic N levels with and without indigo green manure. The following year, however, rice yields responded linearly to increasing inorganic N levels only in treatments without indigo. In both years, about 58 kg N ha-1 from indigo alone produced rice yields comparable with that obtained with the application of 120 kg urea N ha-1. At the same level of N inputs, indigo produced higher yields than urea N. This may be due to high inorganic N losses.
46
Table 4. Interaction effects of crop sequence and indigo green manuring (I) on rice grain yield at Mariano Marcos State University, Batac, Ilocos Norte, Philippines. 1994 and 1995 WS. Rice grain yield (t ha-1) 1994 Dry season crop (C) Indigo (+1) 4.3 4.6 3.0 4.2 No indigo (-1) 2.9 2.8 2.5 2.9 Indigo (+1) 5.1 5.0 5.0 5.4 1995 No indigo (-1) 3.7 3.3 3.2 4.0
Tomato Tomato or soybeana Maize Garlic SED 2 C means at each I 2 I means at each C
a
0.3 0.4
0.2 0.2
Tobacco in 1994, soybean in 1995.
SUSTAINABILITY OF DIVERSE LOWLAND RICEBASED CROPPING SYSTEMS
A long-term field trial was started in 1991 WS at MMSU, Ilocos Norte, Philippines, to assess the sustainability of the different rice-based cropping systems practiced by farmers in the area. The soil is an isohyperthermic Udic Eutropept, clay loam with a pH of 8.1, total C 4.3 g kg-1, total N 0.54 g kg-1, available Olsen P 8.3 mg kg-1, exchangeable K 8.1 g kg-1, and CEC 39.8 cmol kg-1. The treatments had five N levels for rice (0, 30, 60, 90, and 120 kg ha-1) as the horizontal factor, five cropping systems (rice -maize - mungbean, rice - garlic - mungbean, rice mungbean -maize, rice - sweet pepper - maize, and rice - tomato - maize) as the vertical factor, and fertilizer application for the DS crops as the subplot factor. The recommended fertilizer (kg NPK ha-1) for the DS crops was: garlic 90-26-50, sweet pepper and tomato 170-57-163, mungbean 30-13-25, and maize 120-26-50. Relay crops were planted (between rows or hills of the main crop during its early reproductive stage) during the 1994 DS. Maize was the relay crop in the rice - tomato, rice - sweet pepper, and rice mungbean systems and mungbean in the rice -garlic system. In the rice - maize system, mungbean was planted after maize harvest. Maize was relayed to sweet pepper and tomato 50 d after planting (DAP) and to mungbean after hilling (30 DAP).
Mungbean was relay-planted to garlic at 60 DAP. Maize was harvested green. Crop residues were removed from the experimental plots in 1991. But starting in the 1993 WS, all crop residues from the WS, main DS, and relay crops were incorporated during land preparation for the succeeding WS rice crop. Rice yield in 1991 WS was 0.9 t ha-1 without fertilizer application and ranged from 1.3 to 2.1 t ha-1 with the application of 30-120 kg N ha-1. Analyses of variance showed that WS rice yields were significantly affected by N applied to rice in all the field trials from 1991 to 1997, while cropping system had a significant effect on grain yield only in 1992, 1993, and 1996. Rice yields declined when crop residues were incorporated for the first time during the 1993 WS. The average amount of crop residues (rice straw, DS and relay crop residues, and weeds) incorporated was 7.3 t ha-1 annually from 1993 to 1995. In all cropping systems, rice yield increased from 1993 to 1995 but decreased slightly from 1995 to 1997 (Fig. 6). The lower yield in 1997 was attributed to limited rainfall immediately after transplanting. The residual effects of fertilizer applied to DS crops on WS rice yields varied with cropping system as shown by the significant interaction between cropping system and fertilizer application for DS crops from 1993 to 1997. Tomato and sweet pepper, with the highest NPK rates applied, had the highest residual effects for 1994-96 (Fig. 6). A recent survey found that farmers using rice - tomato and rice sweet pepper cropping systems applied less N to rice (an average of 72 kg ha-1 for tomato and 51 kg ha-1 for sweet pepper fields) than those growing other DS crops. All main DS crops, except mungbean, responded to the application of the recommended amount of fertilizer in terms of yield. The highest response was obtained in sweet pepper and tomato. Nitrogen applied to the rice crop had no effect on the yield of the succeeding DS crops. The NPK uptake of maize, tomato, and sweet pepper increased with the application of fertilizer, while that of garlic and mungbean did not. The amount of NPK absorbed by the relay crop largely depended on the amount of NPK applied to the main DS crop. The high NPK rates applied to sweet pepper and tomato significantly increased the NPK uptake of relayed maize. On the other hand, the NPK
47
Rice yield (t ha-1) 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5

* 0-0-0 ** 120-26-50 ** 90-26-50 0-0-0 *
30-13-25 **
** ** 170-57-163
** ** 170-57-163
** **
0-0-0
0-0-0 0-0-0
2.0
Rice-maize-mungbean Rice-garlic-mungbean Rice-mungbean-maize Rice-tomato-maize Rice-pepper-maize
1.5
92 93 94 95 96 97 92 93 94 95 96 9792 93 94 95 96 9792 93 94 95 96 97 92 93 94 95 96 97
Year
6. Residual effects of fertilizer applied to DS crops on WS rice yields in different cropping systems, 1992-97 WS, Batac, Ilocos Norte. The NPK fertilizer rates applied to the DS crops are indicated. Each point is the average obtained from 5 N treatments applied to rice.
applied to garlic, maize, and mungbean had no significant effect on the NPK uptake of the corresponding relay crop. Maize relayed to sweet pepper absorbed an average of 28-9-41 kg NPK ha-1 in 1994 and 1995 from fertilizer applied to the main DS crop, showing that a relay crop could serve as a catch crop for excess nutrients. The annual NPK uptake increased with increasing rates of NPK fertilizer in all cropping systems, except for P and K uptake in rice - garlic mungbean and K uptake in rice - mungbean - maize. Based on 1994 WS to 1995 DS data, rice - garlic mungbean was the least and rice - sweet pepper maize and rice - tomato - maize were the most responsive to N application in terms of both yield and N uptake. In terms of P uptake, rice - tomato - maize was the least and rice - maize - mungbean the most responsive to P application. The annual K uptake was also significantly affected by K application and cropping system but there was no significant interaction between cropping system and K treatment in terms of K uptake. Without fertilizer application, the NPK uptake among the five cropping systems averaged 55-14-117 kg ha-1, which may be considered as the annual NPK-supplying capacity of the soil. Recycling crop residues in the upland crop rainfed rice system may eventually reduce the fertilizer requirements for rice. Residual fertilizer from DS crops benefited the succeeding rice crop when catch crops were grown and the residues recycled. The DS crop fertilization increased the yield of the succeeding WS rice crop by about 0.5 t ha-1. The
main yield constraint in rainfed lowland rice cultivation is the fluctuating soil moisture with occasional soil cracking and flash flooding resulting in large N losses.
ANALYSIS OF DROUGHT BY USE OF ON-FARM RESERVOIRS
More than 50% of the rice areas in Bangladesh are drought-prone rainfed lowlands. The drought-induced yield reduction is about 23% for premonsoon rice and 31% for monsoon rice. Construction of onfarm reservoirs (OFR) has helped alleviate drought and increased farmers income in rainfed lowlands, but the physical, hydrological, and socioeconomic factors that affect successful operation and performance of OFR are poorly understood. A study assessed the extent and frequency of monsoon season droughts in the rainfed rice system and their impact on rice yield, and evaluated the feasibility of OFR for drought alleviation. Daily rainfall data for 1963-93 were used for drought analysis. Crop production practices in the monsoon season of 50 randomly selected farmers in three toposequences (high, medium, low) were surveyed in the Barind Tract in northwestern Bangladesh. Field water status and water use by 30 farms, including 10 with OFR, were monitored. The nature and extent of drought were quantified using the water balance method for 5-d periods during the monsoon season. Seepage and percolation were considered along with evapotranspiration. Water adequacy during the crop growth season was deter-
48
mined using the concept of relative water supply. Crop evapotranspiration was monitored using class A pans. Although the study area is generally considered as drought-prone, droughts are expected only prior to transplanting of seedlings (mid-Jul) and at the beginning of the grain-filling period (early Oct). In an average year, about 80% of the crop water requirement is satisfied by rainfall. Rainfall supplies only about 50% of the total water requirement in 2 out of 10 yr because of late transplanting due to early-season drought. The probability that nonconsecutive 5-d droughts occurred during the grain-filling stage was more than 80%. The probability of 10d and 15-d droughts during the grain-filling stage is respectively 73 and 53%. Yield was not related to the total rainfall during the crop duration but was significantly correlated with rainfall during the grain-filling stage. Thus supplementary irrigation is desirable during the grain-filling stage. Rainfall runoff in an average year could completely fill the OFR by the beginning of September. Even in drought years, the OFR are expected to be about 75% full by the time drought stress in rice is expected. Supplementary irrigation with water from the OFR increased the yield by about 0.7 t ha-1 (20%) during the study period. These reservoirs are thus technically and economically feasible at the present level of use. Based on a sensitivity analysis, the average net present value for the OFR is $302.33, the internal rate of return 35%, and the benefit-cost ratio 1.5.
CHARACTERIZATION OF THE BLAST POPULATION USING DNA FINGERPRINTING
Blast is considered as one of the major constraints in rice production in Thailand. More than 200,000 ha of rice in the northern region were destroyed by blast in 1994, contributing to a 650,000 t yield loss. Blast nursery composition and evaluation. To understand the complexity of the blast population development, a series of trap nurseries were planted in five major rice-growing areas in 1993 and 1994. Nurseries included 76 cultivars from IRRI and the Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), blast differential cultivars, isogenic lines, and 35 local and improved varieties from Thailand. The spreader rows, which were planted 3 wk ahead of the trap cultivars consisted of a mixture of sus-
ceptible varieties with known blast-susceptible genes. The International Rice Blast Nursery (IRBN) procedure was employed. The trap cultivars were evaluated 22-48 d after seeding (DAS). Each cultivar was scored every 3-4 d, using the Standard evaluation system for rice (SES). Characterization of blast population by lineages. Leaves were collected from the cultivars showing distinct susceptible lesions from the 30-dold plants. Lesions were also sampled from infected panicles. From each location, four single-spore isolates were taken from each of the four lesions on infected cultivars. The DNA fingerprinting of isolates using the MGR586 probe was performed at IRRI and at Purdue University, USA. The fingerprintings were sorted based on the appropriate similarities between restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) profiles. Variation of fingerprinting within and between the groups was quantified visually for 40-60 polymorphic bands, scoring the presence and absence of all restriction fragments in the 1.5- to 20-kb size range. Of 657 isolates collected from 1993 and 1994, nearly all of the isolates expressed a profile of 50-60 EcoRI fragments that hybridized to the MGR586 (Pcb586) probe. Such profiles were typical of Pyricularia grisea. Lineage distribution. Seventy-six international cultivars and breeding lines and 35 Thai cultivars were recovered for DNA fingerprinting over 2 yr of collection. The lists of rice cultivars showing number of isolates and number of lineages at each site are presented in Tables 5 and 6. Ubon had the highest diversity of the infected cultivars. Cluster analysis identified 51 isolate groups, each with more than 80% similarity. DNA fingerprinting data indicated pathogen population can be strongly grouped into lineages (Fig. 7). This represents separate genetic lineages and is nearly an order of magnitude beyond the diversity reported in Colombia, Philippines, USA, and Europe. However there was substantial geographical and annual lineage distribution. The number of lineages detected at Ubon, Khonkaen, Prae, Sanpatong, and Ratchaburi were respectively 30, 16, 17, 15, and 11 (Fig. 8). Considering the pathogen diversity by region, the northeast had the highest number with 32 lineages, followed by the north with 26, and central with 13. However each region had its own unique lineages.
49
Table 5. Lineage diversity showing lineage diversity isolates drawn from diverse cultivars in trap nurseries at five sites in Thailand, 1993-94. Sitesa Cultivar Aichi Asahi Arias Azucena B370 BR21 C101LAC C101PKT C101A51 C102PKT C104LAC C104PKT C101TTP-1 C105TTP-4-L23 Caloro Carreon CNA 4130 CO 39 CT6196-33-10-4-15-M CT6947-1-1-1-7-M CT72449-2-1-52-1 Danau Laut Tawar Dular Fujisaka 5 Fukuhikari Fukunishiki IAC165 IAC47 Iguape Cateto IR8 IR22 IR36 IR42 IR50 IR64 IR72 IRAT13 IRAT216 IRAT104 UPLRI-5 Kagahikari Kanto 51 Kinandang Patong KU115 Miyazaki 7 NP125 Oryzica Llanos 5 OS6 PI No. 4 Raminad Str. 3 Sha-Tiao-Tsao Shin 2 Shinsetsu Tetep Toride 1 Tsuyake Usen Yamatenishiki Yamadabaki Zenith Total
a
Isolate (no.) 9 5 10 3 2 1 9 1 11 10 16 3 11 7 3 2 11 2 2 8 4 7 1 1 1 1 1 10 2 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 3 7 7 4 2 10 1 4 2 2 8 3 5 8 4 10 2 4 8 6 2 8 6 201
Lineage (no.) 7 4 6 1 1 1 7 1 10 5 5 2 10 4 3 1 4 1 2 5 4 4 1 1 1 1 1 5 2 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 3 3 6 1 2 6 1 3 1 2 4 2 5 4 4 4 1 3 3 3 2 5 5
UBN 1 2 5 0 0 0 3 1 2 4 0 0 3 1 3 0 1 0 0 4 4 1 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 3 1 1 1 0 3 1 2 0 0 3 0 0 2 1 0 0 2 1 3 2 2 3
KKN 2 0 0 0 1 0 3 0 2 1 0 1 4 1 0 0 1 1 2 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 2 2 0 2 0 0 1 0 2 1 2 3 0 1 1 0 0 1 2
PRE 3 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 3 0 1 3 0 1 2 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0
SPT 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 6 0 3 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 3 1 2 3 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
RBN 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
UBN = Ubon, KKN = Khonkaen, PRE = Prae, SPT = Sanpatong, RBN = Ratchaburi.
50
Table 6. Lineage diversity of Pyricularia grisea population isolates drawn from Thai cultivars in trap nurseries in Thailand, 1993-94. Sitesa Cultivar Isolate (no.) 3 6 13 8 3 17 2 43 11 21 2 11 1 4 6 10 5 10 5 15 15 10 17 7 4 12 12 14 7 24 3 1 14 2 247 Lineage (no.) 2 5 9 3 3 8 2 13 7 12 1 6 1 4 5 8 5 6 5 7 12 5 10 5 2 5 7 7 6 10 3 1 5 1 UBN 1 3 3 2 0 3 0 5 3 6 1 1 1 2 1 4 1 2 4 1 5 0 2 2 1 2 4 3 4 5 2 1 3 0 KKN 0 1 1 1 0 0 2 4 2 3 0 1 0 1 2 0 1 3 1 3 3 3 3 1 1 0 3 3 3 4 1 0 2 0 PRE 1 0 1 1 0 2 0 2 1 2 0 4 0 0 2 0 3 0 0 3 1 1 3 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 SPT 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 4 0 3 0 1 0 1 0 3 0 1 0 1 3 2 3 1 0 3 1 1 0 2 0 0 0 0 RBN 0 0 2 0 2 1 0 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 Lineage diversity by cultivar 0.83 0.93 0.94 0.71 1.00 0.88 1.00 0.68 0.93 0.92 0.00 0.87 0.00 1.00 0.90 0.94 1.00 0.89 1.00 0.82 0.97 0.82 0.93 0.86 0.67 0.86 0.88 0.89 0.95 0.78 1.00 0.00 0.86 0.00
Chaodang CPA60 Doiwon Dokmai GP15 GP41 GP43 KDML 105 KPM148 KTH17 Leamdern LY148 Med Yai MN62M Munpoo Neaw Ubon1 NSG19 NSPT Praesawan Praratthan RD2 RD3 RD4 RD6 RD7 RD8 RD10 RD15 RD21 RD23 RD25 SPR60 Widni Wundeaw (7688) (143) Total
a
UBN=Ubon, KKN=Khonkaen, PRE=Prae, SPT=Sanpatong, RBN=Ratchaburi.
Similarity 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 2 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Similarity 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 8 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
1 Lineage
15
48
43 Lineage
7. Phenogram comparison within lineages 2 and 8 and between lineages 1 and 15 and 2, 43, and 48 of P. grisea collected in 1993-94. The phenogram was constructed from distance values using the UPGMA method in the software package NTSYSpc.
51
Northern region 12 Unique lineage = 10 3 1
Northeastern region Unique lineage = 15 2
Unique lineage = 7 Central region
8. Distribution of rice blast fungus lineages in the northern, northeastern, and central rice-growing regions of Thailand, 1993-94.

Managing crop, soil, and water resources for enhanced productivity and sustainability
q q
Nitrogen dynamics and balances were quantified for diverse, intensive rainfed lowland systems that receive multiple tillage, heavy doses of fertilizer, and irrigation during the DS. N losses ranged from 240 kg N ha-1 with DS tobacco to 575 kg N ha-1 with sweet pepper. About 50% of the wells in fields with rice - sweet pepper had NO3 concentrations higher than the World Health Organizations safe limits for drinking water. Growing a crop during the dry-wet transition enabled soil nitrate N to be recycled and contamination of groundwater to be reduced. Experiments on nutrient by water (NW) interactions were conducted at 30 locations of RLRRC in India, Bangladesh, Thailand, Indonesia, and the Philippines in 1996 and 1997. Analysis of 1995 data showed nutrient responses were grouped by soil fertility, responsiveness to controlled-release fertilizer, and responsiveness to farmyard manure. Controlled-release fertilizer enhanced crop survival under submergence, and farmyard manure was beneficial on coarse-textured soils, especially under drought. It was
demonstrated that prospects exist to buffer the adverse effects of drought by provision of adequate nutrients. Studies on mechanisms of plant nutrient uptake in aerobic/anaerobic lowland soils have shown the importance of organic acid release from the roots to solubilize P. Models integrating rates of acid release, solubilization of P, and acid longevity in the rhizosphere predicted observed rates well. Knowledge of P and Zn uptake mechanismsand of field performance of germplasm in screening trials is being used to identify germplasm that is tolerant of low P and Zn, and molecular markers for use in breeding for improved P and Zn uptake efficiency. Impact of water regime on C-, N-, and S-cycle microbial populations in soils planted to drought-tolerant and submergence-tolerant varieties was assessed in the greenhouse. Microelectrode/microsensor technology for NH4/NO3 and O2/CH4 turnover was assessed in the greenhouse and the field. The ORYZA_W model was refined for the effects of drought on biomass translocation and grain filling and validated using data from field experiments in Jakenan (Indonesia), Tarlac (Philippines), and IRRI. Other researchers are now using the ORYZA_W model in their research. Analysis of damage to rice yields from different components of weed flora indicated that sedges were only two-thirds as competitive as grass weeds. Stale seedbed land preparation (rototilling and glyphosphate application prior to crop sowing), in combination with a preemergence herbicide (butachlor or oxadiazon), controlled Echinochloa colona and Fimbristylis miliacea and increased rice yield, but Cynodon dactylon and Cyperus rotundus increased in abundance. These results illustrate the complexity of weed dynamics and weed management in dryseeded rice. Various planters and weeders were evaluated in Jakenan, Indonesia, to reduce labor requirement for crop establishment and weed control. A slit seeder showed promise and was identified for local fabrication.
52
A survey of 700 Lao farmers showed adoption of modern varieties and fertilizer was strongly influenced by market access. A high ratio of fertilizer cost to rice price and low marginal productivity reduced adoption of fertilizer. Return to capital was highest for adoption of modern variety, but return to land was better with simultaneous adoption of fertilizer and modern variety. For resource-poor farmers, encouraging the adoption of modern varieties, even if they are unable to afford fertilizer, may be advantageous. Investment in infrastructures to improve access to inputs and markets could improve profitability to farmers of technology adoption.
Germplasm improvement
q
The Philippine Rice Research Institute has recommended the release of IR57515-PMI-81-1-SRN-1-1, IR60267-11-2-2-1, and IR41431-68-1-2-3 as Sacobia, Bamban, and Tagulog, respectively, for the rainfed lowlands drought-prone rice areas in Central Luzon. These new varieties are adapted to direct dry seeding conditions. IR57515-PMI-8-1-1-SRN-1-1 has been extensively tested on farmers fields in drought-prone areas of northeast Thailand. Under low soil fertility at Sakon Nakorn, it yielded 2 t ha-1, about 30% higher than the popular variety, KDML 105. In addition, this line has earlier been identified by the Rice Research Institute of Thailand to have resistance to drought at the vegetative stage and by IRRI to have tolerance for submergence under controlled conditions. The advanced breeding lines IR63429-23-1-3, IR42253-63, IR42342, and IR54896-BB-139 were included in the Biasi system, which is the final testing stage for a formal release in the state of Madhya Pradesh. The line, IR6342923-1-3, introduced through the shuttle breeding network for eastern India is 120 d to maturity with slender grains that are preferred by farmers. The DH population of CT9993/IR62266 has been mapped, using molecular markers, for genes controlling osmotic adjustment, root penetration ability, and root pulling resistance.
This work was carried out in collaboration with Texas Tech University. The marker intervals that gave the highest variation in root pulling resistance are M46-M36 on chromosome 3 and M173-M133 on chromosome 10. Experiments on genotype by environment (GE) interaction were conducted at 12 locations of RLRRC in India, Bangladesh, Thailand, Indonesia, and the Philippines in 1996-97. Analysis of 1995 data showed separate genotype groups were associated with adaptation to different conditions. For example, high-yielding semidwarfs such as CT9897 performed well at favorable sites, while standard checks such as KDML 105 did well in late-season drought. NSG19 and IR66516 were better adapted to rapid onset of drought and to flooding, respectively. Farmer participatory breeding activities have been initiated in Raipur, Madhya Pradesh; Masodha, Uttar Pradesh; and Cuttack, Orissa. These activities involve farmers making the selection of the breeding materials in advanced and early generations both on-farm and onstation. Analysis of field studies conducted at Rajshahi, Ubon, and Tarlac revealed that few roots grow below 20 cm in depth in rainfed lowland conditions. IR58821 was better able to penetrate a hardpan at Rajshahi and to extract water at Ubon. This research led to the recognition that anaerobiosis, rate of stress onset, chemical and physical barriers, root signals, and interactions between them may limit root penetration to depth and the capacity of the plant to extract water in late-season drought. Pot experiments conducted in the greenhouse at IRRI have shown that lines differ in their capacity to tolerate drought and to recover on rewatering. Recovery was strongest in KDML 105, which maintained some leaf area despite severe water stress. Lines whose root length increased during severe stress were better able to respond on rewatering. The beneficial effect of reduced elongation on survival of rice seedlings after flash floods was demonstrated by a) comparison among cultivars with natural differences in tolerance during submergence, b) adverse effects of
53
increasing elongation growth using exogenous GA3, c) better survival in cultivars with reduction of elongation growth using paclobutrazol (a gibberellin biosynthesis inhibitor), d) high submergence tolerance of a GA-deficient mutant rice cultivar, Tan-ginbozu, with low absolute increase in elongation during submergence. The impact of this study is that, in environments where elongation ability is not required, there is potential for breeders to increase submergence tolerance by selecting for nonelongating plant types.
Program outlook
The program will continue its activities on characterization, socioeconomics, resource management, and germplasm improvement. Research in characterization will emphasize the use of GIS to characterize the rainfed lowland environment. Long-term studies on weed dynamics will underpin the development of better integrated weed management. Increased awareness of N loss and need to improve the relationships of supply-uptake and uptake-yield of N and P will be emphasized in resource management research. Farmer participation in germplasm improvement will determine the role of farmers and village users in breeding and selection process of improved varieties. Work on gender concerns of women and preservation of biodiversity in the village systems will be studied in a new project. Collaboration with NARS under the RLRRC will continue to address concerns in the highly variable rainfed ecosystem.
54
Research programs Upland rice ecosystem
GERMPLASM IMPROVEMENT 56 A new upland rice variety for the Philippines (PBGB) 56 On-farm characterization of upland rice varieties in Thailand (APPA, PBGB) 56 Genotype environment interaction (PBGB, APPA) 58 Allelopathy in rice germplasm 61 Root growth of allelopathic cultivars (APPA) 61 Toward a perennial rice 61 Screening wild rice species for perenniality (PBGB) 62 Building a population segregating for perenniality (PBGB) 62 Study of nematode resistance in O. longistaminata (PBGB) 64 PROGRESS OF UNREPORTED PROJECTS 64 Rehabilitation and sustainability of upland rice-based farming systems 64 Upland Rice Research Consortium 65 PROGRAM OUTLOOK 65
Upland rice ecosystem
55
Upland rice is grown on more than 17 million ha worldwide with annual production about 20 million t. The total area supporting upland rice-based cropping is considerably larger than 17 million ha because of rotations with fallow and other crops. The crop grows in a wide range of climate, topography, and soil type, often as a subsistence crop receiving few purchased inputs. Upland farmers are among the poorest in many parts of Asia, Africa, and Latin America. The major objectives of the upland rice program are to develop knowledge and technology to maximize productivity and sustainability of upland rice where it is grown, to help maximize returns for farmer effort, and to reduce the area needed to satisfy demands for upland rice. Research on germplasm improvement of upland rice seeks to overcome major abiotic (drought, nutrient availability, acidity, erosion) and biotic (weeds, blast, nematodes) yield constraints by using new technology to identify, characterize, and incorporate desired genes. Projects are aimed at development of perennial rice for the uplands and investigation of allelopathy in rice to assist with sustainable weed management. The perennial rice and allelopathy projects provide valuable information on genetic characterization of rice and its wild relatives and the genetics and physiology of tolerance for such yield constraints as drought and nematodes. Research on abiotic constraints focuses on understanding of nutrient availability in upland soils. The work on biotic constraints investigates the biology and management of weeds, nematodes, and blast. Socioeconomic research aims to characterize and understand the dynamics of the upland cropping systems and the impact of new technologies and policies on upland farmers. The program is implemented in close collaboration with national agricultural research systems (NARS) through the Upland Rice Research Consortium (URRC), which includes Brazil, India, Indonesia, Lao
PDR, Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam. Bangladesh, China, and Myanmar are URRC associates. The consortium, in operation since 1991 with support from the Asian Development Bank, the German Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ), and Japan, provides a framework for NARS-IRRI collaboration.
Improving upland rice productivity provides an entry point to alleviating the interrelated problems of productivity, sustainability, and poverty in the uplands. Improved germplasm can contribute to this objective at a relatively low cost to farmers. Varieties are being developed with good and stable yields through improved tolerance for drought, good interference with weeds through combined competitiveness and allelopathy, resistance to blast and nematodes, and adaptation to acid soils with low phosphorus availability. A new upland variety for the Philippines PSBRc5 (or Arayat) is one of two upland rice varieties released in 1997 by the Philippine Seed Board. It is derived from a 1983 cross IRAT104 (improved variety from Africa)/Palawan (traditional variety from the Philippines). PSBRc5 is a tropical japonica adapted to acid soils and is for cropping systems with low to moderate level of inputs. On-farm characterization of upland rice varieties in Thailand An on-farm diagnostic survey on the extent and causes of the variability of upland rice yields was done during 1993-96 in Mae Haeng, a highland Lahu village of Chiang Mai Province, Thailand.
56
Data were obtained over four wet seasons from 423 squares (1 m-2) in 63 farmers fields representing an extensive range of upland rice cropping conditions in a predominantly swidden cultivation system. The plots were monitored every 2 wk to quantify key physiological and agronomic parameters. An isozyme analysis assessed the genetic variability of the farmers varieties. All upland rice cultivars were found to belong to group 6 (tropical japonicas) of Glaszmanns classification. Heterogeneity was sometimes detected between samples of the same variety coming from different farmers. The rare allele 3 at locus Amp-1, typical of the varieties from Himalayan foothills, was observed in some of the cultivars. Only two late-maturing varieties were found to be glutinous. Two main types of cultivars, early (95115 d) and late (138177 d) maturing, were distinguished (Table 1). Late-maturing varieties constituted clearly the most important type in terms of produc-
tion volume, whereas early-maturing varieties were planted to improve food security before the main harvesting period. When expressed in degree days, the crop duration cycle was evenly split between the vegetative and reproductive phases for early cultivars while in the case of late-maturing cultivars the reproductive phase was longer. Maximum grain yields for the two dominant varieties, Chaloina and Chaae (Table 2) were measured in fields where no purchased inputs were applied but where environmental constraints were minimal. Yields of 3.1 t ha-1 for Chaloina and 4.4 t ha-1 for Chaae are considered yield potentials based on subsequent analyses of yield buildup processes and agronomic diagnosis of limiting factors. Maximum values of yield components characterizing the classic four successive phases of the yield buildup processes are shown in Table 2. The maximum number of panicles per unit area were similar for both cultivars but were reached dif-
Table 1. Physiological and genetic characteristics of local upland rice cultivars in Mae Haeng Village, Chiang Mai Province, Thailand, 1993-96. Early-maturing cultivars Variety Chaloina Importance Dominant Varietal groupa Photoperiodism Grain type DDb to PI DDb to harvest
a
Late-maturing cultivars Chanoko Chafuma Chazu Common Common Common Tropical japonica Strongly sensitive GlutiNongluNonglunous tinous tinous 1060 1000 1230 1910 1860 2120 Komu Rare Chanona Rare
650 1340
Kochokai Chaloioe Kochole Chaae Common Rare Rare Dominant Tropical japonica Weakly sensitive Nonglutinous Nonglutinous 800 670 590 1060 1400 1350 1270 1900
Nonglutinous 1150 1960
Glutinous 860 1790
Based on isozyme analysis. bDD=degree days (13 0C threshold temperature), PI=panicle initiation.
Table 2. Agronomic characteristics of the most common upland rice cultivars in Mae Haeng Village, Chiang Mai Province, Thailand, 1993-96. Cultivar Maturity type Observations (no.) Maximum grain yield (g m-2 at 0% H2O) Maximum thousand grain weight (g at 0% H2O) Threshold valuea for filled spikelets m-2 Maximum value for filled spikelets m-2 Maximum percentage grain filling Threshold value for spikelets m-2 Maximum value for spikelets m-2 Maximum spikelets panicle-1 Threshold value for panicles m-2 Maximum panicles m-2 Maximum panicles plant-1 Threshold value for plants m-2
a
Chaloina Early 75 308 23.2 13,300 16,200 81 20,100 22,000 144 155 228 2.8 81
Chaae Late 234 438 25.0 17,500 20,600 98 21,500 26,700 183 146 237 3.6 66
Threshold value: value required to achieve the maximum value for the yield component that follows.
57
ferently. Because of its lower maximum number of panicles plant1, Chaloina required a higher threshold value for plants m-2 to achieve the same number of panicles m-2 as that of Chaae. The difference between Chaloina and Chaae started at spikelet formation and continued in a cumulative way during following phases. Chaae had a higher maximum number of spikelets per panicle as well as a better rate of grain filling (possibly due more to favorable climate than to genetic differences) and a higher maximum grain weight. These maxima and associated threshold values for yield components can be used to construct an empirical model of upland rice yield buildup processes. Such a model can be used for agronomic diagnoses of limiting factors of the yield and for designing and evaluating improved sequences of cultivation practices. Genotype environment interaction Genotype environment (GE) interactions complicate breeding work and varietal evaluation. GE interactions are reported to be stronger in upland ecosystems than in environments such as the irrigated ecosystem. This was discussed during the first International Upland Rice Breeder Workshop in 1993 and a collaborative multiyear, multisite experiment was established with the following objectives: q Quantify GE interactions by partitioning the yield variability of a set of core varieties
between genotype, environment, and GE interactions. q Identify the key environmental factors (weather, soil, cultural practices) responsible for a large part of GE interactions. q Evaluate the extrapolation domain of IRRI upland breeding materials by identifying similarities among sites. Sixteen varieties, mostly breeders checks, were used as the core sample. Their characteristics are presented in Table 3. They represent a broad diversity of genotypes in terms of isozyme groups, and geographic and genetic origins. Standard soil analyses were performed to characterize the environment, and weather data were collected. Cultural practices were the standard ones for the sites (Table 4). The basic experiment used a randomized complete block design with three to four replications. All trials were rainfed except W2 and W3, which received a complement of sprinkler irrigation. The yield of a subsample of 35 rows per plot at 14% moisture content was analyzed. The yield sum of squares was partitioned into genotype, environment, GE, and error sum of squares using analysis of variance (ANOVA). The GE sum of squares was further partitioned using an additive main effects and multiplicative interaction (AMMI) model. Correlation between the environmental factors and the interaction principal component axis scores (IPCA) were computed. Hierarchical cluster analysis was performed on the residuals from the additive
Table 3. Upland rice varieties included in the GxE interaction experiment initiated at 13 sites in six countries. 1994. Variety Azucena B6144 Brown Gora Caiapo Guarani IR60800-46A IRAT146 IRAT216 Oryzica Llanos 5 Oryzica Sabana 6 UPLRi-5 Vandana WAB181-18 WAB56-125 WAB56-50 WAB96-1-1 Country Philippines Indonesia India Brazil Brazil Philippines Cte dIvoire Cte dIvoire Colombia Colombia Philippines India Cte dIvoire Cte dIvoire Cte dIvoire Cte dIvoire Varietal group Japonica Indica Aus Japonica Japonica Japonica Japonica Japonica Indica Japonica Indica Indica Japonica Japonica Japonica Japonica Varietal type Traditional Improved Traditional Improved Improved Improved Improved Improved Improved Improved Improved Improved Improved Improved Improved Improved Av yield (t ha-1) 1.2 2.0 1.2 1.3 1.5 1.4 1.2 1.1 1.2 1.5 1.6 1.5 1.4 1.5 1.5 1.3
58
Table 4. Sites for the upland rice GE experiment, 1994-96. Country Philippines Philippines Site Maligaya, Luzon Cavinti, Luzon Codea P1 P2 C1 C2 C3 B1 B2 B3 U1 U2 H2 H3 T2 T3 S1 S2 S3 W1 W2 W3 M1 M2 M3 R1 E1 E2 N1 N2 Y1 Y2 Latitude 1545' N 1417' N Longitude 12056' E 12130' E Elevation (m) 50 305
Philippines
Ubay, Bohol
1003' N
12425' E
50
Philippines India Thailand Indonesia
Arakan Valley, Mindanao Hazaribagh, Bihar Samoeng, Chiang Mai Sitiung, Sumatra
800' N 2356' N 1817' N 102' S
12400' E 8521' E 9836' E 10131' E
500 600 820 130
Cte dIvoire
Mbe
744' N
504' W
380
Cte dIvoire
Man
723' N
731' W
340
Colombia Colombia Colombia Colombia

a
Carimagua Estacion La Libertad Altillanura Colombiana (nativa) Altillanura Colombiana (soya)
430' N 403' N 403' N 403' N
7120' W 7329' W 7329' W 7329' W
150 400 190 190
Numbers in site code are 1=1994, 2=1995, 3=1996.
Table 5. Yield decomposition analysis of variance and AMMI model for an upland rice GxE interaction experiment, 1994-96. Source df Sum of squares Mean square Total sum of squares (%) 4.6 68.8 26.6 28.1 21.5 12.6 10.8 26.9 100.0
Genotype Environment GE IPCA1 IPCA2 IPCA3 IPCA4 Residuals Total
15 29 363 43 41 39 37 203 407
15.82 235.09 90.74 25.53 19.54 11.42 9.81 24.43
1.055 8.107 0.250 0.594 0.477 0.293 0.265
model in order to cluster varieties and environments with respect to interaction effects. The average yield per variety across sites (Table 3) was similar for all varieties except for B6144, which yielded 2 t ha-1. It was in the experiment from 1995 onward.
The ANOVA table for the additive model showed that 27% of the total sum of squares can be accounted for by the GE interaction, 69% by variations in environments, and slightly more than 4% by variations in genotypes (Table 5). The GE interaction is not the major component of the variabil-
59
ity but it is still high at 27%almost seven times the size of the genotype effect. This decomposition confirms the rationale of a decentralized breeding strategy. However, in the results using first-year data, GE interaction was not higher than one observed in a similar type of trial in an irrigated rice ecosystem. The AMMI model with four IPCAs (AMMI4) accounted for 73% of the GE sum of squares with the two first axes accounting for 50%. There was a drop in GE contribution between the second and the third IPCAs but one-fourth of the variation contained in the GE term could still be explained by IPCA3 and IPCA4. Correlation analysis was performed for available site characteristics (weather, soil characteristics, amount of fertilizer) and scores of the four IPCAs in order to determine which environmental factors played important roles in GE interaction in this data set. IPCA1 was negatively correlated with maximum temperature during wk 7 to 12. IPCA2 was positively correlated with latitude and longitude, exchangeable Ca, exchangeable Mg, cation exchange capacity, and minimum temperature during wk 1 to 10,and negatively with soil fertility (organic C, C/N, total N). IPCA3, which corresponded mostly to an acidity syndrome, was negatively correlated with pH and with exchangeable bases (K, Ca, and Mg) and positively with exchangeable Al. IPCA4 represented a fertilization axis with negative correlation with basal N and organic C but positive with topdressed N. It was striking that none of the axes was correlated with rainfall at a significant period, although rainfall is one of the main determinants in upland yield variation and huge variations in rainfall from year to year were observed. This could be partly explained by the fact that the varieties tested represented a relatively wide range of duration. Thorough analysis of long-term weather data is necessary to clarify weather patterns and differentiate target environments on this basis. The interaction biplot with sites and varieties superimposed (Fig. 1) can be used to determine the stability of the varieties and their adaptation to a given set of sites. Genotypes situated close to the center can be regarded as stable across a gradient of soil acidity and soil fertility because of their consistent yield performance across sites. On the other hand, genotypes far from the center can be regarded as sensitive to the environmental factors differing
IPCA2 1.2
Model fit: 49.7% of GE SS

8 2 P2 5 U1 1 P1 U2 H3
0.5
C2 4 B322 T3 S3 S1 C3 B1 N2 23 C224 Y2 C1 M3 M1 Y1 E1 3 16 M2 9 25 2 B2 N1 W2 E2 10 6 R1 W3 11
0.2
W1
0.9 1.40
0.88
0.36 IPCA1
0.16
0.68
1.20
1. Interaction biplot for the AMMI2 model based on yield of 16 varieties tested at 13 sites (1994-96). Codes: Philrice main station (P) and Cavinti (C); IRRI upland breeding site at Bohol, Visayas (B) and Arakan, Mindanao (U); Sitiung, Indonesia (S); Samoeng, Thailand (T); Hazaribagh, India (H); Carimagua, Colombia (R); two sites at Altillanura, Colombia, one following fallow (N) and one following soybean (Y); Mbe, Cte dIvoire (W) and Man, Cte dIvoire (M). The number added to each letter represents years 1994 (1), 1995 (2), and 1996 (3). IRRI, 1997.
over sites because their performance varies across sites. This is the case for UPLRi-5 (7), Vandana (8), WAB 56-50 (11) and, to a lesser degree, for Brown Gora (2) and Oryzica Llanos 5 (2). The dendrogram of varieties structured by interaction pattern (Fig. 2) shows some degree of agreement with the biplots. The first split separates B6144 from the other varieties. Vandana, Oryzica Llanos 5, and UPLRi-5 are pooled together. All these varieties are indica types. The cluster dendrogram for genotypes appears to be well related with the clustering based on isozymic groups. By projecting the varieties on the site vectors in Figure 2, it is possible to evaluate their specific interaction. Varieties used as checks for a site generally have positive interaction at that site. This is the case, for example, for the four WAB varieties (9, 10, 11, and 12) which have positive projections on the W1, W2, and W3 vectors, the station where they were bred, or for Brown Gora in Hazaribagh.
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25 2 26 4 22 12 21 23 28 10 19 11 23 9 20 3 27 6 18 16 24 1 24 17 8 5 25 7 0.4 1.3
were tested in Korea with results comparable with those obtained at IRRI.
31
ROOT GROWTH OF ALLELOPATHIC CULTIVARS
30
29 3.0 4.7 Fusion level 6.4 8.1
2. Cluster dendrogram for genotypes based on the yield of 13 sites (1994-96). Numbers on the left are genotype codes; labels in the dendrogram are cluster numbers. IRRI, 1997.
The sites can also be subdivided using cluster analysis on interactions. The pattern of clustering often grouped two different years of the same site but never three. The Asian sites tended to group and to separate from the African and Latin American ones. Allelopathy in rice germplasm A laboratory screening procedure for allelopathic potential in rice was established at IRRI in 1995 (IRRI program report for 1995) and used to ensure that field observations resulted from allelopathy and not from competition. Laboratory screenings in combination with field experiments during 1995-96 consistently showed that 19 rice cultivars (among 111 tested) suppressed growth of Echinochloa crusgalli by more than 40%. Seven of the cultivars reduced E. crus-galli dry weight by more than 50%. Two field experiments with the same 111 cultivars and Trianthema portulacastrum as the target weed identified two rice cultivars strongly allelopathic for both E. crus-galli and T. portulacastrum. This verifies a pattern found by researchers in Arkansas, USA, and Egypt, indicating more than one chemical is responsible for the allelopathic effect. Taichung Native 1 has shown allelopathic effect against E. crus-galli, T. portulacastrum, Heteranthera limosa, and Ammannia coccinea. Cultivars with promising allelopathic effects in IRRI trial
A 1996 experiment at IRRI measured early growth characteristics in allelopathic and nonallelopathic cultivars. Allelopathic cultivars were Taichung Native 1, Woo Co Chin Yu, IR64, and AC1423. Aus 196 and IR38 were the nonallelopathic cultivars. The cultivars were grown in hydroponics in a greenhouse using a randomized complete block design with three blocks. No significant difference between allelopathic and nonallelopathic cultivars was observed during the early growth stages. Shoot and root dry weight showed similar trends with the exponential growth starting 2030 d after transplanting (DT). The other growth parameters such as leaf area and tiller number also had the same tendency. This suggests that allelopathic cultivars have the same growth patterns as nonallelopathic cultivars and indicates that allelopathic cultivars do not use extra energy to obtain allelopathic ability. Toward a perennial rice Erosion and consequent loss of the crop production base (soil, nutrients, organic matter) is an important problem in the uplands of Southeast Asia. The traditional shifting cultivation system in which annual crops are grown is sustainable with long fallow periods but now contributes to soil degradation in many areas because population pressure has decreased land availability, and leads to shorter fallow periods. National policies in Lao PDR, Vietnam, Thailand, and China are increasingly prohibiting shifting cultivation and encouraging reforestation or soil conservation measures. In many areas, however, upland rice cultivation is the only way for farmers to produce rice, their staple food. Even in more diversified and cash-oriented cropping systems, such as those of northern Thailand, farmers still use upland fields to grow rice for home consumption. The advantages of a perennial upland rice would be a product that addresses the immediate needs for food as well as erosion control, does not require a major change in farming practices, and minimizes capital, labor, and resource investments.
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SCREENING WILD RICE SPECIES FOR PERENNIALITY
Table 6. Survival in O. rufipogon accessions after drought. IRRI, 1995-97. Accession Source no. Surviving plants (no.) 5 16 8 17 7 7 4 13 8 Survival (%) Selected plants (no.) 3 2 1 3 2 0 2 0 2
Perennial wild rices are generally found in areas flooded most of the year. However, in areas with a long dry season, the African wild species Oryza longistaminata has been observed to persist because its rhizomes produce new shoots at the beginning of the following rainy season. A set of 10 O. rufipogon and 22 O. longistaminata accessions from different origins were tested for perenniality and survival of drought. Testing was in greenhouse concrete tanks filled with acid upland soil. Two O. sativa cultivars, IRAT216 (upland) and C4-137 (irrigated, good ratooning ability) were used as control. During Nov 1995-Dec 1997, moderately dry periods (1 Apr-30 Jun 1996 and 10 Mar-30 Jun 1997) were induced. Intermittent watering reproduced natural conditions providing the plants with 90 mm water, twice in 1996 and three times in 1997. The percentage of survival was recorded after one and two dry periods and after maturity. Surviving plants were counted for O. rufipogon and percentage of plot area covered with plants estimated for O. longistaminata, which has rhizomes that allowed plants to spread and cover the whole plot surface. Because both perennial species are photoperiodsensitive, most of the accessions flowered after the first drought, and panicle initiation took place with decreasing daylength. Only one O. rufipogon accession, 106647 from Thailand, behaved like an annual crop, showing no photoperiod sensitivity. All the tested accessions of O. longistaminata survived the dry periods and almost no difference was observed in percentage of plot area covered, showing the ability of the species as a whole to survive drought. Strong differences appeared in percentage of surviving O. rufipogon individuals (Table 6). The best accessions were 106114 and 106138 from India and 106352 from Myanmar. However, variability within populations was high for vigor and ratooning ability, even in accessions with a low survival rate. On the basis of survival, vigor, and ratooning ability after cutting, 15 individuals out of 7 accessions were selected as donors of perenniality in crosses with O. sativa upland cultivars.
105832 106114 106133 106138 106144 106145 106340 106352 106417
Thailand India India India India Laos Myanmar Myanmar Vietnam
28 89 44 94 39 39 22 72 44
BUILDING A POPULATION SEGREGATING FOR PERENNIALITY
Breeding for perenniality is a long-term goal. Two complementary dominant lethal genes present in O. sativa and O. longistaminata cause embryo abortion when the two species are directly crossed. Consequently the transfer of the rhizome trait from O. longistaminata to O. sativa is done through a complex scheme of interspecific crosses (Fig. 3) and the use of molecular markers would greatly help in selecting for perenniality in the progenies. To identify markers linked with genes responsible for the presence of rhizomes and for their expression, an interspecific population segregating for that trait was created. A F1 O. sativa/O. longistaminata (BS125/WL 02) hybrid created at L' Institut franais de recherche scientifique pour le dveloppement en coopration (ORSTOM) was backcrossed on two different O. longistaminata individuals (WL 02-2 and SL 313-13) used as male parents. The BC 1F 1 progeny (65 individuals) showed 100% plants with rhizomes and was then selfed to produce a BC1F2 population segregating for rhizome expression. Because of restoration of self-incompatibility from O. longistaminata and low pollen fertility, seed setting was low in BC1F1 plants and hand-pollination was used to improve it. Special techniques used included in vitro seed and embryo culture to overcome the low germination rate and poor vigor of BC1F2 seeds, and hydroponic growth to improve seedling vigor and increase the number of plants obtained. A total of 227 F2 plants
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O. sativa O. longistaminata BS125 F1 hybrid O. sativa upland cultivars BC1SF1 (no rhizomes) O. sativa selfing BC2SF1 BC1SF2 BCLF2 with rhizomes and acceptable pollen fertility O. longistaminata WL02
BC1LF1 (100% rhizomes) selfing
Complex hybrids (F1) segregating for rhizomes selection F1 complex hybrids with rhizomes selfing F2 intercrossing
mapping population B1CLF2 (segregating for rhizomes)
BC1SF1 complex/BCS segregating for rhizomes
complex/complex with rhizomes BC1SF1 complex/complex//BCS segregating for rhizomes selection
F1 hybrids with rhizomes BC2SF1 complex/complex//BC1S///BC2S and complex/BC1S//BC2S segregating for rhizomes
3. Breeding scheme for transferring the rhizome trait from O. longistaminata to O. sativa to build a population segregating for perenniality. IRRI, 1997.
(150 with WL 02-2 as parent and 77 with SL 31313) showing a wide range of rhizome expression were derived from 30 BC1F1 plants. That population is being mapped using restriction fragment length polymorphism, sequence-tagged site, and microsatellite markers. Phenotyping for traits associated with rhizome expression and root develop-
ment is under way. Furthermore, to broaden the range of genetic recombination, the BC1F1 individuals are being intercrossed to produce an intercross population (currently with 120 individuals). This population will be used as an adjunct for mapping if the BC1F2 population shows significant segregation distortion.
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STUDY OF NEMATODE RESISTANCE IN O. LONGISTAMINATA
Table 7. Number of second-stage juveniles (J2) in roots in greenhouse tests of O. sativa, O. longistaminata, and their F1. IRRI, 1997. Entry Species or hybrid J2 3 g-1 roots (no.)a 87a 297a 2,591b 28,900c 32,060c 57,120c Ratingb
Two greenhouse experiments were conducted to determine the degree of resistance of O. longistaminata to the rice root-knot nematode Meloidogyne graminicola, the most damaging species of nematode in the uplands of Southeast Asia, and to understand the genetics of the resistance. The material tested included four O. longistaminata individuals (DL 01-1, WL 02-2, WL 02-15, and SL 313-13), the F1 hybrid BS125/WL 02-15, the O. sativa parent BS125, 10 BC1F1 hybrids from backcrosses on SL 313-13, and 17 BC1F1 hybrids from backcrosses on WL 02-2. The O. sativa upland cultivar UPLRi-5 was the susceptible control. Seeds of O. sativa were germinated on moist paper in petri dishes. Five-day-old seedlings of O. sativa and 1-wk-old cuttings of the rest of the material were transplanted in 20-cm-diameter 35-cmhigh polyvinyl pots containing 6 kg of sterile soil. Three M. graminicola inoculations were made with a total of 1000 second-stage juveniles (J2) kg-1 soil. The first inoculation was 1 wk after transplanting. After 60 d, root systems were chopped into 0.5-1 cm pieces and M. graminicola (J2) were extracted from 3 g subsamples by placing them for 5 d in a mistifier. In the first experiment, WL 02-2 and WL 02-15 were found resistant, while DL 01-1 and the F1 hybrid were susceptible (Table 7), suggesting that the resistance of WL 02 could be due to a recessive gene. Because BS125 plants did not grow well, slowing down the multiplication of the nematode population, the number of J2 extracted per 3 g roots was relatively low and BS125 was rated as moderately susceptible. The second experiment confirmed the resistance of WL 02-2 and susceptibility of the F1 hybrid and BS125 (Table 8). The accession SL 313-13 showed a moderately susceptible reaction, while all the BC1F1 from backcross on SL 313-13 were susceptible, except for one individual which did not grow well. Among the 17 BC1F1 hybrids from a backcross on WL 02-2, eight individuals were resistant and nine were susceptible. That proportion corresponds to a 1:1 resistant vs susceptible ratio expected in the backcross progeny on the resistant parent when the resistance is due to a recessive gene.
WL 02-2 WL 02-15 BS125 DL 01-1 F1 BS125/ WL 02-15 UPLRi-5 (control)

a
O. longistaminata O. longistaminata O. sativa O. longistaminata O. sativa/ O. longistaminata O. sativa
R R MS S S S
Mean of five replications. bR = resistant, MS = moderately susceptible, S = susceptible.
Table 8. Number of second-stage juveniles (J2) in roots in greenhouse tests of O. sativa, O. longistaminata, and BC1F1 on WL 02-2. IRRI, 1997. Entry Species or hybrid J2 3 g-1 roots (no.) 106,440 12,476 12,721 3,742 521 339 9,024 Ratinga
UPLRi-5 BS125 BS125/ WL 02-15 SL 313-13 WL 02-2 BC1F1 BC1F1

a
O.sativa O. sativa O. sativa/O. longistaminata O. longistaminata O. longistaminata O.sativa/O.longistaminata//O.longistaminata O.sativa/O.longistaminata//O.longistaminata
S S S MS R R S
R = resistant, MS = moderately susceptible, S = susceptible.
The BC1F1 hybrids evaluated in this experiment were used to develop the population segregating for rhizome expression that is being mapped. Phenotyping of the population for nematode resistance is under way. Molecular markers linked with the gene of resistance to M. graminicola should be identified soon.

Rehabilitation and sustainability of upland rice-based farming systems
q
Socioeconomic characterization of upland rice systems in two sites in northern Vietnam and one site in eastern India was completed. Characteristics of upland rice systems can be explained partially by a population vs market access model.
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Economic analysis of contour hedgerow systems for soil erosion control in the Philippines was completed. Econometric analysis quantified the extent of adoption, the effect on productivity, factors encouraging adoption, patterns of hedgerow species shifts, and factors determining economic viability. q Data sets to characterize the variability and limiting factors of upland rice production in northern Thailand were assembled and initial analyses performed. q Analyses of soil erosion risks associated with diversified cropping systems in northern Thailand were partially completed. q Achievable grain yields of 3-5 t ha-1 for upland rice in rainfall favorable upland were demonstrated when nutrient supply was adequate. q Progress was made in institutionalizing the long-term P experiment (LTPE) presently ongoing in Indonesia, India, Philippines, and Thailand. A long-term soil sample archive was established at IRRI and the construction of the LTPE long-term database is at an early stage. q Phosphorus addition along with split applications of N was found to stimulate deeper rooting by upland rice in a highly weathered acid upland soil. Moderate N applications enhanced water uptake under mild stress but not under severe and prolonged stress. q Use of controlled-release N fertilizers achieved the same N recovery and N use efficiency as split applications of ordinary urea. q An alternative methodology for field assessment of weed suppression by rice was initiated. q Weed infestation especially in early crop growth and, to a lesser extent, brown spot and leaf blast were identified as pest management priorities for upland rice in Lao PDR.
q
their research and to interact internationally. Phase 3 of URRC was initiated in 1997 with support from BMZ-GTZ. New URRC partners in Vietnam, Lao PDR, and Brazil were introduced at the annual technical and planning meeting at IRRI. Research results for 1996 were reviewed, and plans were developed for collaborative 1997 research. Collaborative research has continued to focus on germplasm improvement and better resource management. Some 50 experiments are conducted annually within URRC.
Program outlook
In the germplasm improvement project, new statistical procedures (AMMI for GE analysis, pattern analysis) and new geographical information systems (GIS) techniques will be used to further analyze the agroecological diversity of the upland subecosystems and refine understanding of target environments. The ecosystem is extremely heterogeneous and GE interaction in germplasm performance is strong across environments. Decentralization of conventional breeding activities to NARS partners who have a mandate and an obvious comparative advantage in developing and releasing varieties for regional environments will continue. IRRIs program will focus more strongly on improving germplasm through use of new technologies in prebreeding to provide better genetic material and more genetic understanding to support the breeding programs of the NARS. Priorities are q marker-aided selection to target and use genes associated with tolerance for drought (deep and thick root system and osmotic adjustment), resistance to blast, and allelopathy; q physiology investigations to understand key traits associated with tolerance for drought; q recurrent selection to improve traits with polygenic control such as partial resistance to blast; q interspecific hybridization for better utilization of the genetic diversity present in the wild species of Oryza bearing the A genome; and q participatory plant breeding to test whether farmer participation in the breeding and selection programs improves adoption. Resource management research will focus on developing more basic understanding of upland processes, including nutrient cycling, soil acidity, biology of pests, and erosion. Such understanding can
Upland Rice Research Consortium The URRC has been supported by ADB, GTZ, and Japan since 1991 and provides for IRRI-NARS collaboration on strategic issues in upland rice research. Collaboration focuses on strong upland rice research and development groups around Asia. URRC has provided many NARS scientists with an opportunity to develop a more strategic focus in
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underpin the development of more productive, sustainable rice-based cropping systems. It can also be relevant for the management of emerging upland systems, which have a diversity of rice and other crops. It can also provide spillover benefits into other ecosystems. Research will focus on the following: q Production potential of upland rice. Costs of inputs and technology may seem unaffordable for farmers based on present income levels. However, limiting input treatments to suit the present income of farmers does not provide an understanding of the wide range of yield responses that are possible. The IRRI strategy is to explore the potential of sustainable high productivity and generate a range of options for farmers to achieve desired production. q Long-term strategic studies on nutrients. Short-term seasonal studies cannot adequately address the dynamics of nutrients and productivity of the land. An understanding of processes that control nutrient supply, productivity, and sustainability require long-term strategic studies that are now a feature of IRRIs upland resource research. q Nutrient-water interactions. There has been emphasis in the past to alleviate drought by improving plant traits through breeding. But research has shown that drought effects are exacerbated in the absence of proper plant nutrition. IRRIs focus in this area is to understand nutrient-water interactions and to improve plant nutrition by better formulation and placement of fertilizers.
Weeds. Weeds, a major constraint in upland rice production, are difficult to manage because, in contrast to irrigated systems, weeds and the crop emerge together and flooding is not an option for weed suppression. Weed research will continue to focus on crop competitiveness, allelopathy, and weed biology to provide options for better weed control and reduce the burden of hand weeding. Economic and policy analysis research will continue to investigate technological, policy, and institutional interventions that enhance food security of upland farmers and sustainability of upland systems. Through research based on economic and policy analysis, answers will be sought to questions such as q Will rapid change toward systems based on cash crops expose farmers to income fluctuations and jeopardize their food security? q What institutional arrangements are needed to enhance food security in commercializing systems? q How do farmers cope with increasing population pressure and environmental degradation? q What institutional and policy interventions are needed to encourage adoption of sustainable land use practices? The URRC will continue to provide a strong framework to facilitate collaborative NARS-IRRI research and institution building in Asia and, through Brazil, into Latin America.
q
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Research program Flood-prone rice ecosystem
GERMPLASM IMPROVEMENT 68 Screening techniques for tolerance and efficiency 68 Submergence tolerance (PBGB, APPA) 69 Elongation ability (PBGB, APPA) 69 Salinity tolerance (PBGB, SWS) 69 Phosphorus deficiency (PBGB, SWS) 70 Zinc deficiency (PBGB, SWS) 70 Aluminum toxicity (PBGB, SWS) 70 Iron toxicity (PBGB, SWS) 70 Photoperiod sensitivity (PBGB, APPA) 71 Genetics and mechanisms of tolerance 71 Iron toxicity tolerance (PBGB, SWS) 71 Iron and zinc in rice grain (PBGB, APPA) 72 Improved germplasm 73 Deepwater rice collaboration (PBGB, NARS in Cambodia, India, Thailand, Vietnam) 73 New plant types (PBGB, APPA) 73 Salinity-tolerant rice (PBGB, SWS) 73 PROGRESS OF UNREPORTED PROJECT 74 Improved crop and resource management 74 PROGRAM OUTLOOK 74
Flood-prone rice ecosystem
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The flood-prone ecosystem incorporates many types of rice adapted to different flood conditions. There are about 12 million ha of flood-prone rice worldwide, with almost 95% of it in South and Southeast Asia. The flood-prone rice ecosystem research program assists national agricultural research systems (NARS) in promoting productive, sustainable rice-based farming systems. The program consists of two projects germplasm improvement and crop and resource management. Progress made in germplasm improvement research in 1996 and 1997 and highlights of the crop and resource management project in 1997 are presented here.
Germplasm improvement research continues to focus on screening techniques and the genetics and physiological mechanisms of soil- and water-related stresses predominant in the ecosystem. The project also assists NARS in developing improved flood-prone rice cultivars and promotes interNARS collaboration. India and Thailand have respectively assumed leadership in inter-NARS collaboration for South and Southeast Asia. Screening techniques for tolerance and efficiency Rapid and reliable screening techniques are available for the major abiotic stresses of the ecosystemflash flood submergence, deepwater condition, salinity, Fe and Al toxicity, and P and Zn deficiencies. However, those techniques have limited capacity and high cost and are suitable only for basic studies such as genetics and physiological mechanisms. Research since 1994 has been toward developing molecular marker-assisted selection (MAS) techniques that are efficient and inexpensive. Six distinct steps are involved: 1. Selection of suitable parents. 2. Generation of recombinant inbred or doubled haploid (DH) lines from crosses between selected parents. 3. Phenotyping the generated lines. 4. Mapping genes and quantitative trait loci (QTL) analysis. 5. Identification of molecular markers linked to important QTLs.
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6. Conversion of molecular markers to easy-touse and inexpensive polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based markers. Contrasting parents (highly tolerant and highly sensitive) were identified for each abiotic stress using available screening techniques. The contrasting parents were crossed and recombinant inbred lines (RILs) developed by single-seed descent in the rapid generation advance (RGA) facility at IRRI. RILs were phenotyped by the respective screening method and in collaboration with IRRIs Genome Mapping Laboratory. QTL mapping was done by selective genotyping and amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP).
SUBMERGENCE TOLERANCE
ELONGATION ABILITY
RILs for submergence tolerance derived from the cross IR74 (sensitive)/FR13A (tolerant) were screened by subjecting 50-d-old seedlings to complete submergence until IR74 was dead. Two screening tests of 250 RILs were conducted in artificial ponds at IRRI and at the Huntra Rice Experiment Station, Thailand. A third test at IRRI used concrete tanks in a greenhouse. All tests produced similar results. Survival ranged from zero in IR74 to 96.7% in FR13A. About 20% of the RILs had the same survival rate as IR74 but less than 10% of the lines scored as high as FR13A. RILs with survival rate >70% and <10% were selected for AFLP analysis. The AFLP linkage map constructed from the selected genotypes had a total map length of 1756 cM. The average interval size was 8.5 cM, with smallest value of 5.5 cM for chromosome 6 and the largest of 10.5 cM for chromosome 9. Based on screening data, a major gene for submergence tolerance was mapped near AFLP markers P1/M3-6, P2/M7-7, and P3/M4-10 on chromosome 9. In addition, QTLs were located on chromosomes 6, 7, 11, and 12. Each of these four QTLs explained more than 19% of total phenotypic variation. The QTL on chromosome 11 was in the vicinity of the genes Adh1 and Adh2 for alcohol dehydrogenase. Because alcohol dehydrogenase is believed to be associated with submergence tolerance, the QTL on chromosome 11 might correspond to the Adh genes. The RILs were further analyzed using data from all screening tests and QTL analysis revealed the same results.
Rice adapted to grow in stagnant deep water elongates upon submergence to produce a canopy above water. Elongation takes place in the leaves and internodes, with internode elongation important to rice grown in water depths more than 80 cm. RILs for elongation ability were developed from a cross IR74 (little or no internode elongation)/ Jalmagna (fast elongating, traditional cultivar adapted to water as deep as 4 m). The 247 RILs developed were phenotyped for internode elongation in field tests with fast rising floodwater and slow rising floodwater. The maximum water depth in all tests was 120 cm. Results were used to select 41 internode-elongating lines and 41 nonelongating lines. AFLP analysis of the 82 selected lines was used to construct a linkage map of length 2203.55 cM and a major gene governing internode elongation was mapped on chromosome 1 between markers P2M6-7 and P1M6-2. It explained 85.7% of the phenotypic variation for the trait. QTLs were located on chromosomes 1, 4, 5, 6, and 10 with respective phenotypic variance of 22.7, 18.1, 19.4, 16.9, and 20.4%.
SALINITY TOLERANCE
Genes governing salinity tolerance in rice were mapped using the 276 F8 generation RILs produced from the cross IR29 (sensitive to salinity)/Pokkali (tolerant of salinity). Phenotyping was done at the seedling stage using salinized (EC = 12 dS m-1) nutrient solution. Eighty RILs were selected from the extremes of the population in response to salinity and were used to construct an AFLP map consisting of 206 markers. A major gene for salinity tolerance was mapped between markers P3M9-8 and P1M9-3 on chromosome 1. It explained 6480% of the phenotypic variation. Tolerance levels of the 80 selected RILs were determined and the QTL associated with salinity tolerance mechanisms: q High K absorption, low Na absorption, and low Na-K ratio in shoot were tagged on chromosomes 1, 3, 4, 10, and 12. q For high K absorption, in addition to the major gene on chromosome 1, QTLs were detected on chromosomes 4 and 12.
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For low Na absorption, there were QTLs on chromosomes 10 and 3. q For Na-K ratio, three QTLs were located on chromosomes 1, 10, and 12. q A common QTL was observed on chromosome 1 for the three traits putatively associated with salinity tolerance. q On chromosome 12, there was one QTL common to low Na absorption and Na-K ratio in shoot, which explained phenotypic variation ranging from 19 to 21%. The QTL on chromosome 1 appeared to be a promising candidate for developing a MAS technique. Therefore, all 276 RILs were analyzed for Na and K absorption and Na-K ratio in shoot with the objective of fine mapping the gene on chromosome 1. Identification of more molecular markers in the region of interest on chromosome 1 is in progress.
q PHOSPHORUS DEFICIENCY
data, a major gene for P deficiency tolerance was mapped on chromosome 12 near markers PI/M7-7 and P1/M5-7. The availability of some RFLP markers in this region allowed further analysis and it was found that there was linkage between RFLP markers RG9 and RG241 with a P deficiency tolerance gene. RG9 was only 5.5 cM away from the gene. QTL analysis is still in progress. Identification of contrasting parents for external P efficiency was completed. Varietal screening was done on an acid soil with available P about 3 ppm and total P about 700 ppm. Thirty varieties or breeding lines previously identified as efficient or inefficient were tested with and without P application for two seasons. Using relative tillering ability as the selection criterion, IR61259-3B-7-3-2-2 was identified as efficient and Bg300 as inefficient. The two were crossed to produce RILs.
ZINC DEFICIENCY
Two methods are used at IRRI for screening rice for tolerance for P deficiency. In both methods, genotypes are grown in P-deficient and P-sufficient conditions and relative tillering ability (tiller number in P-deficient condition/tiller number in P-sufficient condition 100) measured 2830 d after seeding (DAS) to determine the level of tolerance. A greenhouse method induces P deficiency by reducing the P concentration in culture solution from 10.0 to 0.5 ppm. Tolerant genotypes detected by this method are considered internally efficient or to have low P requirement. The other method screens genotypes on an acid soil with 500700 ppm total P concentration but with <5 ppm available (due to fixation). The tolerant genotypes identified are considered to be externally efficient, internally efficient, or both. Because the physiological mechanisms of the two efficiency types are not known, the strategy was to map the genes using RILs developed for the two different types of P efficiency. Greenhouse screening was used to identify contrasting parents for internal efficiency. They were IR20 (efficient) and IR55178-3B-9-3 (inefficient). A total of 285 F8 RILs were developed from IR20/ IR55178-3B-9-3. The F8s were phenotyped using the same screening technique (by relative tillering ability) and 42 efficient and 42 inefficient lines were identified for AFLP analysis. Based on qualitative
IR26 is one of the most sensitive rices for Zn deficiency in soil. IR26 was crossed with Madhukar, well known for its tolerance for zinc deficiency and 254 RILs were produced.
ALUMINUM TOXICITY
IR28 and IR1552 are highly sensitive to Al toxicity while Azucena is tolerant. IR28/Azucena and IR1552/Azucena were used to develop RILs. Most lines of IR28/Azucena cross showed high spikelet sterility and the population was discarded. The RILs produced from IR1552/Azucena cross showed no abnormality. The DH population of IR64/Azucena produced some years ago was also found to be suitable for QTL analysis of Al toxicity tolerance because IR64 is sensitive to the stress. IR1552 is more sensitive to Al toxicity than IR64 but the advantage of the DH population is that restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) and AFLP maps are available for that population. Both populations will be analyzed for QTL.
IRON TOXICITY
A random sample from populations from crosses IR36 (sensitive)/Bw 267-3 (tolerant) and Bg94-1 (sensitive)/Suakoko 8 (tolerant) was screened for Fe
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toxicity tolerance by Fe-toxic nutrient solution technique and on Fe-toxic acid soil. The results were not consistent. In-depth analysis of the parents revealed that the inconsistency was caused by the sensitivity of Bg94-1 and IR36 to P deficiency. Both populations were discarded and parent identification was repeated to isolate Fe toxicity-sensitive and -tolerant genotypes having tolerance for P deficiency. IR64 was identified as tolerant of P deficiency and sensitive to Fe toxicity. Bw267-3 was identified as tolerant of both stresses. The two varieties were crossed to produce a new set of RILs.
PHOTOPERIOD SENSITIVITY
Photoperiod sensitivity (PS) is an essential trait to most flood-prone rice. However, the degree of PS needed depends on the latitude and flooding pattern of the growing area. RFLP marker RG64 has been reported to be closely linked to the gene controlling PS of some rice cultivars. RG64 has already been converted to an inexpensive and ready-to-use PCRbased marker. The applicability of a Thai PCR-based marker in flood-prone rice breeding was tested using two crosses that showed polymorphism for the marker. The crosses were IR20 (photoperiod-insensitive modern variety)/SR26B (PS traditional salt-tolerant variety) and IR64 (photoperiod-insensitive modern variety)/Ketumbar (PS traditional variety with tolerance for salinity and acidity). For IR20/SR26B, 100 F2 plants and the parents were analyzed for the PCR-based marker in 1996 wet season. IR20 had PCR-2-type band while SR26B had PCR-3-type band. Nine F2 plants with PCR-2 band, 10 with PCR-3 band, and 10 with PCR-2/PCR-3 heterozygous bands were randomly selected and an F3 was established in 1997 dry season. IR20 types (PCR-2) were expected to begin flowering in 86 d and SR26B types (PCR-3) in 72 d. All PCR-2 band progenies (photoperiod insensitive) flowered within 85-89 d and PCR-3 band progenies (PS) within 6478 d. The heterozygous (PCR2/3 or segregating for PS) progenies showed a range of 6486 d. The results indicated some linkage between the marker and PS. To check that linkage, three plant selections were made from nine progenies of PCR2 type, eight progenies of the PCR-3 type, and 10
progenies of the heterozygous type and a pedigree nursery was established in 1997 wet season. IR20 flowered in 95 d and SR26B in 110 d. Flowering of PCR-2 band progenies (IR20 type) ranged from 87 to 112 d, PCR-3 band progenies (SR26B type) from 92 to 109 d, and PCR-2/3 heterozygous from 80 to 104 d. There was no clear difference between banding pattern and PS, unlike in the previous season. The second cross examined, IR64/Ketumbar, contained PCR-1 band (IR64 type) and PCR-3 band (Ketumbar type) for the PCR-based marker. One hundred F2 plants of this population were analyzed in 1997 dry season and 25 each of PCR-1, PCR-3, and PCR-2/3 (heterozygous) types were randomly selected and evaluated for PS in 1997 wet season. IR64 flowered at 80 DAS and Ketumbar at 135 d. The PCR-1-type progenies flowered within 87104 DAS. The range of PCR-3 types was narrower and earlier than expected (94119 d). There were no progenies similar to Ketumbar in days to flowering. The heterozygous types ranged from 92 to 114 d. In the two crosses tested, there appeared to be some association between PCR-based RG64 marker and PS, but it is not close enough to use as a selection technique. The progenies will be examined further with different dates of seeding to confirm findings. Crosses involving varieties with stronger PS than SR26B or Ketumbar will be also tested. Genetics and mechanisms of tolerance
IRON TOXICITY TOLERANCE
Inheritance of tolerance for Fe toxicity is not well understood. Some reports suggest that it is complex or quantitative. Lack of a precise screening technique has been the constraint in investigating the inheritance of the trait. A screening technique is now available at IRRI and materials needed to determine the genetic components of Fe toxicity tolerance have been generated. Varieties and breeding lines with varying levels of tolerance were identified by greenhouse screening at IRRI and in field tests on Fe-toxic soils in San Dionisio, Philippines; Karang Agung, Indonesia; and Bombuwela, Sri Lanka. The varieties identified were Bw267-3, Suakoko 8, and IR612593B-7-3-2-2 as highly tolerant; IR20, IR74, and Mahsuri as moderately tolerant; and IR42, IR64, and IR63262-AC201-1-7-2 as highly sensitive. The
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Table 1. Fe and Zn concentrations in brown rice from six variety sets grown in similar growing conditions at IRRI, 1997. Variety set Samples (no.) 59 350 63 250 199 18 Fe (mg kg-1) Mean SE (range) 13.0 10.7 12.9 12.9 13.0 13.8 2.6 1.6 3.1 1.5 2.5 2.3 (9.2-22.6) (7.5-16.8) (7.8-4.4) (8.7-16.5) (7.7-19.2) (10.8-18.0) Zn (mg kg-1) Mean SE (range) 24.0 4.7 25.0 7.6 24.4 4.7 26.3 3.8 25.7 4.6 24.2 .4.1 (13.5-41.6) (15.9-58.4) (16.5-37.7) (17.1-40.1) (1.5-37.3) (19.9-33.3)
1 2 3 4 5 6
Traditional and improved varieties IR breeding lines Traditional and improved varieties Tropical japonicas Popular varieties and donors Traditional and improved varieties
nine varieties were crossed in all possible combinations to study the inheritance of the trait.
IRON AND ZINC IN RICE GRAIN
Table 2. Fe and Zn concentrations in brown rice of selected varieties grown in similar growing conditions at IRRI, 1997. Fe (mg kg-1) Variety Mean SE 11.8 11.8 22.4 14.4 20.2 18.8 0.9 0.5 1.4 0.5 1.8 0.8 (N)a (5) (3) (5) (3) (4) (2) Zn (mg kg-1) Mean SE (N)a 20.9 23.2 31.8 34.7 34.2 24.3 1.4 1.4 7.7 2.8 5.0 0.7 (4) (3) (4) (3) (3) (2)
Studies on the genetics and the physiological mechanisms of tolerance for Fe toxicity and Zn deficiency involve analysis of their concentration in plant tissue. Concentration in grain is not examined as it has no relevance to tolerance. However, with the increasing importance of micronutrient malnutrition in much of the human population, studies were undertaken to determine whether there is genetic variability in Fe and Zn in the rice grain. Collaboration with the University of Adelaide, Australia, was established for Fe and Zn analysis. Because the effect of soil and climate on mineral content of rice grain was not known, the initial test strains were planted at IRRI with uniform crop management. Care was taken from flowering to analysis to prevent any contamination, particularly by soil. Brown rice samples were analyzed for minerals by inductively coupled plasma spectrometry (ICP) at the Department of Plant Science, University of Adelaide. Data obtained from each screening set are summarized in Table 1. Among the 939 samples analyzed, Fe content ranged from 7.5 to 24.4 mg kg-1 with a mean value of 12.1 mg kg-1. For Zn, the range was 15.958.4 mg kg-1 with a mean of 25.4 mg kg-1. A comparison of high Fe and Zn varieties isolated from the tests, including the two most popular varieties in Asia, IR36 and IR64, is shown in Table 2. Variety Jalmagna had almost double the amount of Fe found in IR36 and IR64. Its Zn content was also higher. Jalmagna is a floating rice grown in some parts of eastern India. Madhukar, with a high Zn content, is
IR36 IR64 Jalmagna Madhukar Zuchem Xua Bue Nuo

a
Number of samples analyzed.
a popular variety in some rainfed and deepwater areas of eastern India. Soils of this region are slightly alkaline and Zn deficient and Madhukar is well known as a highly Zn-efficient rice variety. However, other known Zn-efficient rice varieties such as Kuatik Putih, Bille Kagga, and Getu did not show high grain Zn concentration in grain. Zuchem, a traditional japonica type variety grown at high altitudes (>2000 m) in Bhutan had both high Fe and Zn in grain, although its Fe content was not as high as that in Jalmagna. Xua Bue Nuo, a traditional variety from China, also showed high Fe. This variety was included in tests because its name has some relation to Fe. Improved varieties with exceptionally high Fe content were not found. A number of aromatic rices were among the high-Fe varieties. A series of seven comparisons of aromatic and nonaromatic varieties was made but potential differences in soil fertility among sets did not allow rigorous comparisons of lines in different sets. However, aromatic rices were consistently higher in grain Fe concentration and often also in Zn, than the nonaromatic comparisons.
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Improved germplasm
DEEPWATER RICE COLLABORATION
Rajendra Agricultural University (RAU), Bihar, India, and Prachinburi Rice Research Center (PCR), Thailand, have assumed regional leadership in developing improved deepwater rice germplasm. PCR provided advanced lines to Cambodia, Myanmar, and Vietnam. RAU provided advanced lines to Thailand and deepwater rice research stations in India. Breeders from Bangladesh, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam, and IRRI participated in the annual meeting of flood-prone rice breeders of South and Southeast Asia at RAU in 1996 and at PCR in 1997. Results on the performance of exchanged breeding materials were presented at those meetings. Among the highlights were reports of the superior performance of ufra nematode-resistant advanced lines provided to Assam, India, by the Bangladesh Rice Research Institute, and an improved deepwater rice provided to Cambodia, Myanmar, and Vietnam by PCR.
NEW PLANT TYPES
pared with IR72 grown as irrigated rice. Fertilizer applications were the same for both varieties. The experiment was repeated in 1996 wet season, with four more new deepwater plant type lines, and two improved deepwater rice lines with traditional plant type added to the deepwater rice set. IR8 and IR74 were added to the irrigated rice variety set. Results from the experiments are summarized in Table 3. Although deepwater rices are not planted in the dry season, the 1996 dry season experiment showed that the new deepwater rice plant type is capable of yielding as high as modern irrigated rice. The water depth of 8090 cm seemed to have no effect on yield. The results were similar in the wet season. The average yield of five new deepwater plant type lines was 4.9 t ha-1 compared with 4.7 t ha-1 for the irrigated varieties. Yields of the new deepwater plant type were about double those of the traditional plant type. The new deepwater line IR62364-2B10-2-2 yielded 6 t ha-1. The results demonstrate that new plant type yields similar to those of irrigated rice can be obtained from deepwater areas (8090 cm water depth).
SALINITY-TOLERANT RICE
Prototypes of the new deepwater rice plant type developed at IRRI were tested for yield in 1996 dry and wet seasons. IR11141-6-1-4 was grown in the dry season at 80-90 cm water depth and was com-
Collaboration with the Central Soil Salinity Research Institute (CSSRI), India, and the University of Sussex, UK, continued for developing improved salt-tolerant germplasm.
Table 3. Yield components and yields of different deepwater (DWR) rice plant types grown in 80-90 cm maximum water depth and modern high-yielding irrigated (IR) rice (MV) grown as normal irrigated rice in two cropping seasons. IRRI, 1996. Season, variety, and ecotype Dry season IR11141-6-1-4 (DWR) IR72 (IR) Wet season IR11141-6-1-4 (DWR) IR41158-11-25-B-1-1-2-3 (DWR) IR42436-266-3-2-3 (DWR) IR62364-2B-10-2-2 (DWR) IR62653-8-3-3-3 (DWR) IR43934-95-2-1-1-1 (DWR) IR54419-B-3-3-3 (DWR) IR8 (IR) IR72 (IR) IR74 (IR) Plant type Panicles (no. m-2) Spikelets (no. 1000 m-2) 32.3 3.6 30.1 2.2 31.6 39.1 30.0 37.9 34.1 40.7 29.2 26.2 29.5 34.5 2.8 5.3 2.3 1.6 1.8 8.0 4.3 2.1 1.4 2.2 Filled grain (%) 88.2 1.0 87.0 1.1 75.7 64.8 71.1 77.6 88.4 74.8 67.6 70.9 71.0 64.7 1.5 0.6 4.0 2.5 4.8 2.4 5.6 5.7 2.5 5.4 Yield (t ha-1) 7.4 0.7 6.8 1.4 5.6 4.1 4.1 6.0 4.9 2.3 2.6 5.2 4.3 4.5 0.4 0.2 0.4 0.3 0.4 1.6 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.4
New MV
289 389
New New New New New Traditional Traditional MV MV MV
293 309 353 284 384 303 257 280 376 388
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India. IR51500-AC17 (CSR21) and IR51485AC6534-4 (CSR28) were identified for release as commercial varieties. Both varieties derive from F1 anther culture and are recommended for cultivation on degraded saline-alkaline soils. Philippines. The National Seed Industry Council through its Rice Technical Working Group identified salt-tolerant lines IR55182-3B-10-3-3, IR59418-7B-13-1, IR65185-3B-8-3-2, and IR651953B-13-2-3 for seed increase and on-farm demonstrations. Enhancing tolerance. Past experiments at the University of Sussex revealed that tissue tolerance, one of the salinity tolerance mechanisms, is lacking in tolerant lines or varieties including traditional cultivars like Pokkali. Tissue tolerance was found in some improved varieties but the presence of this mechanism alone does not provide an adequate level of tolerance. However, there is an opportunity of enhancing the tolerance level by incorporating tissue tolerance into genotypes possessing the other mechanisms. A special breeding program was initiated in collaboration with CSSRI and the University of Sussex. Selected salinity-tolerant varieties and advanced lines were hybridized with tissue-tolerant varieties. Early-segregating generations of breeding populations produced were advanced without any selection and selections were made at F6 generation for highyielding ability and salinity tolerance by other mechanismsvigor, leaf to leaf compartmentation, and Na exclusion. Seven advanced lines selected from the cross IR20/Pokkali were tested for tissue tolerance at the University of Sussex by Na accumulation and chlorophyll loss deduced from about 100 seedlings raised in salinized culture solution. Two lines were found to have tissue tolerance comparable with IR20 (Table 4). These will be field-tested in India in 1998 with lines without tissue tolerance to determine whether addition of tissue tolerance could enhance performance.
Table 4. Tissue tolerance for salinity in IR20 and advanced lines of the cross IR20/Pokkali expressed as mmol of sodium g-1 ethanol-insoluble dry weight (eidwt) corresponding to 50% loss of chlorophyll (LC50). The high LC50 is best. University of Sussex, UK, 1997. Advanced line Chlorophyll mg chlorophyll LC50 (mg g-1 eidwt) mmol sodium-1 12.78 16.49 11.17 14.86 15.94 11.76 15.17 14.58 0.33 0.39 0.41 0.40 0.56 0.42 0.52 0.70 1.14 2.64 1.32 1.96 2.86 1.85 2.58 1.86 0.12 0.13 0.12 0.12 0.18 0.09 0.18 0.15 2.1 2.7 2.8 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 4.4
IR68652-3B-8-1 IR68652-3B-11-2 IR68652-3B-23-2 IR68652-3B-30-2 IR68652-3B-7-2 IR20 (tolerant check) IR68652-3B-22-3 IR68652-3B-12-2
Spatial and temporal variability of acid sulfate soil properties in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam, were determined and their effects on land use and water management estimated.
Program outlook
Germplasm improvement research will emphasize developing MAS techniques, producing novel genotypes such as the new deepwater rice plant type, and exploring the micronutrient potential for improving the nutritive value of rice. Coastal rice areas where serious socioeconomic and environmental problems are emerging will be the focus for crop and resource management research. Research will also be initiated to determine the relationship between soil properties and flooding tolerance and to estimate the effects of global climate change on flooding intensity. Partnerships between IRRI and NARS and among NARS will be strengthened for formulating and testing new technology that can improve the productivity and sustainability of flood-prone ricelands.
Progress of unreported project

Improved crop and resource management Resource management practices were studied and strategies and rice research priorities determined to improve productivity of coastal ricelands in West Bengal, India and Vietnam.
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Research programs Cross-ecosystems research
ASSESSING THE POTENTIAL OF RICE GERMPLASM 76 Knowledge of germplasm diversity 76 Morphological and meiotic studies of Oryza meridionalis (GRC) 76 Biosystematic studies of Oryza glumaepatula (GRC) 77 Biosystematics of the Oryza ridleyi complex (GRC) 78 Analysis of QTL for resistance to the brown planthopper (EPP, PBGB) 78 Screening for true resistance to rice tungro bacilliform virus (EPP, PBGB) 79 Improved methodologies to understand GE 79 interactions (PBGB, Biometrics) Biological probes for blast virulence (EPP) 79 SYSTEMS APPROACHES TO QUANTIFY RICE ECOSYSTEM PERFORMANCE 81 Performance of rice ecosystems 81 Rate of grain filling (APPA) 81 Climate change and rice production (APPA) 81 Root properties and N uptake (APPA) 81 Leaf photosynthesis and N uptake (APPA) 82 Critical N concentrations: implications for high yields (APPA) 82 Comparison of high-yield rice in tropical and subtropical environments: determinants of grain and dry matter yields (APPA) 85 Effect of silicon on the cation-anion balance of rice (SWS) 87 AGROECOLOGICAL CHARACTERIZATION, TECHNOLOGY IMPACT, GENDER AND POLICY ANALYSIS 89 Changing patterns of adoption of modern rices and impact on productivity, Philippines 89
Adoption of modern rices (SS) 89 Impact on productivity (SS) 90 The impact of slowdown of Asian economic growth on the rice market and food security (SS) 93 The model (SS) 93 Baseline assumptions (SS) 95 The Asian rice market in the baseline scenario (SS) 96 The slow economic growth scenario (SS) 97 Microcredit for improving livelihood of low-income households through female members: evaluation of a Philippine experiment (SS) 98 Sources of data (SS) 100 Progress of operations (SS) 100 Capital accumulation (SS) 102 Employment generation (SS) 102 Effect on household incomes (SS) 102 Factors behind the success of the microcredit model (SS) 103 ASIAN RICE BIOTECHNOLOGY NETWORK 104 ARBN achievements 1996-97 (PBGB, EPP) 104 Transgenic IR72 with Xa21 for BB resistance (EPP, PBGB) 104 Bt rice (EPP, PBGB) 105 DNA markers for salinity tolerance (PBGB) 105 PROGRESS OF UNREPORTED PROJECTS 105 Biotechnology tools for rice breeding 105 Exploiting biodiversity for sustainable pest management 106 Assessing opportunities for nitrogen fixation in rice 106 Rice research priorities in different agroecological zones and ecosystems 107 PROGRAM OUTLOOK 107
Cross-ecosystems research
Rapid advances in science and technology have a more profound effect on research progress in the cross-ecosystems program than in any other IRRI program. The program acquires knowledge and tools for use by ecosystem-based research at IRRI and in national agricultural research systems (NARS), and addresses current and anticipated problems common to rice ecosystems. New tools to apply biotechnology and ecology for research on plant improvement and pest management were acquired, developed, and used in 1997. Research results generated in the previous year were successfully transferred for use in specific rice ecosystems. Research during 1997 was in seven projects: q Assessing the potential of rice germplasm. q Biotechnology tools for rice breeding. q Exploiting biodiversity for sustainable pest management. q Systems to quantify the performance of rice ecosystems. q Constraints to sustainable development of rice ecosystems and technology impact and policy analysis. q Assessing opportunities for N2 fixation and enhanced N use efficiency. q Implementing ecoregional approaches in the Asian humid tropics. The program is the home of the Asian Rice Biotechnology Network (ARBN) and continued to provide technical support to the former members of the Systems Analysis and Simulation in Rice Production Systems (SARP) network. Research progress in biotechnology, pest biodiversity, and N2 fixation was reported in 1996. This report covers work on the ARBN, establishment of sites for research on pest biodiversity, and implementation of an ecoregional activity.
Assessing the potential of rice germplasm

Morphological study, hybridization, and cytogenetic analyses were used to determine biosystematics of wild rice species. Study of several wild rice species was completed. A molecular technique was employed to analyze quantitative trait loci (QTL) for resistance to brown planthopper in IR64. A new inoculation method of rice tungro bacilliform virus (RTBV) was used to identify true sources of resistance to this virus. Multilocation trials of rice blast were analyzed to identify biological probes for virulence monitoring of a blast population in the field. Long-term interaction of blast and the mixture of rice genotypes as spreader were studied to improve the current upland blast evaluation nursery method. Knowledge of germplasm diversity
MORPHOLOGICAL AND MEIOTIC STUDIES OF ORYZA MERIDIONALIS
Oryza meridionalis is an AA-genome, diploid, wild rice endemic to Australia. An assessment of morphological variation within O. meridionalis and its genomic affinity with the Asian AA-genome rice species was made through meiotic analysis. Twenty-six quantitative morphological characters of 36 O. meridionalis accessions were studied using principal component analysis (PCA) and cluster analysis (CA) to estimate diversity among accessions. The first two vectors of PCA, representing nearly 50% of the total variation, showed a greater morphological variation in accessions from Queensland than from Northern Territory or Western Australia. The first two vectors also indicated
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characters such as leaf width, ligule length, sterile lemma length, culm diameter and length, panicle and grain weight, and awn length to be relatively important in differentiating these accessions. The CA of average taxonomic distance coefficient of the same data using the unweighted pair-group method with arithmetic mean (UPGMA) showed groupings similarly corresponding with those from PCA. Meiotic configurations of seven parental accessions of O. meridionalis, O. rufipogon, and O. nivara from different origins and two intraspecific and eight interspecific hybrids produced in the Genetic Resources Center were analyzed on pollen mother cells (PMCs) at metaphase-I (MI). All the parental species and hybrids had a consistent chromosome number of 2n=24 in PMCs, with normal meiosis and predominant bivalent formation. The parents had a range of 23.26-23.71 chiasmata per PMC, whereas the intra- and interspecific hybrids respectively showed a range of 21.22-23.54 and 20.08-23.62 chiasmata per PMC. These results indicate relatively high homology between the genomes in the four parental species, but with minor modifications in some populations. It was concluded that the genome of O. meridionalis is essentially homologous with the AA genome in the Asian species of rice. It is not necessary to differentiate the genome symbol in O. meridionalis as AmAm, as published by some authors.
BIOSYSTEMATIC STUDIES OF ORYZA GLUMAEPATULA
Oryza glumaepatula is a South American diploid, AA-genome species. It has been subjected to constant taxonomic nomenclature changes because of its morphological similarity to its Asian counterparts. Morphological study, inter- and intraspecific hybridization, and meiotic analysis were used to clarify the taxonomic status of O. glumaepatula and determine its biosystematic relationships with other AA-genome species. Twenty-six samples of diploid wild rice from South America and Cuba and randomly selected accessions of O. rufipogon and O. nivara, covering the wide geographical range of those species, were included in a taxonomic study. The results from PCA of 28 morphological characters demonstrated that accessions from Surinam, French Guiana, and the lower Amazon River basin in Brazil were quite distinct from Asian O. nivara and O. rufipogon,
with which O. glumaepatula has often been grouped taxonomically as a single species. Groupings obtained from CA corresponded closely with the results from the PCA. This study supports a distinct taxonomic status for a group of diploid wild rices from South America as O. glumaepatula. Intra- and interspecific hybridization was undertaken to evaluate the relationships between the New World diploids confirmed as O. glumaepatula and other AA-genome species (O. nivara, O. rufipogon, O. meridionalis) and the other diploid accessions that did not appear to be typical O. glumaepatula. Thirteen intraspecific and 79 interspecific crosses were made with 21,255 spikelets pollinated. All combinations produced seeds and hybrid plants, but at different levels of success, indicating great diversity of crossability within and between species. The fertility of O. glumaepatula, O. rufipogon, and O. nivara intraspecific hybrids was comparatively high, but that of O. meridionalis intraspecific hybrids was low. Interspecific hybrids showed variable fertility. Hybrids of O. glumaepatula from crosses with the Asian species and some New World diploids were highly sterile. However, some other New World diploids produced highly fertile hybrids with O. glumaepatula, but sterile hybrids with the Asian species. Hybrids of O. meridionalis from crosses with other species were highly sterile. The results from hybridization between the AA-genome rice species confirm that O. glumaepatula (and some New World diploids) is a good species, judging from its reproductive barriers with other AA-genome rice species. It also reveals that some weedy rice types from the New World are closely related to the Asian accessions. Meiosis of five accessions of O. glumaepatula, three accessions each of O. rufipogon and O. nivara, one accession of O. meridionalis, and two accessions of weedy types from the New World showed consistent 2n=24 and almost full chromosome pairing at MI. The meiotic pairing level of intra- and interspecific hybrids was comparable with the parental species. A range of 23.56-23.78 chiasmata per PMC in intraspecific hybrids and 22.6223.96 chiasmata per PMC in interspecific hybrids was scored. These results suggest that the AA genome remains highly homologous within, as well as between, the Oryza species included and no significant genomic differentiation has occurred at the population and species level. It is concluded that the
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AA genomes in O. rufipogon, O. nivara, and O. meridionalis are essentially identical, and the designation of O. glumaepatula as AgpAgp is not suitable.
BIOSYSTEMATICS OF THE ORYZA RIDLEYI COMPLEX
Morphological and isozyme studies of the O. ridleyi complex were conducted to determine diversity within and between O. ridleyi and O. longiglumis accessions (Table 1). PCA of 26 quantitative characters revealed a distinct group composed of O. longiglumis accessions, characterized by short anthers and high sterile-lemma-length to spikeletlength ratio. O. ridleyi accessions were morphologically more variable. Accessions from Thailand and the Malaysian accession 101453 formed one group, characterized by long anthers and low sterile-lemma -length to spikelet-length ratio. O. ridleyi accessions 106471 (Malaysia), 105973 (Indonesia), and 106259 (Papua New Guinea) showed characters, such as anther length and spikelet-length to sterilelemma-length ratio, intermediate between the two previous groups. The accessions from Indonesia and Papua New Guinea also showed distinct characters, such as long and wide second leaves and long spikelets with awns thick at the base. The accessions were assayed for eight enzyme systems under two buffer systems, and 43 allelic variants were observed. The O. ridleyi accessions from Thailand and 101453 (Malaysia) were highly monomorphic and formed a distinct group. The other O. ridleyi accessions showed some distinct alleles and formed separate clusters. All O. ridleyi accessions were highly homozygous and showed an average heterozygosity of only 0.15. In contrast, the O. longiglumis accessions showed a higher diversity
Table 1. Origin of O. longiglumis and O. ridleyi accessions used in morphological and isozyme studies. IRRI, 1997. Country Indonesia O. longiglumis 100974, 105146, 105147, 105148, 105562 O. ridleyi 105973
with an average heterozygosity of 0.37 and formed separate groups. Intra- and interspecific crosses were made to determine the relationships of the two species. Hybrids were obtained from both crosses, and more O. longiglumis/O. ridleyi crosses produced hybrids than the reciprocal crosses. Spikelet fertility in O. ridleyi intraspecific hybrids ranged from 17.0 to 52.4% and pollen stainability from 32.9 to 59.2%. The O. longiglumis intraspecific hybrids ranged from 3.6 to 90.2% in spikelet fertility and 2.1 to 86.1% in pollen stainability. Spikelet fertility in interspecific hybrids ranged from 0.6 to 42.2% and pollen stainability from 4.5 to 78.2%. Parental accessions showed high pollen stainability (75.587.2%) and generally lower spikelet fertility (18.176.4%). The hybridization data indicated no strong reproductive barriers between the two species.
ANALYSIS OF QTL FOR RESISTANCE TO THE BROWN PLANTHOPPER
Malaysia Papua New Guinea Thailand
101453, 106471 106525 106259 100820, 100821, 100877, 105366, 106028
It has long been proposed that moderate or polygenic resistance to insect pests, including the brown planthopper (BPH), should provide more durable resistance than single major genes. However, the development of crop varieties with polygenic insect resistance has been hindered by the expense and difficulty of breeding for quantitative traits. The advent of molecular marker techniques for use in QTL analysis has opened new opportunities for working with quantitative traits. The rice doubled-haploid population derived from a cross between an improved indica variety, IR64, and a traditional tropical japonica variety, Azucena, was used for mapping and analyzing major genes and QTL for numerous agronomic characters. This mapping population provided an excellent opportunity for characterizing QTL for BPH resistance because research at IRRI has shown that resistance in IR64 is both polygenic and relatively durable. IR64 contains the Bph1 gene but apparently contains additional minor resistance genes as well. It shows moderate resistance to BPH populations from Central Luzon, Philippines (also adapted to Bph1) and has retained its moderate resistance to BPH in Central Luzon despite having been the most popular rice variety in that area for more than 10 yr. A diversity of screening techniques was applied to identify QTL for various mechanisms of BPH re-
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sistance in the IR64/Azucena mapping population, using BPH populations from Central Luzon and IRRI. QTL associated with resistance were identified on 8 of the 12 rice chromosomes (Fig.1). Individual QTL accounted for between 5.1 and 16.6% of phenotypic variance. All of the QTLs were detected in more than one phenotyping test or with both BPH populations. Two QTLs were predominantly associated with particular resistance mechanisms: one with antixenosis and one with tolerance. Most of the alleles for resistance were derived from IR64. The results of this study should be useful in transferring quantitative BPH resistance from IR64 to additional rice varieties.
SCREENING FOR TRUE RESISTANCE TO RICE TUNGRO BACILLIFORM VIRUS
Rice tungro is a complex disease associated with rice tungro spherical virus (RTSV) and RTBV and six species of green leafhopper (GLH) vectors among which Nephotettix virescens is the most important. Breeding for tungro resistance has been a challenge due to the difficulty in separating the various forms of resistance to tungro components. A method to allow the inoculation of RTBV independently from the other tungro components, and therefore permit the identification of true sources of resistance to this virus, is needed. A method originally developed for insect transmitted-viruses, such as cauliflower mosaic virus and maize streak virus, showed that agroinoculation could introduce an infectious clone of RTBV into rice plants using Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain LBA 4301 and the oncogenic Ti C58 plasmid (1991 non-IRRI research). Research at IRRI was aimed at adopting this method using a modified Agrobacterium strain that has a non-oncogenic Ti plasmid GV3850. Two-week-old seedlings of TN1 were grown in sterile soil in pots in the containment facility at IRRI. The infectious clone of RTBV was transformed into the nonvirulent strain and the inoculum was grown on L agar plates containing the appropriate selective antibiotics. One colony was selected and grown to a large quantity. The final bacterial cells were harvested, diluted up to 1010 colonyforming units, and used for inoculation. The pres-
ence of the RTBV genome was confirmed by polymerase chain reaction before inoculation. The bacterial suspension (100 l) was injected into each plant at the base of the stem. Inoculated plants were monitored for symptom expression. All safety precautions on handling and disposal of Agrobacterium and plant materials were strictly followed. After inoculation, RTBV infection was confirmed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and DNA hybridization at several time intervals. RTBV infection was obtained when pRTBV 1162 was introduced using the pGV3850 plasmid. Symptoms typical of RTBV infection started to appear 5 d after inoculation (DAI). Moreover, agroinfection with the same clone was also achieved using other rice varieties, such as Balimau Putih, an RTBV-tolerant rice variety, and IR26, a variety resistant to RTSV-A. Although the agroinoculation efficiency ranged between 40 and 90%, these results indicate that agroinoculation is suitable for screening purposes. Current experiments seek to achieve a high and stable agroinoculation efficiency before large screening for RTBV resistance is initiated. Improved methodologies to understand GE interactions
BIOLOGICAL PROBES FOR BLAST VIRULENCE
The virulence composition of the blast pathogen in a given test site is a major key environmental factor determining genotype environment (GE) interaction of rice blast. Monitoring virulence pattern over test sites and seasons is important to analyze varietal reaction to rice blast in multilocation trials. A set of biological probes for blast virulence was selected based on the analysis of the 10-yr International Rice Blast Nursery (IRBN) data (1984-93) using additive main effects and multiplicative interaction models (AMMI) and pattern analysis (PA). Nine location groups of 37 test sites and 10 rice cultivar groups of 105 rice genotypes were initially identified using cluster analysis. Mean blast scores of each cultivar group at test sites within each location group are shown in Table 2. This set can be used as a probe for rapid monitoring of blast virulence patterns in blast evaluation sites.
79
1
RG472 RG246 K5 U10 RG532 W1 RG173 Amy1B RZ276 RG146 RZ58 CDO686 Amy1A/C RG95 RG654 RG256 RZ213 RZ123 RG520 RG437 RG544 RG171 RG157 RZ318 Pall
2
RG104 RG348 RZ329 RZ892 RG100 RG191 RZ678
3
RG218 RZ262 RG190 RG908 RG91 RG449 RG788 RZ565 RZ675 RZ284 RZ394 pRD10A RZ403 RG179 CD0337 RZ337A RZ448 RZ519 Pgi-1 CDO87 RG910 RG418A RZ590 RG214 RG143 RG420 RG163
4
RG556 RZ390 RG313 RZ556 RG403 RG229 RG13 CDO105 RZ649 RZ67 RZ70 RZ225
5
RZ398 RG213 Amp-3 Est-2 RZ144 RZ667 Pgi-2
RZ574
pRD10B RG648 RG424 RG162 RG172 CDO544 RG653 Amy2A RG433 Cat-1
RG345 RG381 RZ19 RG690 RZ730
RZ801 RG810 RG331
7
RG773 RG769 RZ488 RG511 RG477 PGMS0.7 CDO59 RG711 Est-9 RZ337B CD0497 CD0418 RZ978 CDO38 RG351 RZ143 RG20 A5J560 A3E396 A181A1120 TGMS1.2 A10K250 AG8_Aro RZ617 RG978 RG1 Amy3D/E RZ66 AC5 RG418B Amp-2 CDO99
8
RG757 CDO590 C711 G103 RZ206
9
G1084 RG257 RG241 RZ625 CDO93 CDO98 RG241 RZ625 CDO93 CDO98
10
CDO127 RZ638 RG118 Adh-1 RG1094 RG167 Npb44 RG247
11
RG574 RZ816 RG341 AF6 RG457 Sdh1 RG463 RG901 CDO344 RG958 RG181
12
RZ422 Amy3ABC RZ228 RZ12 RG667 RG451 RZ792 RZ404
RG103 RG1109 RZ536 Npb186
Seedbox screening CL Seedbox screening IRRI Field screening IRRI
Feeding rate IRRI Antixenosis (setting) CL Antixenosis (setting) IRRI
Antixenosis (ovip.) CL Antixenosis (ovip.) IRRI Tolerance CL Tolerance IRRI
1. QTL idenfied for resistance to brown planthopper in an IR64 Azucena doubled-haploid population (interval mapping with Mapmaker/QTL, LOD > 1.5), mapped onto the 12 rice chromosomes. The distances between markers on the figure are approximate. IRRI, 1997.
80 IRRI program report for 1997
Table 2. Average blast score of biological probes for blast virulence monitoring at different test location groups. IRRI, 1997. Cultivar group Best scores by location groupa Selected cultivars 1 1 2 Tsuyuake, K3, Kanto 51, Chokoto, C104 LAC Shin 2, Pi 4, Aichi Asahi BL 1, Kagahikari, Yashiro Mochi Fukunishiki, Carreon, IRAT 144, Iri 387, Akiyutaka K59, IAC47, IR74, Toride 1, IR28118-138-2-3 IR32429-122-3-1-2, Usen, IR31775-30-3-2-2-2, PTB33 IRAT13, IR10011-16-3, Dular, NP-125, C101A51, IR64, Tetep, ITA212 C662083, Peta, Chianung Sipi 661020 CO 39, Taichung T.C.W.C., C101TTP-1, IR50 IR54, IR42, IR30, C1158-7 IR1552, IR14632-2-3, IR28128-45-3-3-2 4.1b 6.4 2 5.9 3.1 3 6.5 6.3 4 4.3 4.4 5 8.8 4.4 6 8.7 3.5 7 7.6 6.6 8 2.5 3.2 9 4.8 4.5
3 4 5 6
2.0 1.5 1.4 1.9
2.9 3.4 2.9 3.6
2.6 3.1 4.2 3.8
2.5 3.5 2.9 3.2
1.9 3.2 7.9 4.3
1.9 5.6 2.8 3.2
1.3 2.8 4.4 2.2
2.2 3.1 2.1 2.2
1.6 5.6 3.0 3.7
7 8 9 10
2.2 3.9 1.7 1.7
3.7 3.0 2.6 1.9
5.2 5.8 1.3 4.4
4.7 5.5 2.8 3.6
4.1 7.2 6.0 5.6
3.7 7.7 4.0 3.0
3.3 8.2 3.1 3.9
3.0 6.8 4.1 5.2
7.2 7.5 4.3 6.8
a Av scores based on the Standard evaluation system for rice (SES). Major sites of location groups: 1 = Sakha, Suweon; 2 = Kala Shah Kaku; 3 = Goiania; 4 = Joydebpur, Hawalbagh, Guangzhou, Santa Rosa; 5 = Lonavala, 6 = Maruteru; 7 = Hyderabad; 8 = Omon; 9 = Los Baos, Sitiung.
Systems approaches to quantify performance of rice ecosystems

The overall objective of the systems approach is improvement of rice yields and resource use efficiency. Mechanistic modeling is used to integrate quantitative information concerning those processes and to assess which were the most important yieldcontrolling factors. Performance of rice ecosystem
RATE OF GRAIN FILLING
decline about 4% because of climate change during of the next century. The response of spikelet sterility to temperature emerged as the dominant factor. A 2 C increase in air temperature in the Philippines could produce a 20% decrease in rice yields. Even with greatly increased CO 2 levels of 510 ppm, yields would be depressed by 5%.
ROOT PROPERTIES AND N UPTAKE
The inability of the new plant type to fill more than half of its spikelets (IRRI Program Report for 1995) was investigated and shown to be attributable to the density of spikelets on the panicle (spikelet number per unit panicle length).
CLIMATE CHANGE AND RICE PRODUCTION
The mechanistic model ORYZA1 was used to predict the consequences of climate change on rice production. Rice production in the Asian region could
Mathematical models were developed to describe the transport, transformations, and losses of N fertilizer applied to ricefields. Fertilizer N broadcast into floodwater is absorbed rapidly by roots at or near the soil surface if the application is timed precisely to match plant demand. Soil N and fertilizer N placed in the soil are absorbed less efficiently. Therefore, root properties may limit the acquisition of soil and fertilizer N. Information gained on the kinetics of NH4+ uptake by rice roots and its regulation by the plant included q kinetics of NH4+ exchange with three subcellular compartments in the rootsuperficial adhesion, the cell wall, and the cytoplasm;
81
accumulation capacity of the root-cell cytosol for free NH4+; and q quantification of the unidirectional fluxes of NH4+ at the cellular levelinflux, efflux, net flux, flux to the shoot, and combined flux to assimilation and to the vacuole. The results indicated a large inherent plasticity of the NH4+ influx apparatus, with high fluxes realized only under certain N-limiting growth conditions. If the regulatory mechanisms that suppress N uptake other than at low concentrations could be bypassed without adversely affecting the plant, it might be possible to improve the N acquisition efficiency of rice roots.
q
LEAF PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND N UPTAKE
Changing canopy morphology (both experimentally and theoretically) so as to have flag leaves raised well above the panicle was shown to be a useful way of improving light use efficiency (10% more light intercepted by flag leaves) and possibly enhancing yield through a 40% increase in canopy photosynthesis. The relationship between leaf photosynthesis and N content in rice at all stages of growth was shown to be P = 6.0 + 14.2 Na where P is in mol CO2 m-2 s-1 and Na is in g N m-2. The soil-plant analysis development (SPAD) meter was shown to give a good estimate of leaf N concentration on an area basis rather than a dry weight basis. An adjustment for specific leaf weight greatly improved the accuracy of prediction.
CRITICAL N CONCENTRATIONS: IMPLICATIONS FOR HIGH YIELDS
A theoretical approach to the relationship between N in the aboveground biomass and its dry weight based on the Greenwood equation was developed. It defines the boundary between adequate and luxury concentrations of N in the biomass, described as the critical N dilution curve. Existing data sets for rice grown in tropical and temperate environments were used to test the hypothesis that a critical N concentration in the aboveground biomass is useful for q understanding differences between the regional N responses of intensively managed irrigated rice systems, q defining fertilizer N strategies that will enable maximum rice yields to be achieved, and q helping define characteristics of superior genotypes in rice breeding programs. The Greenwood model linking percentage N in the aboveground biomass (%N) and its dry weight (W) for critical N concentrations for C3 and C4 crops in the vegetative stage is %N = aW-b, (W 1 t ha-1 ) (1)
where b = 0.5, a = 5.7 for C3 crops. The model with parameter b = 0.5 can be rewritten to show: the relative growth rate is twice the relative N accumulation rate for both C3 and C4 plants, which is a useful rule of thumb. The Greenwood dilution curve can be written in terms of the total amount of N accumulated in the aboveground biomass as N = (a/100) W(1-b) (2)
About 10 t ha-1 has remained unchanged as the ceiling yield for rice in the tropics for more than 30 yr. Yields of 13-15 t ha-1 have been reported for the temperate environments of Yanco, Australia, and Yunnan, China. Those yields were associated with a N uptake of 250 kg N ha-1. Imbalances between the demand and the supply of plant nutrients, in particular N, are common causes for yield limitations. The issue of how the plant can control the rate of deployment of its N resources for the construction of metabolic, architectural, and storage structures is crucial to improving yield.
The weight of the aboveground biomass at which half the final total N (N0.5) has been acquired by the crop, W0.5N , is given by W0.5N = Wf /21/(1-b) (3)
where Wf is the final weight; when b = 0.5 then W0.5N = 0.25Wf. Thus, crops must acquire half of total N requirement by the time they reach 25% of their final weight. To estimate the rate of N uptake by the aboveground biomass, equation (2) is differentiated: dN/dt = ((1-b)a/100)W-b dW/dt (4)
82
for W 1 t ha-1 when %N = a(t) and by differentiation, dN/dt = (a dW/dt + W da/dt) /100 . (5)
The time course of N accumulation in the aboveground biomass can be obtained by substitution when W is known as a function of time. The rate of N accumulation in the rice panicle during its growth can be considered to be approximately a constant, p, over its effective growth period. It can be calculated as the difference between the final N content of the aboveground biomass and the straw divided by the effective growth period. If the crop cannot capture sufficient N through its roots to meet this demand, N must be withdrawn from the vegetative portions of the crop, assuming there are no losses from the root tissues. In that situation, the rate at which N is extracted from the vegetative portion of the crop to meet the demand of the panicle, dv / dt, is dv/dt = p - ((1-b)a/100)W-b dW/dt. (6)
The limit to the N extracted comes when the concentration in the vegetative portions falls to the concentrations associated with the structural tissues, which is about 0.8% in rice. The N concentration in the grain varies from 0.8 to 1.8%. Data from experiments with high grain yields in the Philippines, China, and Australia (Table 3) were used to examine the N relationship. The rice grown at IRRI and China usually had applied N divided between applications at transplanting, mid-tillering, panicle initiation, and flowering. In China, farmyard manure (22.5 t ha-1 at 0.4% N on fresh weight basis) was incorporated in the soil prior to its prepara-
tion for the rice crop. In Australia, N was applied as urea in two equal applications: once as a basal application and another at panicle initiation. The mean value of the ratio of panicle dry weight to aboveground biomass for IR72 at 3% moisture is 0.52 (for grain at 14% moisture, the harvest index is 0.53). In the absence of a problem such as lodging, the critical N curves for maximum grain yield and maximum vegetative biomass are probably the same for a given cultivar. The N contents described here are quoted for dry weights containing 3% moisture. The relationship between percentage N and aboveground biomass (critical dilution curves) for experiments with high grain yields in the tropics (Philippines) and temperate environments (Australia and China) is shown in Figure 2. There was little difference between the data trends for those countries even though the final aboveground biomass differed. The best fit to all of the data was given by a = 5.18 and b = 0.52 (r2 = 0.91). With the exception of a few data points, the sets of data remain below the critical curve defined by Greenwood for all C3 crops. To estimate the rate of N acquisition by the aboveground biomass for weights greater than 1 t ha -1 using equation (4), the time course of aboveground biomass accumulation, its rate of accumulation, and the Greenwood parameters must be known. The accumulation of aboveground biomass for the high N (285 kg N ha-1) treatment at IRRI is shown in Figure 3. The rate of N uptake by the aboveground biomass was calculated (equation 4); the rate of N acquisition was 4.2 kg N ha-1 d-1 at 18 d after transplanting and declined thereafter. The rate at which the panicle acquires N in that treatment was esti-
Table 3. The location, cultivar, N treatment, aboveground biomass, and grain yield for rice grown in tropical and temperate environments. IRRI, 1997. Location N applied (kg ha1) 285 160 293 Cultivar N application splits (kg ha1) 120+60+60+45a 80+80b 90 kg N as FYM, 104+58+41c Aboveground biomass (t ha1) 18.6 22.7 27.5 Grain yield (t ha1) 9.5 14.0 15.2
Philippines (IRRI) (lat 14 21' N, long 121 23' E) Australia (Yanco) (lat 35 29' S, long 145 02' E) China (Yunnan) (lat 27 08' N, long 101 02' E)
IR72 Amaroo Shanyou
a Fertilizer applied basal at transplanting and at mid-tillering stage, panicle initiation, and at flowering. bFertilizer applied at transplanting and at panicle initiation. cFarmyard manure and fertilizer applied 1 wk after transplanting, panicle initiation, and flowering.
83
6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 10 20 30
Greenwood curve Rice data Philippines Australia China
2. The relationship between percentage N content and dry weight of aboveground biomass of rice for high- yielding experiments in Australia, China, and the Philippines. IRRI, 1997.
Aboveground biomass (t ha-1) 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 20 40 60 80 Days after transplanting 100

Theoretical 285N
3. The accumulation of aboveground biomass of rice as a function of time for 285 kg N ha-1 in the Philippines and a theoretical maximum rate of aboveground biomass accumulation. IRRI, 1996.
Amount of N in aboveground biomass (t ha-1) 0.30 0.25 0.20 0.15 0.10 0.05 0.00 0 20 40 60 80 Days after transplanting 100
Theoretical 285N
4. Cumulative rate of N uptake for the 285 kg N ha1 treatment in the Philippines and a theoretical estimate based on the maximum growth rate of rice in the tropics. The N accumulated in the panicle is shown as the difference between the lines 60 DAT. IRRI, 1996.
mated from measurements to be 3.9 kg N ha-1 d-1. The acquisition rate of the panicle was greater than the acquisition rate of the aboveground biomass during panicle development. The excess demand for N by the panicle was met by withdrawal of N from the nonstructural N in the crop. Changes in the rate of N accumulation for aboveground biomass weights less than 1 t ha-1 could not be estimated owing to an absence of experimental data in that range for the parameters and variables of equation (5). The time course of N accumulation by the aboveground biomass and the panicle is shown in Figure 4. In the high-N treatment at IRRI, half the total N (N0.5 = 115 kg N ha-1) was acquired in 35 d during which time about 25% of the aboveground biomass was accumulated. Equation (6) is used to estimate the rate of withdrawal of N from the vegetative portion of the crop by the process of accumulation in the panicle. Theoretical estimates of the N required to produce maximum grain yield for the tropics can be made assuming: 1) patterns of N and aboveground biomass acquisition described for the 285 kg N ha-1 treatment should be increased by 1.5, and 2) highyielding rice has the Greenwood equation parameters a = 5.18, b = 0.52. The maximum aboveground biomass achieved would be about 28 t ha-1 and yield at 14% moisture content would be about 15 t ha-1 at a harvest index of 0.53. As can be seen in Figure 4, half the total N (N0.5 = 125 kg N ha-1) would have to be acquired in 33 d when approximately 24% of the aboveground biomass would have been accumulated. The estimated N content of the panicle for the 285 kg N ha-1 treatment was 1.6%, the observed value was 1.5%, and for the theoretical case, it was 1.0%. The results support the concept that there is a critical N dilution curve for maximum rice yield, which may be independent of climatic zone. Overall the critical dilution curves for tropical and temperate rice suggest that the concentration of N per se did not determine the differences in grain yield between tropical and temperate environments. Identical a and b values obtained in the Philippines and Australia or China would be associated with different yields because the differences have their origins in factors other than crop management. The ability to accumulate more biomass while maintaining a critical N concentration was of greatest importance
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in determining yield differences. The similarity between the N dilution curves for temperate and tropical environments suggests that there is no intrinsic difference in the ratio of carbon and N capture. This suggests that both the rate and duration of resource capture are probably limiting yield in tropical environments. Furthermore, the data suggest that the balance between the rate of N acquisition, crop photosynthesis, respiration, and leaf senescence are not too different for the best cultivars in those environments. Temperate rice accumulates more N and aboveground biomass, nevertheless the C-N ratios are similar at similar aboveground biomass weights. An examination of the rates of N acquisition suggests that more emphasis must be placed on the early management of the rice crop if higher yields are to be obtained. Analysis indicates that to break the yield barrier, germplasm must be capable of acquiring 125 kg N ha1 (N0.5) in the 33 d following transplanting. This suggests that upward of 130 kg N ha-1 must be applied as a basal application at IRRI, where soils have high total intrinsic N contents. The decline in the daily rate of N acquisition from an early maximum value, implied in the Greenwood relationship, probably reflects a lowering in crop demand for soil N. This may be caused by the internal recycling of N from aging to young developing tissues in the crop. An aging root system may also play a part in the decline. The fact that the rate of demand for N by the panicle exceeds the rate at which the aboveground biomass acquires it highlights the importance of having a large reservoir of N in the biomass. Comparison of high-yield rice in tropical and subtropical environments: determinants of grain and dry matter yields Grain yields of more than 13 t ha-1 have been reported in farmers fields in the subtropical environment of Yunnan, China, and the temperate environment of Yanco, Australia, whereas maximum yield of only 10 t ha-1 has been achieved in the tropical lowlands. While it is generally accepted that the longer growth duration in subtropical environments mainly contributes to the greater yield potential, comparisons of adapted cultivars in tropical and subtropical climates are lacking and other factors that might be responsible for differences in yield
potential have not been identified. In addition, no replicated field experiments with the same cultivars have compared rice yield potential between the tropical and subtropical environments. Field experiments were conducted in 1996 to determine the primary yield components responsible for yield differences in a tropical environment at IRRI and in the subtropical environment of Taoyuan township, Yunnan Province, China. Five high-yielding rice cultivars, IR72 and IR65469161-2-2-3-2-2 (indica inbreds), IR68248H (indica F1 hybrid), Guichao 2 (Chinese indica inbred), and Shanyou 63 (Chinese indica F1 hybrid) were used. Crop management was based on the common practices in that environment for achieving maximum yields. At IRRI, 60 kg N ha-1 as urea, 30 kg P ha-1 as single superphosphate, 20 kg K ha-1 as KCl, and 5 kg Zn ha-1 as zinc sulfate heptahydrate were incorporated in all plots 1 d before transplanting. Fourteen-day-old seedlings were transplanted 6 Jan at 0.20 0.20 m spacing with four seedlings per hill. Nitrogen was topdressed at midtillering (40 kg ha-1), panicle initiation (60 kg ha-1) and flowering (40 kg ha-1). At Yunnan, 22.5 t ha-1 farmyard manure (about 0.4% total N on fresh weight basis), 60 kg P ha-1 as single superphosphate, and 50 kg K ha-1 as K2SO4 were applied before land preparation. Thirty-eightday-old seedlings were transplanted 4 May with one seedling per hill at 0.100 0.165 m spacing. Nitrogen was applied as urea 1 wk after transplanting (104 kg ha-1), at panicle initiation (58 kg ha-1), and at flowering (41 kg N ha-1) Twelve hills were sampled from each plot at midtillering, panicle initiation, flowering, and maturity. Stem (main stems plus tillers) and panicle numbers were recorded. Plant samples were separated into green leaf blades, culm plus sheath, dead tissues, and panicles. Green leaf area was measured with a leaf area meter and expressed as leaf area index (LAI). Dry weight of each component was determined after oven-drying at 70 C to constant weight. Plant dry weight was the sum of all the components except roots. Crop growth rate was calculated based on biomass accumulation over a time interval. Leaf area duration (LAD) was calculated as the integral of LAI over days after transplanting. At maturity, panicles were hand-threshed and filled spikelets separated by submerging them in water.
85
Table 4. Grain yield and yield components of rice cultivars grown at IRRI and Yunnan Province, China, 1996. Grain yield (t ha1) Panicles m2 (no.) Spikelets panicle1 (no.) Spikelets m2 (no. 103) 40.1 42.8 44.0 43.0 36.5 41.3 1.5 66.6 68.1 60.7 64.1 54.8 62.9 3.5 Spikelet filling (%) Grain weight (mg)
Cultivar
IRRI IR72 IR65469-161-2-2-3-2-2 IR68284H Guichao 2 Shanyou 63 Mean SEa Yunnan IR72 IR65469-161-2-2-3-2-2 IR68284H Guichao 2 Shanyou 63 Mean SEa
a
7.6 8.6 9.2 8.0 8.6 8.4 0.3 12.9 12.4 13.0 14.7 15.2 13.6 0.3
494 402 326 390 369 396 17 614 575 418 433 490 506 31
81 107 135 110 99 107 6 108 119 146 148 112 127 9
76 58 71 66 75 69 4 79 66 73 85 90 79 2
23.3 28.0 26.5 25.7 26.8 26.1 0.2 22.6 27.0 26.1 24.8 27.9 25.7 0.6
Av SE of the five cultivars.
Filled spikelets were oven-dried at 70 C to constant weight for determining individual grain weight. Spikelets panicle1, grain-filling percentage, and harvest index (HI) were calculated. Grain yield was determined from a 5-m2 area from each plot and adjusted to a 14% moisture content. When yield was averaged across cultivars, 5.2 t ha-1 more grain was produced at Yunnan than at IRRI (Table 4). The highest yield at IRRI was 9.2 t ha-1, which was produced by IR68284H, and 15.2 t ha-1 at Yunnan from Shanyou 63. Guichao 2 and Shanyou 63 developed for subtropical environments had higher yields at Yunnan than the cultivars bred for tropical conditions. This was not true when they were grown at IRRI. Analysis of yield components indicates that sink size was mainly responsible for these yield differences. Sink size was about 50% greater at Yunnan than at IRRI. In contrast, the differences in grain filling percentage and grain weight between the two sites were relatively small. The large difference in sink size between IRRI and Yunnan was attributed to the difference in both spikelets panicle 1 and panicles m 2 (Table 4). There was significant difference between the two sites in spikelets panicle1, which was 19% greater at Yunnan than at IRRI. The Yunnan rice crop had larger panicles than the crop at IRRI, even though panicle number at Yunnan was 24% greater than at IRRI. The Yunnan crop was able to maintain the same or greater grain-filling percentage than the
IRRI crop, even though sink size was about 50% greater at Yunnan than at IRRI. All of these were achieved because of greater biomass production at Yunnan than at IRRI. Because HI was comparable at the two sites (Table 5), greater grain yield at Yunnan was mostly attributed to greater biomass production than at IRRI.
Table 5. Total growth duration (from sowing to maturity), growth duration in the main field (from transplanting to maturity), plant dry weight and harvest index of rice cultivars grown at IRRI and Yunnan Province, China, 1996. Total growth duration (d) Growth Plant Harvest duration dry index in main weight (%) field (d) (g m2)
Cultivar
IRRI IR72 IR65469-161-2-2-3-2-2 IR68284H Guichao 2 Shanyou 63 Mean SEa Yunnan IR72 IR65469-161-2-2-3-2-2 IR68284H Guichao 2 Shanyou 63 Mean SE
a
121 128 131 125 118 125 157 169 167 157 169 164 -
107 114 117 111 104 111 119 131 129 119 131 126 -
1620 1630 1770 1690 1650 1670 88 2410 2940 2370 2510 2970 2640 93
45 43 46 45 45 45 3 49 40 49 54 47 48 1
Av SE of the five cultivars.
86
It is generally accepted that high yield in subtropical and temperate environments is mainly due to longer growth duration and greater solar radiation. In this study, average daily radiation from transplanting to maturity was similar at IRRI and Yunnan, ranging from 18.3 to 20.0 MJ m-2. During grain filling, average daily radiation was 21.2 6.1 MJ m-2 at IRRI and 20.2 4.7 MJ-2 at Yunnan. Total growth duration from sowing to maturity was, depending on cultivars, 32 to 51 d longer at Yunnan than at IRRI. When growth duration in the seedbed was not considered, the difference in growth duration from transplanting to maturity across sites was smaller. Nearly 85% of the difference in total growth duration between IRRI and Yunan occurred at the vegetative stage. Duration of reproductive stage was 6 d longer at Yunnan than at IRRI, whereas there was no significant difefrence in length of grain-filling period between the two sites. Longer growth duration was linked with greater biomass production and consequently greater grain yield in Yunnan. When biomass production and grain yield were expressed on a daily basis over the period from transplanting to maturity, mean daily biomass production and grain yield were about 30% greater at Yunnan than at IRRI. This indicates that long growth duration was not the only explanation for the high yield at Yunnan.
Greater biomass production at Yunnan than at IRRI was mostly due to greater LAI and LAD. LAD between midtillering and panicle initiation was greater at Yunnan than at IRRI, resulting in 31% greater LAI at panicle initiation at Yunnan (Table 6). LAI was maximum at flowering. LAD was 46% greater at Yunnan than at IRRI. Greater LAI and LAD at Yunnan suggests higher canopy photosynthetic rate and crop growth rate at Yunnan than at IRRI. These results indicate that further improvement in rice yield potential may depend more on the ability to increase biomass production and sink size than on increases in HI, grain-filling percentage, and grain weight. Large panicle and greater biomass production are the main selection criteria for breeding of the new plant type at IRRI. Effect of silicon on the cation-anion balance of rice Rice plants accumulate large amounts of Si. Shoot contents typically exceed 5%. While various beneficial effects of Si on the plant have been established, an unresolved question is the effect of such a large intake of inorganic material on the plant's cationanion balance. Silicon is present in soil solutions almost entirely as Si(OH)4 for which pK1 = 9.46. It has therefore generally been assumed that it is ab-
Table 6. Leaf area index and stem number m2 at midtillering, panicle initiation, and flowering of rice cultivars grown at IRRI and Yunnan Province, China, 1996. Leaf area index Cultivar Midtillering Panicle initiation Flowering Leaf area duration (d)a
IRRI IR72 IR65469-161-2-2-3-2-2 IR68284H Guichao 2 Shanyou 63 Mean SEb Yunnan IR72 IR65469-161-2-2-3-2-2 IR68284H Guichao 2 Shanyou 63 Mean SE
a
1.2 2.0 1.6 1.5 2.0 1.6 0.2 1.4 1.5 2.0 1.8 2.3 1.8 0.1
4.3 5.9 4.8 4.4 5.1 4.9 0.5 5.9 6.8 6.1 6.5 6.5 6.4 0.4
5.7 8.2 6.9 6.9 7.5 7.0 0.5 6.7 9.6 8.8 10.4 9.1 8.9 0.5
366 510 482 424 452 447 31 526 721 652 673 698 654 24
Av SE of the five cultivars. bLAD calculated as the integral of LAI over days after transplanting.
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sorbed as the uncharged Si(OH)4 molecule. However, that assumption has never been rigorously tested. If Si is absorbed solely as uncharged Si(OH)4, then rice plants growing in flooded soil and absorbing their N as NH4+ will take up a considerable excess of cations over anions. They will balance this excess by exporting H+ to the rhizosphere. Further H+ ions are generated in the rhizosphere as a result of ferrous iron oxidation by root-released O2. Thus the rhizosphere will often be considerably acidified, and this has various consequences for the concentrations and uptake of nutrients and toxins. IR72 was grown in nutrient solution with and without Si and with either NO3 or NH4. The pH was maintained by daily addition of acid or base. The contribution of Si to the plant cation-anion balance was assessed by comparing measured plant ash alkalinities with those calculated from ion intake and assimilation. Silicon addition increased plant dry mass in NO3-fed but not in the NH4-fed plants, and increased the Si content of the plants to a greater extent in the NO3-fed plants (Fig. 5). Silicon addition decreased the intakes of cations and anions, regardeless of N form, though the difference between the cations and anions, assuming that Si was absorbed as uncharged Si(OH)4 was unchanged (Fig. 6a,b,c). However, Si addition decreased the ash alkalinity of the plants. Ash alkalinity is a measure of the concentration of organic acid anions in the plant, equal to the excess of inorganic cations over anions. It should equal the difference between the measured intake of cations and anions less those assimilated. Figure 6d-f shows the ash alkalinities so calculated, with [NO3-] unassim and [SO42-] unassim estimated by water extraction of the plant tissue. The calculated values exceed the measured values by a substantial margin, indicating that water extraction only recovered part of the unassimilated NO3- and SO42-. Figure 6f shows the values adjusted for the fractional recovery by applying the proportional discrepancies for the -Si results to the +Si results. Comparing Figures 6d and 6f, the discrepancy for the NO3 + Si treatment is largely accounted for. But for the NH4-fed plants, the decrease in ash alkalinity with Si addition is larger than can be explained by the balance between unassimilated cations and anions, assuming that Si was absorbed in an uncharged form. The discrepancy is equivalent to
Dry mass (g plant-1) 4 a 3 2 1 0 N (mmol g-1) b 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 P c 0.09 0.06 0.03 0.00 K 0.8 d 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0 Ca e 0.09 0.06 0.03 0.00 NO3 NH4
Mg 0.25 0.20 0.15 0.10 0.05 0.00 Na
0.002 0.001 0.000 Cl
0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 S 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 Si 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0 NO3 NH4
5. Plant dry mass (g plant1) and nutrient contents (mmol g1) for IR72 grown in nutrient solution with and without Si and with either NO3 or NH4. Black = Si, white = +Si. Means of three replicates; bars are SE of means. IRRI, 1997.
about half the Si intake. This indicates that the plants absorbed additional inorganic anions. Because there were no other candidate anions, it was concluded that about half the Si was absorbed as SiO (OH)3- in the NH4 + Si treatment. In view of the small concentration of SiO(OH)3- expected in the nutrient solution (for [Si (OH)4] = 1.66 mM and pH = 5.0, [SiO (OH)3-] = 0.06 M using the standard pK1 value at 25 C), this is remarkable.
88
M+ a 3 2 1 0 A b 3 2 1 0 M+ A 2 c 1 0 -1 -2 NO3 NH4 f e d
Measured ash alkalinity 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 Calculated ash alkalinity 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0 Calculated ash alkalinity* 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 NO3 NH4
Agroecological characterization, technology impact, gender and policy analysis

This project generates information and knowledge on the nature and magnitude of the biophysical and socioeconomic constraints faced by farmers in representative areas. Project research characterizes rice ecosystems and agroecologies at the macro level, assesses technology needs of farmers, and identifies criteria for acceptance of new technologies and farming practices. Monitoring of developments in the rice sector regarding changing patterns of production, consumption, and trade, overall socioeconomic conditions, and government policies is done to understand shifting comparative advantage in rice production, project future demand-supply balance, and evaluate effectiveness of government policies. The project also generates information on socioeconomic equity and gender roles in rice farming. Changing patterns of adoption of modern rices and impact on productivity, Philippines IRRI conducted a series of household surveys over the 1965-95 period in Central Luzon and Laguna provinces, the so-called rice bowl of the Philippines. The adoption of rice varieties, mechanical technologies and farm management practices as well as changes in land tenure, labor use, occupational patterns, and sources of income were monitored. Survey data were analyzed during 1997 to examine changes in the adoption of successive generations of modern rices and their impact on productivity.
ADOPTION OF MODERN RICES
6. Plant-cation-anion balance assuming Si absorbed as Si(OH)3 and ash alkalinites (mmolc g1) for IR72 grown in nutrient solution with and without Si and with either NO3 or NH4. Black = Si, white = +Si. *Calculation corrected for partial recovery of NO3 and SO42.
As a check on these calculations the expected export of H+ or OH - from the roots to balance cation-anion intake was compared with the quantities of H+ or OH- added to maintain the nutrient solutions at pH 5.0. In the NH4-fed plants the quantity of OH- was about 0.3 mmol g-1 less with Si addition, which is about the calculated intake of SiO(OH)3-. In addition, Si absorption was about twice as fast as water loss in transpiraton, indicating that at least half the Si was absorbed by an active process requiring expenditure of energy. The acidification of the rice rhizosphere in different soils measured in previous research (IRRI Program Report for 1994) was somewhat less than expected from the quantity of Fe2+ oxidized and the plant cation-anion balance calculated with the assumption that Si was absorbed as Si(OH)4. The discrepancy was up to 50% of the measured acidification. This would be explained if some of the Si was absorbed as SiO(OH)3-.
When the first survey was conducted (1965-66), the entire rice area grew traditional varieties but farmers were quick to adopt modern rice, with 86% of farmers sampled in Laguna, and 66% of farmers sampled in Central Luzon growing modern rices by 1970. A major factor behind the fast adoption of modern rices in the survey areas was a highly developed irrigation infrastructure. Nearly 60% of the riceland in Central Luzon was irrigated by the late 1960s. Irrigation coverage in Laguna was more than 90% in the mid-1960s.
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Table 7. Changing patterns of adoption of rice varieties in Central Luzon, Philippines, 1965-95. Year Season Popular rice varieties with percent of area covered Inano (23), Binato (14), Tjeremas (13), Raminad (11), Intan (8), Peta (7), Ramadia (6) Intan (55), Tjeremas (12), Ketchel Scrup (12), Wagwag (8), Macapunti (8) IR5 (49), IR20 (14), Wagwag (13), Inano (5), BE3 (4), C4 (3) IR20 (65), Intan (14), IR8 (11), IR5 (6), IR22 (4) IR20 (56), Wagwag (8), Tjeremas (6), C4 (6), Raminad (5), Milagrosa (5), IR5 (2) IR36 (59), IR42 (17), IR44 (6), IR20 (5), IR24 (3), IR32 (3), IR48 (3) IR36 (63), IR42 (16), IR44 (7), IR48 (4), IR38 (3), IR20 (3) IR36 (41), IR42 (27), IR50 (12), IR54 (12) IR64 (58), IR42 (12), IR36 (6), IR48 (4) IR64 (71), IR36 (6), IR68 (5), BPI RI 10 (4) IR64 (22), IR72 (14), IR66 (13), IR72 (14), IR70 (11), IR36 (6), BPI RI 10 (5), BPI RI 12 (4), IR22 (3), IR42 (3) IR64 (27), IR74 (21), PSBRc10 (13), IR72 (13), IR66 (12), IR36 (7), IR22 (5) IR64 (56), PSBRc14 (10), PSBRc10 (8), IR66 (8), PSBRc2 (4), BPI RI 12 (4), IR60 (4) IR64 (37), PSBRc14 (22), PSBRc4 (12), PSBRc10 (10), IR60 (5), IR74 (3)
Table 8. Changing patterns of adoption of rice varieties, Laguna, Philippines, 1965-95. Year Season Popular rice varieties with percent of area covered Intan (36), Thailand (28), Malagkit (16), Wagwag (14), Binato (3), Piling (2) Wagwag (49), Malagkit (32), Raminad (9), Intan (5), Thailand (3), Piling (2) IR8 (53), C4 (24), Peta (10), IR20 (8), IR5 (2), IR22 (2) IR26 (48), IR30 (22), IR20 (10), IR5 (7), IR29 (5), IR28 (4), C4 (2) IR36 (55), IR42 (30), IR44 (5), IR29 (4), IR26 (3) IR36 (47), IR42 (26), IR54 (15), IR29 (6), IR5 (3), C4 (2) IR36 (33), IR42 (31), IR29 (14), IR50 (10), IR54 (10) IR36 (23), IR50 (16), IR42 (12), IR54 (11), IR60 (9), C4 (4), IR24 (3), IR29 (3) IR64 (70), IR66 (9), BPI RI 10 (8), IR50 (4), IR5 (4), IR26 (3) IR64 (41), IR66 (24), BPI RI 10 (14), IR36 (8), IR42 (5), IR58 (5) IR74 (33), IR64 (15), IR66 (11), IR68 (8), PSBRc10 (5) IR74 (40), IR64 (32), IR72 (10), IR841 (8), IR68 (4), IR42 (2) IR64 (57), IR841 (21), PSBRc10 (10), IR74 (5), PSBRc14 (3), IR42 (4) IR64 (44), IR42 (15), IR74 (10), PSBRc4 (10), PSBRc10 (7), PSBRc14 (6)
1966
Wet
1965 Dry
1967
Dry
1966 Wet
1970 1971 1974
Wet Dry Wet
1970 Wet
1975 Wet
1978 Wet
1979 1980 1982 1986 1987 1990
Wet Dry Wet Wet Dry Wet
1981 Wet
1982 Dry
1984 Wet
1987 Wet
1988 Dry
1990 Wet
1991
Dry
1991 Dry
1994
Wet
1994 Dry
1995
Dry
1995 Wet
Source: Estimates from farm household survey.
Source: Estimates from household survey data.
The evolution in the adoption of specific rice cultivars for the sample in Central Luzon and Laguna can be assessed from Tables 7 and 8. Only a few dominant varieties occupied most of the riceland in specific years and seasons. The findings do not fully support the popular notion that it is the introduction of modern rices that led to the reduction in the number of rice varieties grown by farmers. However, in case of modern cultivars, a single
variety often occupied more than 50% of the riceland.

IMPACT ON PRODUCTIVITY
The first generation of modern varieties (MV1) consisted of IR5 to IR34, which revolutionized the yield potential of tropical rice but made the yield in the farmers field unstable due to their susceptibil-
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ity to insects and diseases. The second generation (MV2) consisted of varieties from IR36 to IR62, which not only incorporated multiple resistance to major biotic stresses but also reduced the growing period. The third generation (MV3) consisted of IR64 to IR74 and the Philippine Seed Board Rice Series (PSBRc), which incorporated improved grain quality while maintaining, or even making gains, in resistance to biotic stresses and shorter growth duration. The MV3 rices contributed to further increase in the productivity of land and in gross revenue per hectare by fetching higher prices in the market. Table 9 reports the findings of the survey with regard to labor and fertilizer use and the yield rates for the successive generations of modern varieties. The yield of traditional varieties (TV) was about 2 t ha-1 in Central Luzon and about 2.4 t ha-1 in Laguna. Although the yield potential of MV1 was reported at IRRI at 10 t ha-1, the farm-level yield was substantially lower. The yield gains of MV1 over TV was about 50% for Laguna and less than 25% for Central Luzon.
While the yield advantage of MV1 over TV was small, the gains of MV2 over MV1 were substantial. During 1979-82, the yield of MV2 reached about 4 t ha-1 in Central Luzon and 4.9 t ha-1 in Laguna. It appears, however, that a plateau in rice yield was achieved by the mid-1980s. The adoption of MV3 rices did not contribute to any further increase in yield even though fertilizer use increased. A point to note is that farmers started economizing on labor in the mid-1980s due to an increase in the wage rate and a growing opportunity cost of family labor. It appears that the gains in yield due to the use of larger amount of fertilizer were offset by the losses from inadequate crop care. The genetic improvement of MV3 was in grain quality, which helped farmers earn more revenue from yields similar to those from MV2. The impact of successive MV generations on input use and productivity was assessed through estimating multivariate regression models in which the MVs were included as explanatory variables, along with other determinants. The regression model also incorporated dummy variables for different prov-
Table 9. Resource use and productivity of modern varieties, Central Luzon and Laguna, Philippines, 1966-95. 1966 Central Luzon Yield (t ha-1 yr-1)a TVb 2.0 MV1d e MV2 MV3f Labor use (d ha-1) 64 NPK (kg ha-1) 20 Labor productivity 31 (kg d-1) Fertilizer productivity (kg kg-1 of NPK) 100 Laguna 1966 Yield (t ha-1 yr-1)a TVb 2.4 MV1d MV2e MV3f Labor use (d ha-1) 100 -1 NPK (kg ha ) 20 Labor productivity (kg d-1) 24 Fertilizer productivity -1 (kg kg of NPK) 120
a
1970
1974
1979
1982
1986
1990
1994
2.5 69 38 38 66 1970 3.3c 91 54 36 61
2.2c 87 56 25 39 1975 3.7c 111 91 33 41
4.0 74 86 54 47 1978 3.7c 101 114 37 32
4.1c 71 80 58 51 1981 4.9 96 88 51 56
4.0 60 86 67 47 1984 4.7c 94 62 50 76
4.1 64 101 64 41 1990 4.8 91 92 53 52
4.2 71 126 59 33 1995 4.8 85 90 56 53
Av of wet and dry seasons unless otherwise indicated. bTraditional variety. cWet season only. dFirst-generation modern rice variety consisting of IR5 to IR34 and the C4 series. eSecond-generation modern rice variety consisting of IR36 to IR62. fThird -generation modern rice variety consisting of IR64 to IR74 and the PSBRc series.
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Table 10. Regression coefficients and their t values (in parentheses) for rice yield, fertilizer use, and cropping intensity function for three generations (MV1, MV2, MV3) of modern rice varieties in Central Luzon and Laguna, Philippines, 1966-95. Ln (yield ha-1) OLS Intercept 7.29** (38.94) 0.20** (4.90) 0.48** (12.86) 0.46** (11.79) 0.17** (5.50) 0.11** (2.81) 0.04* (2.04) 0.12** (7.17) 0.10** (2.46) NPK ha-1 Tobit 40.40* (1.90) 47.53** (10.20) 69.34** (15.94) 88.97** (19.90) 31.31** (8.60) 8.45* (1.75) 0.03 (0.01) 13.03** (6.58) 10.37* (2.09) 5.81 (1.36) 7.13 (1.42) 17.73** (5.99) 5.93 (1.32) 8.56 (1.29) 47.52** (7.55) Rice cropping intensity Tobit 1.67** (7.30) 0.06 (0.96) 0.22** (4.72) 0.22** (4.96) 0.54** (16.56) 0.11* (2.21) 0.02 (1.12) 0.09** (4.08) 0.02 (0.43) 0.03 (-0.85) 0.08 (1.50) 0.10** (2.99) 0.38** (8.76) 0.44** (7.34) 0.13* (2.08) 423.36
MV1
MV2
MV3
Irrigation ratio
Ln age
Ln education
Ln farm size
Share tenancy
Leasehold tenancy 0.02 (0.78) Bulacan 0.19** (4.38) 0.06** (2.57) 0.23** (5.89) 0.28** (4.87) 0.60** (11.00) 0.27 50.32 -
sive MV generations. Fertilizer use was also significantly higher on irrigated rice than on rainfed rice. Smaller farms and younger farmers used more fertilizer than larger farms and older farmers. Fertilizer use was also lower in sharecropped land, and there was no significant difference in fertilizer use on lands operated by leasehold tenants and owner farmers. Crop yield was positively associated with access to irrigation and the level of education and experience of farmers. The yield was significantly lower on larger farmers and on sharecropped land as shown by the significant negative values of the regression coefficient for those variables. The contribution of the MV to yield can be assessed from the regression coefficient of MV variables in the yield function. The coefficient of MV1 shows that they gave 20% higher yield than the TV rices when the effect of other variables was controlled. The MV2 rices contributed to yield gains by another 28%. But the yield for MV3 gain over TV was almost the same as the MV2 generation, even with higher fertilizer use on MV3. The intensity of land use was substantially higher on the irrigated ecosystem than on the rainfed ecosystem. The important point is that MV2 and MV3 generations contributed nearly 22% to an increase in cropping intensity owing to their shorter maturity. The impact of MV on the distribution of benefits among different factors of production in Central Luzon is seen in Table 11. The share of current in-
Nueva Ecija
Pangasinan
Table 11. Factor shares (%) in rice production in Central Luzon, Philippines, 1966-94. 1966a 1970 1979 1986 1990 1994
Tarlac
Pampanga R2 F value Log likehood ratio
9620.74
inces to take agroecological differences into account. Laguna was used as control for estimating these regional effects. The results are in Table 10. The equation for NPK use shows that the sample farmers used higher amounts of fertilizer for succes-
Gross output 100 Current inputs 7 Capital 8 Ownedb 5 Hired 3 Labor 28 Familyc 12 Hired 16 Land 57 Leasehold 20 rentd Surplus 37
a b
100 10 10 6 4 25 12 13 55 21 34
100 20 11 6 5 28 9 19 40 13 27
100 20 11 4 7 22 5 17 47 13 34
100 20 10 3 7 24 7 17 46 12 34
100 18 9 3 6 29 12 17 45 11 34
Weighted average of WS and DS using planted area as weights. Imputed capital cost using average machinery rentals. cImputed labor cost using appropriate wage rates for different rice production tasks. dAv leasehold rent.
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puts in total rice production per hectare rose from 7% in 1966 to 20% in 1979 because of increased application of fertilizer and other chemical inputs associated with MV adoption. The factor share of capital remained fairly constant but the share of hired capital increased over time because of the development of rental market for machines, particularly tractors and threshers. The share of labor in the total value of rice output did not change much despite the increased labor requirement of MV in crop care and harvesting and threshing. The increased labor demand in these operations was offset by reduction in labor use due to the widespread use of labor-saving technology such as the tractor, thresher, and direct seeding since the mid-1980s. The factor share of hired labor remained almost the same, while that of family labor declined. The share of land declined considerably from 57% in 1966 to 46% during 1986-95, indicating that MV2 and MV3 generations were basically land-saving technologies. The impact of slowdown of Asian economic growth on the rice market and food security An analysis of the impact of the current financial crisis in Southeast Asia on the world rice market compared the baseline results of a global trade model with those from a scenario that incorporated slower economic growth in Thailand, the Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia, South Korea, and Japan. The study sought an answer to the question How will the rice market be affected if current changes in the political, social, and economic arena persist?
THE MODEL
submodels are linked through trade, a specification that highlights the interdependence of countries and commodities in the world agricultural economy. The model uses a system of supply and demand elasticities, incorporated into a series of linear and nonlinear equations, to approximate the underlying production and demand functions. A typical country or regional submodel consists of a set of the following equations for each commodity: Crop production. Domestic production for crops is determined by the area and yield response functions as follows: Yield response:
YCtni = tni (PStni)i (PFtnk)ik (1+gtni)

k
Area response:
ACtni = tni (PStni)i (PStnj)ij (1+gtni)

i_j
Production:
QStni = ACtni YCtni
where AC YC QS PS PF
is crop area, is crop yield, is quantity produced, is the effective producer price, is the price of factor/input k (e.g., labor, fertilizer), I, j are commodity indices, n is the country index, t is the time index, g are growth rates, are price elasticities, and , are area and yield intercepts.
The International Model for Policy Analysis of Agricultural Commodities and Trade (IMPACT), developed at the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) in collaboration with IRRI is a simulation model for the analysis of the effects of changes in the economic and social structures of countries and regions on commodity market performances. IMPACT is specified as a set of country or regional submodels, each with a particular structure within which supply, demand, and prices for some categories of agricultural commodities are determined. The 37 country and regional agricultural
Livestock production. Livestock production is modeled similarly to crops, except that livestock yield reflects only the effects of expected developments in technology. Number of heads (population):
ALtni = tni (PStni)i (PStnj)ij (PItnj)ij (1 + gtni)
i_j i_j
Number slaughtered: Yield: Production:
AHtni = AHt-1,ni ALtni ALt-1,ni
YLtni = (1+gtni) YLt-1,ni
QStni = AHtni YLtni
93
where AL AH YL PI
is livestock population, is number slaughtered, is livestock product yield per head, is price of intermediate (feed) inputs, and the rest of the variables are defined as in crops. Demand functions. Domestic demand for a commodity is the sum of its demand for food feed, and other industrial uses. Demand for food:
QFtni = tni (PStni)i (PDtnj)ij (INCtn)i POPtn

i_j
where
INCtn = INCt-1,ni (1+gtn)

POPtn = POPt-1,ni (1+gtn)
Demand for feed:
QLtni = tni (QStnl FRil) (PItni)i (PItnj)ij (1+FEtni)
il i_j
Demand for other uses:
QEtni = QEt-1,ni
Total demand:
(QFtni + QLtni) (QFt-1,ni + QLt-1,ni)
QDtni = QFtni + QLtni + QEtni

where QD QF QL QE PD INC POP FR FE PI is total demand, is demand for food, is derived demand for feed, is demand for other uses, is the effective consumer price, is per capita income, is total population, is feed ratio, is feed efficiency, is the effective intermediate (feed) price, l is commodity index specific for live stock, is income elasticity, are demand intercepts, and the rest of the variables are as defined earlier. Prices. Prices are determined by the interaction of demand and supply derived by the model. Domestic prices consist of world prices, expressed in the respective country or regional currencies, the effect of price policies, usually expressed in terms of the producer subsidy equivalent (PSE) and con94 IRRI program report for 1997
sumer subsidy equivalent (CSE), and the marketing margin (MI), which reflect other factors such as transport costs or product quality differences. PSE and CSE measure the implicit level of taxation or subsidy borne by producers and consumers relative to world prices. PSE, CSE, and MI are expressed as percentages of the world price. These primarily account for the wedge between the domestic and the world prices. Other policy instruments that explicitly shift demand and supply relationships, or limit trade, are also modeled. Intersectoral linkages. Despite its focus on agricultural commodities, relationships have been incorporated in IMPACT to link income growth in the agricultural and nonagricultural sectors via sectorial growth multipliers. These relationships, despite being rudimentary, provide the model a mechanism to translate the impact of developmental growth in one sector to the other. Growth in the nonagricultural sector, for example, is translated back to agriculture through its effect on production from improved delivery of necessary inputs, more rapid technology development, and increased investment in agriculture. As nonagricultural income increases, agricultural production responds directly to higher prices from strengthened demand, and indirectly from the effects of investments in capital, research, and development. On the other hand, agricultural income growth creates a feedback effect on the nonagricultural sector through increased demand for nonagricultural products and services. International linkage. The country or regional submodels are linked through trade. Commodity trade by country is the difference between domestic production and demand. Countries with positive trade are net exporters, while those with negative values are net importers. Stocks are not explicitly modeled because markets are assumed to be in equilibrium in the intermediate and longer time horizon. Commodity prices are determined when market clears i.e., when the sum of net trade across countries is equal to zero. The world price (PW) of a commodity is the equilibrating mechanism such that when an exogenous shock is introduced in the model, PW will adjust and each adjustment is passed back to the effective producer and consumer prices. Changes in domestic prices subsequently affect commodity supply and demand, necessitating their iterative readjustments until world supply and demand balances, and world net trade is again equal to zero.
BASELINE ASSUMPTIONS
Baseline projections describe the best assessment of future developments in world food situation based on the continuation of current conditions including price and market policies. In IMPACT, the baseline assumptions include those on population changes, growth in incomes, rate of urbanization and nonprice changes in area and yield. Rate of population increases is based on the medium variant projections of the United Nations. Gross domestic product growth assumptions, on the other hand, come primarily from the International Monetary Funds economic outlook reports. The rate of urbanization is closely related to population and income growth changes. This has significant effect on demand structures as it accelerates dietary transition from the basic staples to high-value products such as fruits, vegetables, processed foods, meat, and dairy products. Urbanization is not explicitly incorporated in IMPACT, however. Its effect is reflected in the assumptions on income and price elasticities that are adjusted in accordance with income growth. Table 12 shows the baseline assumptions for population and income growth. The assumptions regard-
ing income elasticities for rice for selected Asian countries are shown in Table 13. A fundamental assumption of the baseline projection is that the rates of public investments in agricultural research and infrastructure will continue at the prevailing level in the late 1980s and early 1990s. An accounting structure was developed incorporating sources of growth for area and yield that are independent of price effects. The sources of yield growth considered in the analysis are the projected contribution of public agricultural research, management research, conventional plant breeding,
Table 13. Income elasticity adjustmenta for rice in some Asian countries, 1993 and 2010. Country India Bangladesh Thailand Indonesia Philippines Malaysia Vietnam Myanmar China
a
1993 0.14 0.21 0.035 0.148 0.21 0.055 0.15 0.15 0.10
2010 0.045 0.078 -0.026 0.039 0.109 -0.017 0.040 0.025 0.005
Source: Parameters derived from IMPACT.
Table 12. Population and income growth (% yr-1) assumptions for baseline scenario. Income growth 1993-2020 1.6-2.2 2.8-3.7 3.2-4.5 3.2-4.6 5.50 5.00 4.50 5.00 6.50 7.00 6.50 5.00 5.00 4.00 4.00 6.00 5.00 1.20 4.90
Population growth Region/country 1993-95 Developed region 0.51 1995-2000 2000-2005 0.38 1.55 2.82 2.24 1.62 2.74 1.85 3.09 1.49 0.76 2.06 2.04 1.77 1.81 2.33 0.90 0.86 1.49 3.13 0.31 1.42 2.76 2.22 1.46 2.63 1.75 2.25 1.32 0.69 1.76 1.82 1.52 1.62 1.98 0.70 0.72 1.11 2.19 2005-2010 0.29 1.30 2.69 2.03 1.26 2.47 1.66 2.04 1.07 0.62 1.52 1.58 1.22 1.45 1.82 0.65 0.59 0.84 2.07 2010-2015 0.27 1.18 2.59 1.82 1.01 2.27 1.38 1.89 1.02 0.54 1.29 1.33 1.23 1.24 1.74 0.64 0.43 0.75 1.94 2015-2020 0.21 1.05 2.41 1.64 0.97 1.99 1.05 1.76 0.94 0.44 1.27 1.05 1.21 1.02 1.60 0.56 0.30 0.73 1.75
Latin America 1.71 Sub-Saharan Africa 2.89 West Asia and North Africa 2.42 India Pakistan Bangladesh Other South Asia Indonesia Thailand Malaysia Philippines Vietnam Myanmar Other Southeast Asia China South Korea Other East Asia Rest of the world 1.77 2.72 1.90 3.09 1.55 0.94 2.40 2.22 2.05 1.75 2.72 1.10 0.93 1.66 1.61
Sources: UN 1987; IMF, various issues of Economic Outlook Reports.
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wide crossing, and hybridization breeding, biotechnology (transgenic) breeding, private sector agricultural research and development, agricultural extension, markets, infrastructure, and irrigation. The effect of irrigation is incorporated in the area function through potential increases in cropping intensities and in the yield function through the addition of a yield differential variable (between irrigated and nonirrigated crops) that represents the improvement that will be realized with the conversion of farm areas into irrigated ecosystems. It should also be mentioned here that the model assumes a constant exchange rate throughout the projection period, thus failing to incorporate effects of possible currency devaluation. This will be considered as the model is revised and improved. Policy effects in IMPACT incorporate the preUruguay round trade regime. Proposed policy changes under the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade were not readily available for inclusion in a form applicable to the model.
THE ASIAN RICE MARKET IN THE BASELINE SCENARIO
Asian rice production is projected to increase by about 22% from the 1993 level of 327 million t (milled rice equivalent) to about 400 million t in 2010. Percentage rise in demand will be slightly
higher at 24%318 million t in 1993 to 395 million t in 2010 (Table 14). This is mainly due to population growth that will remain rapid until 2005 in many Asian developing countries. Asias rice exports will be lower by about 50% from the level in 1993. Yield increases will mainly account for future production growth. Southeast Asia will maintain its nearly quarter share of the regions total production and consumption. South Asia, however, will increase its respective share of both regional production and consumption from 32% in the early 1990s to 35% in 2010. This rise will be at the expense of East Asia, whose contribution to regional totals will be reduced. At the projected growth rate of 1.7% yr-1, India will gradually increase its exports from the 1993 level of about 720,000 t to close to 900,000 t in 2010. This will partly fill the import needs of other South Asian countries (primarily Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka). They are projected to widen their supply and demand gap from the combined effect of slower production growth as production resources become exhausted, while demand for the commodity will remain strong because of rapid increases in population and further rise in per capita rice demand. Pakistans rice exports will continue to rise but only marginally as resource constraints will also
Table 14. Projected rice supply, demand, and trade in Asia: baseline scenario. 1993 Country/region Area Yield (000 ha) (kg ha-1) South Asia 56,155 India 41,780 Pakistan 2,181 Bangladesh 9,967 Other South Asia 2,227 Southeast Asia 38,152 Indonesia 10,950 Thailand 8,872 Malaysia 668 Philippines 3,435 Vietnam 6,544 Myanmar 5,429 Other Southeast Asia 2,254 East Asia 35,190 China 30,872 Other East Asia 2,166 Japan 2,152 Asia 129,497 World 146,113 1,840 1,870 1,658 1,789 1,677 2,099 2,961 1,480 1,961 1,860 2,250 1,800 1,030 4,072 4,077 3,775 4,295 2,523 2,458 Production (000 t) 103,300 78,122 3,616 17,827 3,735 80,080 32,428 13,134 1,310 6,388 14,724 9,774 2,322 143,286 125,866 8,177 9,243 326,666 359,186 2010 Net Productrade Area Yield tion -1 (000 t) (000 ha) (kg ha ) (000 t) 1,614 57,371 720 42,499 1,282 2,345 94 10,191 294 2,337 6,519 39,341 359 11,365 5,489 8,921 635 678 157 3,540 1,928 6,605 398 5,868 145 2,362 109 3,4362 898 3,0571 437 1,725 352 2,066 8,242 131,073 1 151,753 2,402 2,435 2,198 2,324 2,360 2,614 3,509 1,721 2,394 2,577 2,903 2,398 1,526 4,617 4,671 4,110 4,249 3,047 2,972 137,832 103,475 5,155 23,687 5,516 102,830 39,879 15,352 1,623 9,122 19,177 14,072 3,604 158,657 142,788 7,090 8,778 399,320 451,065 Net Demand trade (000 t) (000 t) 137,193 102,576 3,755 24,388 6,475 94,947 41,654 8,400 2,661 9,267 16,993 12,391 3,580 163,050 143,690 9,801 9,557 395,189 451,065 639 899 1,400 702 959 7,884 1,775 6,953 1,038 145 2,185 1,681 23 4,392 902 2,711 779 4,129 0
Demand (000 t) 101,686 77,402 2,334 17,921 4,029 73,595 32,786 7,645 1,945 6,545 12,796 9,411 2,467 143,177 124,968 8,613 9,596 318,458 359,217
Sources: 1993 figures from FAO; 2010 figures are results of IMPACT.
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hamper more rapid increases in production while demand growth for the commodity will strengthen primarily from rapid population expansion. South Asias net exports will therefore be gradually reduced from the more than 1.6 million t in 1993 to 639,000 t in 2010. The rice situation in Southeast Asia will be characterized by 1) moderate production growth in Indonesia, Thailand, and Malaysia; 2) strong area growth in Myanmar, Indonesia, Cambodia, and Lao PDR; 3) strong yield growth in Vietnam, the Philippines, and Myanmar; 4) slow growth in demand in Malaysia and Thailand; and 5) modest demand growth elsewhere in the region. The last two effects are due to diversification of diets out of rice as a result of urbanization and strong growth in incomes that characterize many of these countries. As a result, the Southeast Asian export surplus in rice will only increase by about 21% from 6.5 million t in 1993 to about 7.9 million t in 2010. A large portion of the projected increases in exports will come from Myanmar where net surpluses will rise from a mere 0.3 million t in the base year to almost 1.7 million t in 2010. Production growth in Myanmar is expected to be 2.2% yr-1 and will come mostly from yield increases, with further expansion of area under the high-yielding varieties. Vietnams export surpluses will be maintained at around 2 million t over the period 1993 and 2010. Imports in Malaysia will rise by about 65% over the same period while Indonesias imports will more than quadruple. The Philippines will manage to maintain small import levels with projected production growth almost matching the growth in demand. Thailands rice export surpluses will primarily come from a rapid decline in demand growth compared with production growth. It will remain the biggest rice exporter in the world. China will continue to play a marginal role in rice trade, as it tries to adhere to its policy of selfsufficiency. It will continue to shift from a minimal net importer to a net exporter, or vice versa, depending on world market supply and prices. Most of Chinas rice exports are the japonica type, while its rice imports are primarily the high-quality indica rice, which also reflect the gradual shifts in consumer preferences for better quality rice. The Japanese rice import market will double from 359,000 t in 1993 to 779,000 t in 2010. Further expansion is expected as the government
adopts a more open market policy. This will also be the case in South Korea and Taiwan, which are included in the other East Asian group (Table 14). Rice imports in North Korea will further increase as production performance remains poor and rice demand strengthens. The baseline scenario results show that total calorie intake per capita in the region will increase from the average level of 2,553 kcal in 1993 to 2,794 kcal in 2010. The country variation will be large. In Bangladesh and other Southeast Asian countries, per capita calorie intake will rise from about 2,000 kcal in 1993 to about 2,200 kcal in 2010, while in the more advanced Asian economies per capita calorie intake will increase to more than 3,000 kcal. The 10% improvement in the regions total per capita calorie intake, however, will only lead to a small dent in terms of the reduction of malnourished children in the region. About 133 million children between the ages 0 and 5 will be considered malnourished in 20105% less than the number in 1993. Except for India, countries of South Asia will witness barely any improvements in their nutritional status.
THE SLOW ECONOMIC GROWTH SCENARIO
The baseline results are based on the assumption that current economic growth will be sustained through the projection period. The current financial crisis in Asia, however, seems to cast some doubts on this speculation. On the basis of this, an alternative scenario depicts a slower economic growth in some Asian countries. In this scenario, the baseline income growth assumption for Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia, Philippines, South Korea, and Japan are reduced from an average of 50% in the Philippines to about 80% in Thailand. The slower growth affects the agricultural sector through reduced investment allocation, which would hinder further expansion in irrigated areas and slow down research and extension activities, all of which would have direct effect on productivity growth. In this scenario, rice prices in 2010 would be about 5% higher than the results obtained in the baseline scenario for the same projected year (Fig. 7). This comes from modest expansion of trade as reduction in demand growth will be much smaller than those in production. The slight rise in rice prices will have a tremendous impact on the food
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Kcal capita 350
300
250
200
150
Original base price Slow growth price Base price
100
1993 1996 1999 2002 2005 2008 2011 2014 2017 2020
Year
7. Projected real world rice prices, baseline, slow economic growth, and original baseline scenarios. Source: IMPACT results.
Projected levels of kilocalories per capita in developing countries baseline and slow economic growth scenarios.
Kcal capita1 3000 2000 1000 0
1993
2000
2005
2010
2015
2020
security situation of the poorer economies. Figure 8 shows that the slow economic growth scenario will lead to smaller per capita calorie intake in developing regions. This reduction is estimated to result to about 152 million malnourished children in 2010. Asia will have much smaller net exports under this scenario compared with the baseline results (Table 15). Exports from Thailand will only be about 6.3 million t compared with the almost 7 million t projected under the baseline for the same period. The reduction will come from the combined effect of production growth slowdown, while demand growth will slightly strengthen. Indonesia will have also slightly more rice imports as the expected production increases from further irrigation expansion is curtailed because of further cuts in investment. The same trend is projected for the Philippines. In Malaysia, projected imports will be smaller as production growth will be maintained while demand growth will be slow. Vietnam and Myanmar will fill the subregions excess demand for rice. South Asias net trade position will barely be affected. Indias lower exports will be balanced by smaller imports from Bangladesh and other South Asian countries. East Asias imports will remain the largest as Japan, South Korea, and other East Asian countries experience further reduction in production combined with strong demand growth. The rise in prices as a result of the tight market does not seem to stimulate a strong positive response from China. Under this scenario, China is projected to further increase its imports in 2010. Microcredit for improving livelihood of lowincome households through female members: evaluation of a Philippine experiment Providing credit and organizational support to the poor has been a key element of the nongovernment organizations approach to alleviation of poverty and improving livelihood in many developing countries. The Grameen Bank in Bangladesh developed a successful model of providing credit to resourcepoor households that are generally bypassed by financial institutions. The fundamental features of the Grameen Bank model are 1) an organizational structure that ensures that clients belong to the bottom half of the socioeconomic hierarchy, 2) a credit system that is designed to be simple and adaptable
Baseline scenario
Slow economic growth scenario
Projected number of malnourished children (0 to 5 yr of age) in developing countries, baseline and slow economic growth scenarios.
Number (millions) 200 150 100 50 0

Baseline 1993 Slow growth scenario Original baseline 2010 2020
8. Projected levels of kilocalories capita-1 and projected number of malnourished children (0-5 yr age) in developing countries for baseline and slow economic growth scenarios. Source: IMPACT results.
98 IRRI program report for 1997
Table 15. Comparison of baseline and slow economic growth projections for rice in Asia (area in 000 ha, yield in kg ha-1, production, demand and net trade in 000 t). Baseline Growth rates 1993-2010 Demand (000 t) 137,193 102,576 3,755 24,388 6,475 94,947 41,654 8,400 2,661 9,267 16,993 12,391 3,580 7,884 -1,775 6,953 -1,038 -145 2,185 1,681 23 1.48 1.22 0.92 1.27 2.12 1.57 2.17 2.62 1.51 1.42 0.56 1.86 2.07 1.68 1.63 2.21 39,577 11,426 8,989 686 3,563 6,638 5,897 2,380 2,533 3,336 1,652 2,366 2,419 2,898 2,401 1,528 100,234 38,117 14,846 1,623 8,618 19,237 14,157 3,637 639 899 1,400 -702 -959 1.71 1.67 2.11 1.69 2.32 1.78 1.67 2.84 1.83 2.83 57,672 42,710 2,352 10,252 2,359 2,366 2,391 2,185 2,307 2,347 136,457 102,132 5,138 23,651 5,536 Net trade (000 t) Production Area Demand (000 ha-1) Yield (kg ha-1) Production Demand (000 t) (000 t) 135,891 101,670 3,729 24,139 6,353 92,771 40,060 8,499 2,614 8,862 16,893 12,305 3,538 Slow economic growth
Country/region
Area Yield (000 ha) (kg ha-1)
Production (000 t)
Growth rates Net 1993-2010 trade (000 t) Production Demand 566 462 1,409 -488 -817 7,463 -1,944 6,347 -991 -244 2,344 1,853 99 1.65 1.59 2.09 1.68 2.34 1.33 0.96 0.72 1.27 1.78 1.59 2.20 2.67 1.72 1.62 2.79 1.77 2.72 1.37 1.19 0.62 1.75 1.80 1.65 1.59 2.14
South Asia 57,371 India 42,499 Pakistan 2,345 Bangladesh 10,191 Other South Asia 2,337
2,402 2,435 2,198 2,324 2,360
137,832 103,475 5,155 23,687 5,516
Southeast Asia 39,341 Indonesia 11,365 Thailand 8,921 Malaysia 678 Philippines 3,540 Vietnam 6,605 Myanmar 5,868 Other Southeast 2,362 Asia 163,050 143,690 9,801 9,557 395,189 4,129 1.19 -779 -0.30 -4,392 -902 -2,711 0.60 0.74 -0.84 0.77 0.82 0.76 -0.02 1.28 34,495 30,692 1,736 2,067 131,746 4,549 4,597 4,056 4,250 2,988
2,614 3,509 1,721 2,394 2,577 2,903 2,398 1,526
102,830 39,879 15,352 1,623 9,122 19,177 14,072 3,604
East Asia China Other East Asia 8,778
34,362 30,571 1,725
4,617 4,671 4,110
158,657 142,788 7,090
156,922 141,096 7,041 8,785 393,613
161,920 142,453 9,857 9,610 390,582
-4,999 -1,357 -2,816 -825 3,031
0.54 0.67 -0.88 -0.30 1.10
0.73 0.77 0.80 0.01 1.21
Japan
2,066
4,641
Asia
13,1073
3,047
399,320
Source: IMPACT results.
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to cater to the needs of the clients, 3) a built-in savings mobilization component that enhances self-reliance and provides cover against business risks and natural calamities, and 4) a self-empowerment mechanism that provides women an opportunity to assert themselves. The Center for Agriculture and Rural Development (CARD) implemented a Grameen Bank-like model, the Landless Peoples Development Fund (LPDF) in the Philippines in 1986. The elements of the CARD bank are: q Its target clientele is women from low-income households. q Bank services are taken to the village in place of the normal practice of asking people to come to the bank for credit. q It organizes prospective borrowers into groups of five like-minded persons with a number of groups (5-8) federated into a center. The center holds a meeting on a fixed day of the week. The meeting is attended by the field staff of CARD to conduct credit business. q Group solidarity and peer pressure are used to oversee proper use of the credit. They serve as a substitute for the collateral taken in normal credit programs. Group members take responsibility for repaying the loan of a defaulting member. Members are given training to ensure strict credit discipline. q Credit is given in small sizes with progressively higher amounts for repeat loans as members gain confidence. The loan is repaid within a year, in weekly installments of 2% of the loan amount, so that the repayment does not constitute a burden on the borrowing household. q Collective funds are developed with compulsory weekly savings of the members, and 5% of the loan amount deducted up front, for mutual benefit of the members. q Credit is used as an entry point for social development of members with active involvement of the field staff. The CARD staff work as facilitators in weekly meetings of the centers, which not only conduct credit business but also discuss social issues faced by members. By March 1997, CARD had organized nearly 10,000 women into groups and centers. The loans = = disbursed reached P82.3 million, of which P62.4 million had already been recovered. The savings ac-
cumulated in CARD had grown to P11.05 million. The experience of CARD was evaluated to analyze the impact of microcredit on employment generation and improvement in the level of living of the borrower households.
SOURCES OF DATA
The economic impact was assessed by comparing the old and new borrowers. The intensity of poverty was considered for selecting the branches from which to draw the sample respondents. The Masbate and Laguna areas were selected for generating primary information on borrowers. Laguna represented older branches and an economically betteroff area. Masbate represented newer branches and an economically depressed area. Primary data were collected from 133 member households belonging to six centers and four branches of CARD. The survey was conducted from February to April 1997. The questionnaire contained information on credit history of the borrowers, their socioeconomic background and asset holding, costs and returns on enterprises financed with the loan, employment and incomes generated from CARD-financed and other economic activities of the household. The major differences between CARD and the Grameen model are in selecting the target group, organization of the training program, and in operation of the collective funds. CARD provides more intensive training on project management and credit disciplines to prospective borrowers. The Grameen Bank uses land ownership (up to 0.2 ha) as the main criterion for selecting the target group. CARD identifies its target group on the basis of housing and = marketable assets (up to P25,000) determined on the basis of means tests on prospective members. Grameen collective funds are managed by a group while those in CARD are managed by a center. A mutual fund is developed in CARD to provide insurance against accidents, limited old age pensions, and supporting burial expenses.
PROGRESS OF OPERATIONS
CARD had organized nearly 10,000 members in 259 centers under 13 branches by early 1997. About 20% of members dropped out. Loans disbursed = = reached P82.3 million, of which P62.4 million were
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recovered. Loans outstanding with borrowers were = P1.94 million. The savings accumulated in the = Center fund grew to P11.05 million, about 55% of the loans outstanding. Most of CARDs expansion took place over the last 3 yr after it received a soft loan from the Grameen Trust. The number of outstanding loans = = increased from P2.3 million in 1993 to P19.9 million by April 1997. Four of the old branches now disburse more than = million yr-1 to more than 800 P6 active members. Three alternative measures of the return from investment were estimated: a) net household income, I; b) net income per unit of labor, i.e., labor productivity, RL; and c) rate of return on capital, Rk. These were estimated as follows: I = Y rk L RL = I/N Rk = (Y wN)/K (1) (2) (3)
Table 16. Estimate from an IRRI field survey of the rate of return on labor and capital by number of CARD loans taken by the borrower. IRRI, 1997. Loans taken (no.) Item 2 or less Cases (no.) 50 Gross income 13,382 = (P yr-1) = Total capital (P) 2,138 Equity capital 498 Borrowed 1,640 capital = CARD loan (P) 1,640 Employment (d yr-1) 176 Wife 127 Husband 28 Other members 21 Household 10,837 = income (P yr-1) Labor productivity 62 = (P d-1) Capital productivity 135 (%) 3 to 4 49 38,307 7,508 2671 4,837 4,449 275 192 68 15 30,855 112 117 5 or more 34 60,341 12,691 3309 9,382 10,500 366 219 83 64 44,764 122 144 All borrowers 133 34,550 6,814 2,017 4,797 4,940 247 163 56 28 26,884 109 117
where Y = annual gross household income from the activity, N = number of standard 8-h days of employment in the activity for all household members, L = the amount of financial loan obtained from CARD, K = own and borrowed capital used in the enterprise, r = the rate of interest on the loan (40% yr-1), and w = wage rate or the opportunity cost of = labor (P80 d-1). Net income of the household (I) would be the most appropriate measure of the return on microcredit, if labor employed in the activity would have remained idle in the absence of the access to credit. At the other end, I-WN is the most appropriate measure of net income, if all the labor employed in the microcredit-financed enterprises could be alternatively employed in agriculture or other economic activities at the market wage rate. The actual position is somewhere within that range, depending on the economic situation in the locality. For that reason, the net return per labor was estimated to compare it with the opportunity cost of labor and make a judgment about the desirability of the investment.
The rate of return on capital would be the most appropriate indicator for the viability of investment with microcredit if the entrepreneur runs the activity with hired labor (a capitalist enterprise). But the groups run the activities mostly with family labor, thus the rate of return on capital was not used. Estimates of the returns from microcredit for the sample respondents are in Table 16. Nearly 97% of the loan was invested in the enterprise, which generated 163 d employment yr-1 for the CARD member, and another 84 d for other household members, = generating a yearly gross income of P34,550. The contribution of the credit-financed activity to net = household income is estimated at P26,884 yr-1. The -1, about 36% higher = labor productivity is P109 d than the wage rate prevailing in the market. The rate of return on investment is estimated at 117%, which is substantially higher than the effective rate of interest (46%) charged by CARD. Thus, the enterprise financed with microcredit was financially viable. The financial viability of the enterprises became stronger with longer association of the members with CARD. The labor productivity in enterprises = run by the new borrowers (P62 d-1) was lower than the wage rate, and the rate of return on capital was
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negative when the cost of family labor is imputed by the market wage rate. Borrowers who received more than two loans had substantially higher levels of income and employment from the CARD-financed activity. The rate of return on capital was 117% for borrowers who had taken 3-4 loans, and 144% for those with more than 4 loans.
CAPITAL ACCUMULATION
The investment for improvement in housing did not increase much with larger loans for borrowers, who contracted up to four loans. However, longtime borrowers were inclined to invest substantially higher amounts for housing improvements.
EMPLOYMENT GENERATION
The most direct effect of the microcredit is on accumulation of capital, both working and fixed. As the loan is repaid in small installments every week, it is easy for a borrower to pay the installment from income and leave the capital intact. A borrower is expected to have a larger amount of capital when taking a repeat loan than at the time of becoming a member. Thus, it is possible for the borrower to divert some credit or incremental income for making medium- and long-term investments. The accumulation of these assets contributes to increasing productivity of enterprises other than those financed with the microcredit. Because the borrower gets a larger amount with every repeat loan, the borrowed capital was higher for longtime borrowers compared with the newer ones (Table 17). More significant was the contribution from own sources, which was also substantially higher for the older borrowers. The value of livestock holding and the accumulation of capital in machinery, tools, and equipment went up substantially as the number of loans taken from CARD increased. The difference was highly statistically significant, except for the value of livestock holding.
Respondents were asked to report, for each family worker, number of months employed during the year, number of days employed in a month, and number of hours employed in a day, for both creditfinanced and other economic activities. From this somewhat imprecise information, standard 8-h d of employment were estimated for different members of the household. The results showed significant increase in employment for both wife and husband in the credit-financed activity (Table 18). The increase in employment for the wife in other economic activities was only marginal, and statistically insignificant and employment effect for the husband was negative. It seems that the husband in poor households is forced to overwork in low-productive activities under the pressure to earn a subsistence income. With additional income earned by the wife from the credit-financed activity, he can afford to enjoy some leisure. This is the classic example of the backward bending supply curve of labor mentioned in economics literature.
EFFECT ON HOUSEHOLD INCOMES
The positive effect of higher employment and capital accumulated is reflected in higher incomes. The
Table 17. Effect of LPDF operations on investment and fixed assets. IRRI, 1997. Loans taken (no.) Item 2 or less Investment in CARDfinanced activity Own capital Borrowed capital Value of livestock holding Value of machinery, tools, and equipment Value of housing
a
= Differencea (P) 5 or more 3 to 4 over 2 or less 5 or more over 2 or less
3 to 4
498 1,640 7,945 943 30,250
2,671 4,837 9,526 7,796 32,562
3,309 9,382 10,409 14,682 57,863
2,173* (1.81) 3,197** (6.14) 1,581 (0.65) 6,853** (2.10) 2,312 (0.22)
2,811** (3.27) 7,742** (6.31) 2,464 (0.70) 13,793** (3.03) 27,613** (2.09)
Figures in parentheses are estimated t values of the difference in means.
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Table 18. The effect of LPDF operations on employmenta of CARD borrower and spouse, 1997. Working member of the household 2 or less LDPF activity (d yr-1) Wife Husband Other activities (d yr ) Wife Husband
a
Loans taken (no.) 3 to 4 5 or more 3 to 4
Differenceb 5 or more over 2 or less
117 28
-1
184 67
201 81
67** (2.01) 39* (1.77) 37 (1.25) 8 (0.28)
84** (2.20) 53** (2.16) 40 (1.23) -63* (1.89)
98 308
135 316
138 245
Many respondents reported working more than 8 h d-1. bFigures parentheses are estimated t values.
Table 19. The effect of LPDF loan on income: regression estimates. Explanatory variable Members labor Spouses labor Other members labor Own capital Borrowed capital Education of member Education of spouse Age of the member Constant term R2 F value Regression coefficient 86.6 58.1 0.1 2.39 3.03 810 725 125 5772 0.61 20.9
t value 4.06** 1.83* 0.02 4.26** 4.16** 0.67 0.55 0.37 0.29
= = was P87 d-1 for the CARD member and P58 d-1 for the spouse. The level of education had a positive effect on income only for the spouse, but the impact is not statistically significant. The older members earned higher incomes (the effect of experience) but the association was not statistically significant. The positive impact of credit on income is shown by the statistically significant regression coefficient of borrowed capital. The value of the coefficient = suggest that P1 of a CARD loan generated a gross = income of P3.03, a rate of return of more than 200%. The results of the econometric analysis confirm the conclusion that the microcredit provided by CARD has had a positive impact on income of the borrowing households.
FACTORS BEHIND THE SUCCESS OF THE MICROCREDIT MODEL
annual income from loan-financed activity was 1.9 times higher for households who already contracted three to four loans, and 3.5 times higher for older borrowers compared with new borrowers. There was also a significant increase in income from other economic activities with the increase in the number of loans. The impact of microcredit on income was analyzed by fitting a multiple regression model on determinants of income and included loan taken from CARD as one of the explanatory variables (Table 19). Nearly 61% of the variation in income from the credit-financed activity among the respondents is explained by the investment of owned and borrowed capital, and labor provided by the CARD member and the spouse. The value of the regression coefficients indicate that the marginal productivity of labor in the credit-financed activity
The findings from the CARD study amply demonstrate that if the microcredit is properly used, the financial viability of the enterprise poses no problem. The challenge is how to ensure proper use of the loan and recovering the credit from the additional income accruing to the borrowers. The key to the success of the Grameen model is the orientation, approach, and human qualities inculcated in the bank workers through a training program based largely on learning by doing. The bank worker in turn motivates the group, earns their confidence through the hard work devoted to their service, and convinces them of the need to follow credit discipline.
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Asian Rice Biotechnology Network

During 1992, IRRI applied to the Asian Development Bank (ADB) and the German Federal Ministry for Cooperation and Development (BMZ) for financial support for an Asian Rice Biotechnology Network (ARBN). Both agencies agreed to provide funding for an initial period of 3 yr. Both the ARBN Training and Shuttle Research Laboratory and the Transgenic Greenhouse opened in 1994. In 1995, ADB approved a further period of funding for 199697 and BMZ approved funding for 1996-98. Both agencies are currently considering proposals for a third phase of funding. ARBN achievements 1996-97 Emphasis on bacterial blight (BB) and blast continued during 1996-97 but was supplemented by research on tungro virus and gall midge. Several products from earlier research moved out of the laboratory at IRRI and were taken up by NARS institutes under ADB funding. Among these products were the rice lines in which as many as four genes for BB resistance and three genes for blast resistance had been pyramided. The Xa21 gene for BB resistance was transferred to IR72 by microprojectile bombardment.
TRANSGENIC IR72 WITH XA21 FOR BB RESISTANCE
pC822, donor line IRBB21, T0 transgenic plant, and from 15 out of 20 T1 plants of transgenic line T103. This corresponds to a single-locus insertion in the rice genome of the primary transgenic line which segregated into a 3:1 ratio. The reaction of the transgenic T1 and T2 plants to the BB pathogen was evaluated by inoculation with race 6 of Xoo. Among 15 T1 plants positive for both polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and Southern analysis, 13 were resistant and 2 (T103-2 and T10319) were susceptible. The lesion lengths of the 13 T1 resistant plants and donor line IRBB21 were less than 3.1 cm (Table 20). On the other hand, the lesion length of nontransformed IR72 and IR24 were respectively 13.3 and 20.3 cm. These results indicate that the transgene Xa21 functioned well in most of the transgenic T1 plants. IR72 has the endogenous BB resistance gene, Xa4, which is highly resistant to races 1 and 5 but only moderately resistant to race 4 of Xoo. However, resistant T1 plants inoculated with race 4 of Xoo all showed much shorter lesions than those of control plants of IR72 and resistant donor line IRBB21. This means an increased level of resistance to the BB pathogen.
Table 20. Reaction of control and transgenic IR72 plants with Xa21 to races 4 and 6 of Xoo. IRRI, 1997. Control or transgenic plant IRBB21 (control) IR24 (control) IR72 (control) T103-1 T103-2 T103-3 T103-4 T103-5 T103-6 T103-7 T103-8 T103-9 T103-10 T103-11 T103-12 T103-13 T103-14 T103-15 T103-16 T103-17 T103-18 T103-19 T103-20 Reaction to race 4 Reaction to race 6 (lesion length (lesion length in cm) in cm) R S R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R 2.3 19.6 3.1 4.8 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.7 3.8 0.9 0.7 0.4 0.7 0.5 0.9 0.6 0.4 3.7 4.5 3.4 2.4 0.7 0.30 2.85 0.65 1.89 0.26 0.19 0.23 0.13 0.23 1.38 0.41 0.21 0.11 0.25 0.08 0.14 0.22 0.12 0.65 1.46 1.15 0.87 0.28 R S S S MS R R R R S R R R R R R R R S S S S R 2.5 20.3 13.3 12.1 6.3 2.3 2.7 1.9 2.1 14.6 1.9 2.4 1.0 2.9 2.0 1.9 1.9 1.0 13.7 13.2 12.0 12.8 3.1 0.70 2.86 0.94 0.72 1.71 0.87 1.43 0.44 0.98 1.95 0.50 0.22 0.40 1.02 0.62 1.38 1.57 0.52 2.68 0.71 2.68 2.63 0.61
A cloned Xa21 that confers resistance to all known races of Xoo in India and the Philippines was introduced into the genome of IR72 using biolistic method. A total of 18 putative transgenic (T0) plants were regenerated. Out of 15 plants analyzed by Southern blot, 8 were transgenic and these were found to be regenerated from the same transformed callus based on their identical banding patterns. The presence of a 3.8-Kb EcoRV-digested DNA fragment corresponding to the most part of the Xa21coding region and its complete intron sequence in the T0 plants indicated the integration of Xa21 in the genome of IR72. Besides this expected band, several endogenous hybridizing bands with high molecular weight were also detected. The inheritance of the cloned Xa21 from T0 to the next (T1) generation was confirmed by Southern blot analysis. The expected size of 3.8-Kb EcoRVdigested DNA fragment was detected from cloned
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Table 21. Quantitative trait loci identified by interval analysis for K and Na absorption and Na-K ratio in the shoot. The chromosomal location of each locus is indicated, along with the LOD score determined by the Mapmaker program. Higher LOD scores correspond to greater contribution to overall variance of the trait. IRRI, 1997. Index K absorption 195-209 206-200 3 93 Na absorption 195-209 39-188 88-67 27-25 Na-K ratio 195-209 207-65 3 93 Marker interval Chromosome LOD
P3/M9-8 Saltol RG375 - P4/M3-2 P1/M1-3 - P2/M1-3
1 4 12
17.2 5.3 3.4 14.5 3.2 3.0 4.0 14.5 3.6 3.1
P3/M9-8 - Saltol 1 P1/M5-3 - P3/M9-1 3 P1/M10-6 - P1/M7-10 3 P1/M3-10 - P1/M3-8 10 P3/M9-8 Saltol G291 - P1/M7-8 P1/M1-3 - P2/M1-3 1 10 12
IR29. Because of the strong interaction between the salinity tolerance trait and environmental factors, the phenotyping was done in highly controlled conditions in the IRRI phytotron. A major gene governing tolerance for leaf whitening under salt stress was mapped to chromosome 1. Quantitative trait loci governing K+ uptake, Na+ uptake, and the shoot NaK ratio were mapped to five chromosomes. By far the most important gene for all three quantitative traits was located on chromosome 1 (Table 21), at, or close to, the major gene for yellow response to salt. The gene for the high-affinity Na +-K + symporter (hkt1) of rice was cloned and mapped to chromosome 6. Although the protein encoded by this gene appears to be a port of entry for Na+ into the plant, genetic differences in hkt1 between Pokkali and IR29 are not responsible for the difference in salinity tolerance between the two genotypes.
All 120 plants of four resistant T1 progeny-derived T2 lines showed identical resistance reaction to both inoculated races of BB pathogen, indicating that the plants are homozygous to the transgene. Increased level of resistance compared with the nontransformed IR72 control plants to race 4 of BB pathogen observed in T1 plants was likewise observed in the four T2 homozygous lines. Work with other cultivars is in progress.
BT RICE

Biotechnology tools for rice breeding
q
Stem borer resistance has been enhanced in several rice cultivars through the use of synthetic versions of genes isolated from the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). The genes include cryIA(b) and cryIA(c), both known to encode proteins toxic to lepidopteran insects such as stem borers. The promoters controlling these genes were the CaMV35S promoter (active in many cell types throughout the plant), the maize C4 PEP carboxylase promoter (active in photosynthetic tissues), and a pith-specific promoter. Evaluation of these genes when used singly or in combination is currently under way.
DNA MARKERS FOR SALINITY TOLERANCE
The genes governing salinity tolerance in Pokkali were mapped through the use of a population of F8 recombinant inbred lines derived from a cross between Pokkali and the salinity-sensitive cultivar
Pyramided four BB resistance genes (Xa4, xa5, xa13, Xa21) into elite rice genotypes by marker-aided selection. Transferred BB resistance genes xa5 and xa13 to three new plant type lines via marker-aided backcrossing. Fine-mapped xa5 and xa13 on chromosomes 5 and 8, respectively, to identify RFLP markers suitable for conversion to sequencetagged site markers. Assembled physical maps for xa5, xa13, and cytoplasmic male fertility restorer gene Rf2. Tagged thermosensitive male sterility gene Tms3. Developed PCR-based markers for xa5, xa13, and Rf3. Phenotyped BC 1 F 2 and F 3 lines for blast resistance and inheritance studies. Screened 4,500 rice mutants generated by fast neutron and chemical mutagenesis for mutations in genes involved in broad-spectrum resistance; recovered disease-susceptible mutants at ~0.2% frequency, including one class of mutants containing deletions at the Xa21 locus.
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Demonstrated tissue-specific methylation patterns associated with silencing of transgenes and certain endogenous genes in rice. Developed transgenic rice IR72 with Xa21 conferring resistance to BB. Enhanced submergence tolerance in rice by overproducing alcohol dehydrogenase and pyruvate decarboxylase (with CSIRO and Purdue University).
Assessing opportunities for nitrogen fixation in rice

q
Exploiting biodiversity for sustainable pest management

q
q q
Developed a genome-scanning technique to efficiently identify disease resistance genes in rice, fingerprint varieties for resistance genes, and facilitate cloning of resistance genes. Optimized PCR-based DNA fingerprinting technique to monitor changes in pathogen populations in response to deployed resistance genes. Established molecular methods to distinguish among strains of rice tungro viruses differing in virulence. Cloned two biological variants of RTBV. Completed optimization of artificial diet bioassays for evaluation of Bt toxins against stem borers; this should permit more accurate ranking of toxin efficacy. Completed small-scale experiments of stem borer larval dispersal among plants, and one experiment of adult dispersal among fields, to evaluate sustainable deployment strategies for Bt rice. Determined that many of the Xanthomonas species isolated from rice seed are not pathogenic. Catalogued diversity of seed-associated bacteria by DNA fingerprinting. Determined that the rate of sheath blight expansion is lower in direct-seeded as compared with transplanted rice, despite a less aggregated distribution of disease and a higher frequency of contact among leaves. Established lighthouse sites in China, Vietnam, and the Philippines to train NARS scientists in biodiversity-based pest management research, and set research objectives appropriate for each site and team of scientists.
Marked selected endophytes with reporter genes to monitor their invasion. Observed that rice seeds of some varieties seem to harbor diazotrophs. Determined maximum N uptake rates under field conditions with frequent plant sampling and found them to be an order of magnitude greater than previously measured. Developed mathematical models that describe the transport, transformations, and losses of N fertilizer applied to ricefields and of the uptake of soil and fertilizer N. These showed that broadcast fertilizer N is absorbed rapidly by roots at or near the soil surface if timed to match demand, but soil N and deep-placed fertilizer N are absorbed less efficiently. Quantified the kinetics of ammonium absorption and assimilation by rice roots and their regulation by the plant. There is a large inherent plasticity in the plants capacity for absorption with very high fluxes being realized only under certain N-limiting conditions, indicating potential for increasing the efficiency of N acquisition by adjusting the regulatory mechanisms. Measured Rubisco, chlorophyll, and total N contents of top three leaves during grain filling in the 1997 DS. The data will be analyzed to determine the contribution of the top three leaves to grain filling. Found out that intracellular colonization by rhizobia seem to provoke defense response in rice leading to the degradation of the colonized rice root cell as well as rhizobia. Studied the sclerenchymatous layer, consisting of tightly packed thick-walled fibers, and inferred that it may be a barrier for rhizobial invasion into deeper layers of root cortex beyond this layer. Determined that the inability of rice root hairs to respond to application of purified Nod factors may be due to the absence of the Nod factor receptor and/or the deficiency of some other key element(s) of Nod factor signal transduction pathway in these cells. Constructed vectors containing GS50chimeric gene (lectin receptor gene from soybean) and hpt gene.
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Rice research priorities in different agroecological zones and ecosystems

q
Studied perceptions of extension personnel from 30 selected townships in Myanmar regarding the frequency of occurrence and yield losses due to insect pests, diseases, and environment/climatic stresses, and the socioeconomic constraints to rice production. The reported yield losses due to insects is estimated a 420 kg ha-1 and due to diseases, at 494 kg ha-1. The major insect pests reported are caseworms, stem borers, and rice hispa, and the major diseases are bacterial leaf blight, sheath blight, and blast, in the order of importance. Lack of availability and high cost of chemical fertilizers are mentioned as the major constraints to increased rice yields. Conducted a survey of 279 farmers from three districts in Sri Lanka to estimate yield losses from various insect pests, diseases, and weeds. The total yield loss is estimated at 920 kg ha-1, about one-third of the current yield. The major pests are weeds, thrips, leaffolders, and brown planthoppers, which account for 90% of the yield loss. Gall midge is no longer reported as a major constraint because of the development and use of resistant varieties. With rapid increase in wage rates and the cost of manual weeding, farmers are concerned about yield losses that can be attributed to weeds, estimated at 650 kg ha-1. Compiled data on yield losses from a survey of 700 fields from six sites in South and Southeast Asia with joint efforts of NARS, ORSTOM, and IRRI. Results of data analysis show that clusters of production situations and clusters of injury profiles are common across sites of the region. Completed a survey of rice research capacity of NARS for eastern India, Bangladesh, Thailand, Philippines, and Vietnam by interviewing scientists engaged in rice research through a structured questionnaire. Data analysis is in progress.
Program outlook
This year's report marks the termination of the project on Assessing the potential of rice germplasm and the integration of ARBN into the biotechnology
project as a special activity. While changes in the portfolio of projects are inevitable for the next Medium-term Plan (1998-2000), many of the research activities initiated in the current plan will only start to have impact then. The cross-ecosystems program will continue to have a strong project to apply biotechnology for rice improvement. In the near future it is hoped that, in the near future, biosafety issues will not prevent NARS partners from field testing transgenic rice plants developed cooperatively with the new tools introduced during the 1994-97 period. It is expected that, subject to clarification of issues on intellectual property protection, marker-assisted breeding will lead to several rice lines being released in 1998 as breeding material for use by NARS programs. This program, more than any other, is affected by the need to work closer with the private sector on genetic engineering. In 1998, ARBN member institution research and IRRI research will see improved harmonization through several planned in-country workshops. Another 1998 project will build on research to be done in the five key sites established in four countries, to develop strategies for using biodiversity in pest management. It is anticipated that five sites will be fully operational in terms of interdisciplinary teams trained in doing biodiversity research. Nitrogen fixation research will continue at IRRI and in many laboratories of members of the international working group. The transfer of a nodulation gene to rice is expected in the near future. Work to determine the ex-post effects of technology on equity, gender considerations, poverty, and sustainability of the natural resource base will be strengthened in 1998 through partnerships with selected NARS. The ecoregional approach will be expanded to more sites and an intensification of work done by sets of collaborating institutions on land diversification and water issues is expected. Results of multiple-goal optimization studies to explore land options at four sites are also expected to point to potential solutions for regional level mitigation of natural resource management issues. A new project, Rice a way of life for next generation of rice farmers, will be implemented in 1998. A systems approach will be used to determine existing inefficiencies in the rice commodity chain and interventions will be researched to develop knowledge and decision-support systems to overcome the inefficiencies.
Cross-ecosystems research 107
International Programs
Germplasm conservation 109
International programs Germplasm conservation, dissemination, and evaluation
CONSERVATION OF RICE GENETIC RESOURCES 112 Germplasm and information exchange 112 Genebank management 112 Germplasm characterization 113 Data management 113 Training 113 INTERNATIONAL NETWORK FOR GENETIC EVALUATION OF RICE (INGER) 113 Promising entries from 1996 INGER nurseries 113 Utilization of 1996 nursery entries 115 Germplasm exchange through 1997 nurseries 115 DYNAMIC SYSTEMS OF GENETIC CONSERVATION 115 Study site selection in India 115 Rice genetic diversity in the Cagayan Valley, Philippines 115 Genetic diversity in a rainfed lowland ecosystem, central Vietnam 116 CONSERVATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF BIOFERTILIZER GERMPLASM 117 PROGRAM OUTLOOK 117
Germplasm conservation, dissemination, and evaluation
The Genetic Resources Center (GRC) contributes to IRRIs goal by ensuring the long-term survival of the rice genepool and making elite germplasm available to rice breeders throughout the world. Conservation of rice genetic resources
GERMPLASM AND INFORMATION EXCHANGE
The rice germplasm collection in the International Rice Genebank (IRG) continued to grow as a result of collecting by national agricultural research systems (NARS) and GRC scientists. Collection was sponsored by the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC). GRC staff members were active in the Philippines, Cambodia, and the Lao PDR. In Cambodia, about 80 accessions of wild rice species Oryza nivara and O. rufipogon, and intermediate types between those species and weedy rices, were collected. NARS scientists, assisted by GRC scientists at some sites, collected more than 3,900 samples of O. sativa and 387 samples of different wild species from 11 Asian countries and 10 countries in subSaharan Africa. Collecting activities were initiated in Costa Rica and samples of O. alta and O. latifolia collected in several national parks. The Costa Rican collecting program is run by the Center for Cell and Molecular Biology, University of Costa Rica, in conjunction with the National Biodiversity Institute (INBio). The IRG received more than 6,400 samples of O. sativa and 430 samples of wild rices from 14 countries, including 12 countries where collecting activities were sponsored by the SDC.
The demand for rice germplasm, both external and internal, declined relative to previous years. More than 4,200 samples were distributed in response to 124 foreign and local (within IRRI) requests. There was an increased demand from rice researchers outside the Philippines for wild rice germplasm. Information about conserved germplasm accessions was supplied in response to 63 requests from six countries.
GENEBANK MANAGEMENT
Germplasm multiplication and rejuvenation activities encompassed 4,231 O. sativa samples, 356 O. glaberrima samples, and 432 samples of the various wild species. These samples represented newly acquired germplasm, and old seed stocks for rejuvenation. Germplasm samples with few seeds, or known to be difficult to grow, were multiplied in GRCs screenhouse facility. All other samples were grown in IRRI fields during the 1996-97 dry season. More than 4,600 accessions were added to the Base Collection during 1997, and a further 2,113 samples were selected for rejuvenation because of few seeds or viability lower than 80%. The seed viability of about 7,000 newly harvested samples was tested and the viability of about 2,000 accessions in the Active Collection was monitored. Collaboration with the School of Biological Sciences, University of Birmingham, UK, continued to provide molecular data to support management of the collection. Amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) maps were produced for three segregating rice populations, and statistical associations were established between AFLP markers and per-
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formance for quantitative traits in diverse germplasm.

GERMPLASM CHARACTERIZATION
Information systems in Microsoft Access 7 were developed for the management of rice germplasm collections in Bangladesh, Cambodia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, and Myanmar.
TRAINING
Characterization of germplasm accessions in IRRI fields continued during 1997 wet season. Characterization for vegetative and reproductive characters was completed for almost 1,000 samples of O. sativa and O. glaberrima, as well as the postharvest characterization (principally panicle and grain characters) of 1,800 accessions that had been grown during the 1996 wet season. Complete morphological characterization of 154 accessions of several wild rices was completed.
DATA MANAGEMENT
Principal developments in data management during 1997 were the implementation of a Windows version of the International Rice Genebank Collection Information System (IRGCIS), and the official launch on the World Wide Web of the Systemwide Information Network for Genetic Resources (SINGER), in which IRRI played a key role. The IRGCIS was converted from the DEC VAX/ VMS system to a Windows NT-Oracle 7 environment and deployed on a dedicated server. IRG staff members were connected to this system through a local area network, and the different modules are used routinely to support genebank management. The system was made available, based on need, to all IRRI scientists. The development of SINGER was a major initiative of the Systemwide Genetic Resources Program. Data from the IRGCIS were successfully replicated to the SINGER database twice during 1997. It is accessible through http://www.cgiar.org/singer. All registered accessions in the IRG are included in the SINGER database, and accessions registered in the genebank by 1 Apr 1997 were also included in a CD-ROM version that was released in May 1997. Although IRGCIS is not yet accessible directly on the World Wide Web, the SINGER database allows outside users to query the identity and origin of conserved germplasm at IRRI, obtain morphological characteristics, learn to whom germplasm samples have been sent, and determine where an accession has been safely duplicated.
GRC, through support from SDC, offered training in genebank management, germplasm characterization, germplasm exploration, and documentation and data management. In-country training on field collection and characterization was provided to 168 national program staff members from Bhutan, Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, and Nepal in Asia, and Madagascar and Mozambique in Africa. Courses on data management and rice information systems were offered to 30 persons in Bangladesh, Lao PDR, and Myanmar and to three persons from China, Madagascar, and Malaysia as on-thejob training at IRRI. On-the-job training at IRRI for field characterization of germplasm included 11 participants from national programs in Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China, Kenya, Madagascar, Malaysia, Mozambique, Nepal, and Vietnam. Eight persons from national programs of Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, Madagascar, Malaysia, and Nepal received on-the-job training in genebank management. International Network for Genetic Evaluation of Rice (INGER)
PROMISING ENTRIES FROM 1996 INGER NURSERIES
Two hundred and fifty-seven data sets from the 1996 INGER trials were analyzed. The three highest yielding entries in the ecosystem-based nurseries are listed in Table 1. In deepwater trials, CN705-18 from India and HTAFR84110-6-3 from Thailand were given the best phenotypic acceptability ratings across nine sites in four countries. CN570-652-39-2, NC491, TCA72 (Sudha), and IR43773-18-3-2-3-2-3 showed good elongation ability at seven sites in four countries. Test lines in the stress-oriented nurseries which rated good for tolerance for salinity and alkalinity and resistance to blast, tungro, and whitebacked planthopper are listed in Table 2.
Table 1. Entries in top three yield ranks in the 1996 INGER nurseries, by ecosystem. Ecosystem/ nursery IRRIGATED 11 International Irrigated Rice Yield Nursery-Early (IIRYN-E) 28 Qing Liu Ai No.1, IR60819-34-2-1, MTL 113, 132, IR72 International Irrigated Rice Yield Nursery-Medium (IIRYN-M) 15 BR4828-2-2-1, BR802-78-2-1-1, IR59576-174-3-1-3-3 International Irrigated Rice Observational Nursery (IIRON) 41 SPRLR85023-KLG-63-1-2-2, SPR85163-9-1-1-1, ITA418 International Hybrid Rice Observational Nursery (IRHON) 26 IR71628H, IR71630H, IR71627H International Fine Grain Aromatic Rice Observational Nursery (IRFAON) 23 DR29, PK1385-9-1-B-4, PK1656-48-2-2-1 International Boro Rice Observational Nursery (IRBON) 12 IR61987-62-1-2, IR61009-47-3-1-1, IR57298-31-2-2 International Rainfed Lowland Rice Yield NurseryMedium (IRLYN-M) 3 BR425-189-1-6-2-1-1 (Naya Pajom), RP1057-394-1, BR4962-12-4-1, BR1674-15-4-1-3-1-J2 International Rainfed Lowland Rice Observational Nursery (IRLON) 15 IR66879-8-1-B, TOX3963-26-3-1-3, TOX4004-36-2-3-3-3 International Upland Rice Observational Nursery (IURON) 22 IR47701-6-B-1, TGR75, Amistad 82 Countries (no.) Sites (no.) Entries
14
12
6 RAINFED 3
10
Table 2. Best entries in the 1996 INGER biotic and abiotic stress nurseries. Stress/nursery Countries (no.) Sites (no.) Entries
DISEASES Leaf blast 13 International Rice Blast Nursery (IRBN) 32 Arias, Milyang 55 (Samgangbyeo), Milyang 82 (Namyeongbyeo), San Wang Zhan 2, Shuan Hua Ai, Ta-poo-Cho-z, TOX3107-56-1-2-2, Tres Marias 7 C101LAC, Bouake 189, B6824E-TB-3, B7291D-SM-2-TB-5, Ceysvoni, Danau Tempe, Faro 37 International Rice Tungro Nursery (IRTN) 3 TAPL 796 (Acc 57552), Utri Merah (Acc 16682), Utri Rajapan (Acc 16684), Tjempo Kijik (Acc 16602), IR31662-34-1-2 1 IR72, PTB8 (Acc 6291), PI 184675-2 (Acc 7366), ARC10343 (Acc 12437), IR58115-11-1-3-2, IR63356-6B-18, Khao Ta Kri (Acc 65964), RP1699-183-133-1, RP1880-104-798, TCA227
Neck blast
Field test Greenhouse test
2 1
INSECTS Greenhouse test International Rice Whitebacked Planthopper Nursery (IRWBPHN) 5 5 ARC10239, IR21567-9-2-2-3-1-3, IR29692-99-3-2-1, IR64, NDiong Mari (Acc 15859), IR13475-7-3-2, IR43526-523-1-1, RP2633-15-2-5 1 1 N22, Podiwi A8 (Acc 15201), Anokhi (Acc 61162), R4142-B-50-1-2, BR736-20-3-1, RP2633-15-2-5 International Rice Soil Stress Nursery (IRSSTN) 3 IR55177-3B-9-2, IR55178-3B-3-2 2 IR63731-1-1-4-3-2, Pokkali
Field test SOIL Saline Saline-alkaline
2 1
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UTILIZATION OF 1996 NURSERY ENTRIES
Advanced yield tests in 18 countries evaluated 453 INGER entries. A total of 292 promising entries from the 1996 INGER trials were used in hybridization in 16 countries. Five NARS used CNA6870 from Brazil, Qing Liu Ai No. 1 from China, and two IRRI lines (IR62141-114-3-2-2-2 and IR72) as parents in breeding programs.
GERMPLASM EXCHANGE THROUGH 1997 NURSERIES
rice ecosystem, mainly on the Bastar Plateau. Eight villages were selected on the plateau to reflect four levels of economic development. Three villages in the Raipur region are control villages for a comparison of the effects of access to water irrigation. The selection of 154 farming households in the 11 villages was based on the size of landholdings. Six hundred and fifty seed samples were collected from those households to provide material for the genetic studies.
RICE GENETIC DIVERSITY IN THE CAGAYAN VALLEY, PHILIPPINES
Six hundred and eighty elite breeding lines from 44 NARS, plus 366 lines from four international agricultural research centers (IARCs), were multiplied, processed, and organized as 1997 global INGER nurseries. More than 400 nursery sets were distributed to 18 Asian, 5 African, and 4 Latin American countries. Sixty-seven percent of the nurseries distributed were evaluated for adaptation to various ecosystems. The rest were screened for cold tolerance and resistance to diseases (blast, bacterial blight) and insects (stem borer, brown planthopper, and gall midge). A special set of the International Rice Blast Nursery (IRBN) was sent to 19 sites in 15 countries to determine the efficiency and stability of partial blast resistance in 25 rice genotypes grown in diverse environments. A total of 908 elite breeding lines from 38 NARS and 5 IARCs were acquired and processed to compose 10 types of 1998 INGER nurseries. Dynamic systems of genetic conservation Improved understanding of how farmers manage rice, and the genetic consequences of their actions, can identify opportunities for conservation of rice genetic resources based on farmer-managed systems. Studies are in progress in agroecological and socioeconomic environments in India, Vietnam, and Philippines.
STUDY SITE SELECTION IN INDIA
A collaborative research work plan was developed with Indira Gandhi Agricultural University, Madhya Pradesh, and the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, Delhi. The research focuses on a detailed assessment of rice genetic diversity and its management by farmers in the rainfed lowland
The Philippine research is in collaboration with the Philippine Rice Research Institute (PhilRice). Data collected in 1996 from 48 farmers in 12 villages representing the upland, rainfed lowland, and irrigated rice ecosystems in the Cagayan Valley were analyzed to understand farmers criteria of varietal selection. The genetic diversity of seed samples collected from all varieties grown by these farmers, as well as samples from other varieties found in these villages, was analyzed. The three ecosystems differed in the amount of cultivated diversity, importance of traditional varieties, and criteria of farmers choice. Based on isozyme marker data from 203 accessions, the genetic diversity (Neis expected heterozygosity) was 0.24, 0.21, and 0.15 in the respective upland, rainfed lowland, and irrigated ecosystems. This gradient is in agreement with the hypothesis that intensification decreases genetic diversity. A similar pattern was found with the number of microsatellite alleles observed, which were 113, 106, and 103 in the varieties from respective upland, rainfed lowland, and irrigated ecosystems. Few of the samples of varieties with the same name, collected in the farmers fields, including modern cultivars, had similar allelic composition. Clustering of samples from a particular town was noted, indicating genetic relatedness of materials collected. Comparison of the farmers varieties with those derived from breeder seeds indicated divergence between the two samples. The results indicated a high degree of outcrossing among farmers varieties, or misnaming of several varieties, or both. Grain quality was a major factor for the continued use of traditional varieties by farmers in the
Frequency 30
20 10 0
Upland Rainfed Irrigated
Table 3. Number of rice varieties grown in four agroeconomic zones of the region of Hu, Vietnam, winter-spring (WS) and summer season (DS), 1996-97. Traditional Modern varieties (no.) varieties (no.) Region WS Coastal - isolated Coastal - market integrated Inland - isolated Inland - market integrated 7 9 4 3 DS 4 5 5 4 WS 8 14 10 10 DS 14 10 23 10
Pests and diseases
Low yield
Duration
Other traits
1. Traits cited by farmers for nonuse of varieties in three rice ecosystems in the Cagayan Valley, Philippines. PhilRice and IRRI, 1997.
D1M1 1.25 1.00 0.75 0.50 0.25 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 0.75 0.50 0.25 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 D1M2
specific genetic diversity to the pool of rainfed lowland varieties (Fig. 2).
GENETIC DIVERSITY IN A RAINFED LOWLAND ECOSYSTEM, CENTRAL VIETNAM
2. First two axes of a correspondence analysis on isozyme data from 203 accessions from Cagayan Valley, Philippines. Dimensions 1 and 2 account for 34.7 and 10.4 of total inertia, respectively. Plots corresponding to Wagwag varieties are linked. PhilRice and IRRI, 1997.
upland ecosystem, while yield and short duration were the key traits for use of modern varieties in the irrigated ecosystem. Use of traditional varieties with good consumption traits in the rainfed lowland ecosystem will benefit from genetic improvement of these varieties to shorten growth duration, in order to make a second crop possible (Fig. 1). This is particularly relevant to a group of popular varieties called Wagwag. Their continued use is threatened because of their long duration, but they were seen to bring a
Sixteen villages were studied in the rainfed lowland ecosystem in the region of Hu, central Vietnam, in a combination of situations that reflect two types of environments (coastal and inland) and two degrees of market integration (isolated and well integrated). The isozyme diversity of 180 accessions collected, and part of the data from a 1996 survey on diversity management done in 14 households per village, was analyzed. An overall effect of the environment on the number of varieties maintained by the farmers was observed (Table 3). In terms of number of varieties maintained at the village level, there were differences between the coastal and the inland villages, whether for the winter-spring (wet season) or the summer crop (dry season). Market integration affects the number of modern varieties grown but not the number of traditional ones. The isozyme study showed, however, that these differences in number of varieties did not result in significant differences in terms of genetic diversity. At the village level, varieties grown in the coastal environment appeared more variable than those in the inland environment, particularly for the winter-spring crop. Differences between rankings by males and females of the same farming household were dependent on the environment. In the coastal environment, males put more emphasis on the problems related to abiotic problems, such as drought or salinity, while females were concerned with amount of labor for cultivation and grain quality (taste and milling). In the inland environment, the only impor-
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tant difference was in the ranking of concerns related to pest tolerance, which was of low importance for females. Differences were also observed when the husband and wife in each rice farming household separately assessed their varieties by ranking. The most unexpected difference was observed in the coastal-isolated region, where the males ranked a traditional variety first for yield while the females ranked a modern variety first. The study indicates that the implementation of an on-farm conservation program in the Hu region should take into account the variation of genetic diversity across villages and the gender difference in concerns related to variety traits. Conservation and characterization of biofertilizer germplasm The collection of N2-fixing organisms, collectively known as biofertilizer germplasm, comprises azolla, blue-green algae, aquatic legume rhizobium strains, and free-living bacteria. In 1997, IRRI supplied 255 samples from this collection to researchers in 10 countries. A major effort was initiated to compile and standardize data on the biofertilizer germplasm as a contribution to the systemwide initiative sponsored by the Systemwide Genetic Resources Program, and coordinated by the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), to establish a microbial germplasm database to parallel SINGER. During a meeting at ICARDA, the
scope of the database was broadened to encompass N2-fixing organisms, not just microbial organisms. In addition, IRRI started development of an internal database, the Biofertilizer Information System (BIORIS) in Microsoft Access. It will be made available on the IRRI local area network, and ultimately on the World Wide Web. The database includes scanned images of each accession.
Program outlook
After several years of consolidation of resources and refurbishment of facilities, the GRC is well prepared to continue to provide germplasm services at international standards. The completion of the data management system for the IRG and the development of the International Rice Information System (IRIS), which will serve INGERs data management needs, are important milestones for the program. Easy and efficient access to information about the germplasm collection and the adaptation of rice genotypes across environments are increasingly important as IRRI contributes to global biodiversity conservation and makes elite germplasm available in a timely and safe manner. In IRRIs Medium-term Plan 1998-2000, the GRC will strengthen its research activities related to biosystematics and taxonomy and will seek to make information about the adaptation of germplasm better understood through the analysis of genotype and environment (GE) interactions.
International programs Information and knowledge exchange
PUBLIC AWARENESS AND GENERAL PUBLICATION 120 Audiences and key messages 120 Communication materials 121 SCIENTIFIC PUBLICATION 121
LIBRARY AND DOCUMENTATION SERVICE 121 Collections 122 Relations with national agricultural research systems 122 Computer technology 122 IRRI VISITORS, CONFERENCES, AND WORKSHOPS PROGRAM OUTLOOK 122 122
Information and knowledge exchange
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IRRI is the worlds major disseminator of rice research information through its Information and Knowledge Exchange Program. Activities within the program meet the following objectives: Create, produce, and disseminate information materials that cover rice research and related issues, that create public awareness, and that are accurate, interesting, and useful. Improve the quality of publication and dissemination of IRRI research results and promote global exchange of rice research information among scientists. Make rice research information accessible through electronic communication technology. Maintain the IRRI Library and Documentation Service as the worlds major repository of rice literature and facilitate access to the collection by rice scientists worldwide. Serve as a convener, clearinghouse, and forum for dialogue among IRRI partners and IRRI in setting program strategies and priorities, planning rice research activities, sharing research results, and promoting discussion on institutional and policy issues.
Public awareness and general publication

Audiences and key messages IRRI continuously works to create positive public awareness of its research activities and to provide information on the impact of its scientific achievements. Public awareness activities in 1997 focused on critical audiencesdonors, policymakers, news media, national agricultural research systems (NARS), advanced research institutions, non-government organizations (NGOs), farmers organizations, and academia. Articles about IRRI and rice-related activities were produced and featured worldwide in prominent news media as well as web sites. Public information audiovisuals were produced and other public information activities completed. IRRI press releases, including photos, were used by local and international news media, including major international news agencies. IRRI articles, as well as citations of the institute, were also featured in various web sites on the Internet. A 16-page, illustrated article on IRRI was published in the 1998 Encyclopaedia Britannica Yearbook of Science and the Future, published in late 1997. Broadcast interviews, which included 18 taped interviews of IRRI scientists for the BBC World Services The Farming World radio program, were aired. Interviews of internationally recruited staff members were made by five visiting international radio networks. Eight Philippine radio interviews involving IRRI staff members were aired countrywide. The Institute organized its second IRRI-PhilRice Farmers Day with the theme, Continuing Partner-
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ship in Rice Farming Systems. The day was highlighted by the harvesting of the 100th crop in IRRIs long-term continuous cropping experiment. More than 500 farmers and agricultural extension workers attended. Communication materials Four issues of Hotline, a newsletter for decision makers and donor representatives were produced in English. All issues were translated into Japanese, French, and Bahasa Indonesia editions by the concerned IRRI outreach offices. Hotline English versions were distributed worldwide via the World Wide Web. Twenty-five concept notes and promotional flyers on potential projects were produced and distributed to donors. A corporate report, IRRI 1996-1997: Partners Making a Difference, was published and distributed. The publication focused on the research alliances between IRRI scientists and their counterparts in research institutions in developing and developed countries and how they are making a difference in the lives of the worlds rice farmers and consumers. Linkages among public sector scientists, those in the private sector, and workers from NGOs were also highlighted in the report. New editions of Facts About Cooperation (FAC) booklets, describing collaborative activities between IRRI and its donors and partner NARS were produced for the Asian Development Bank, the European Union, and 31 countries. A Japanese version of the FAC booklet for Japan was also published. A revised edition of Facts about IRRI, containing updated information and the latest financial contributions from donors, was produced. One IRRI tabloid, Providing Windows to the World, documented 1997 Ambassadors Day at IRRI. Ambassadors, spouses, chargs daffaires, and representatives from 30 embassies based in Manila attended the affair. A Japanese version of the IRRI information slide show, Filling the Worlds Rice Bowl, was produced. IRRI also developed programs for 16 local and foreign journalist visitors as well as for four foreign producers of video programs and documentaries. Coordination and assistance were provided for production of a TV documentary for the Living Asia Series to be broadcast on the Discovery Channel in
1998, and further dubbed in Chinese for release in China.
Scientific publication
A total of 16 titles were produced12 IRRI books, three installments in the IRRI discussion paper series, and the 1996-97 corporate report. A list is provided in the section on publications and seminars at the back of this program report. Five of the IRRI books were dual imprints: two with the Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International (CABI) and three with Kluwer Academic Publishers. More than 100 abstracts representing five recent IRRI proceedings on rice genetics, nitrogen fixation in rice, allelopathy in rice, pest management practices, and natural resource management in rice systems were placed on the Science Online section of the IRRI homepage (http://www.cgiar.org/irri/ science.html) for viewing and downloading. IRRI clients (2,808 individual recipients of the International Rice Research Notes [IRRN] and 1,037 libraries were surveyed to determine their needs regarding electronic publishing. When asked to rank their preferences on how they would like to receive IRRI information, paper publications were listed first by 74% of individuals, followed by the Web, and CD-ROM. Paper publications were listed first by 79% of libraries, followed by CD-ROM, and the Web. Among responding individuals, 40% indicated institutional access to international e-mail, 34% institutional access to the World Wide Web, and 27.5% indicated their institution has a web site. Among responding libraries 39% indicated institutional access to international e-mail, 27.5% institutional access to the world wide web, and 19.2% indicated their institution has a web site.
Library and Documentation Service

Traditional library and documentation services were maintained in 1997 while the Library continued to branch into the electronic domain. The Library now has closer contact with its NARS clients than ever before. As in previous years, subscription costs continued to rise faster than the rate of inflation but the Library was able to maintain its core collection of journals by reducing expenditures in other areas.
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Collections A direct consequence of a 1997 staff reduction was a decline in the development of the Rice Bibliography. The number of new references added to the bibliography in 1997 dropped by 41% from previous years. Work routines were revised, and with emphasis on computer technology it is expected that the Rice bibliography will reach former production levels in 1998. Conversion of the card catalog to an automated system continued. About 30,000 bibliographic records, mostly items acquired in the past 10 yr, have been converted to electronic format. About 70,000 older records remain to be converted. Running parallel to the conversion project is the setting up of author and subject authority records, which guide the user by means of See and See also references. About 8,000 records were created in 1997. Space limitations forced the withdrawal of duplicate items and older works from the collection to make room for incoming materials. These withdrawals were distributed to other libraries in the Philippines. Relations with national agricultural research systems The Librarian visited India in October 1997 to forge closer ties with the libraries and staff of the Directorate of Rice Research in Hyderabad and the Central Rice Research Institute in Cuttack. Meetings were also held with staff members at ICRISAT, Andhra Pradesh Agricultural University, and several other Indian libraries. Computer technology IRRI Library puts emphasis on access to information rather than on ownership. Books and journals are still the foundation of the Library but electronic resources are increasingly important. These take many forms: electronic journals that can be read on a computer screen; online access to library catalogs in dozens of countries; electronic document delivery services; and access to the web sites of major publishers, research organizations, and other sources of reference information. IRRI Library has incorporated all of these into its web site and is continuing to expand their use.
Table 1. IRRI visitors, 1995-97. Type of visitors 1995 1996 77,203 1,714 73 49 2,967 2,296 763 513 6 11 109 1,106 86,810 1997 108,447 1,609 4 30 4,005 2,983 611 1,504 22 72 49 797 120,133
Students (elementary, 40,337 high school, college) Conference participants 1,603 Nongovernment 107 organizations Donors 124 Government officials 1,263 and politicians Farmers 3,185 Scientists, university 378 staff members Private sector 464 UN agencies, CGIAR, 17 TAC, etc. Diplomatic corps 88 News media 105 Tourists 383 Total 48,054
IRRI visitors, conferences, and workshops

IRRI experienced a record high of more than 120,000 visitors from 50 countries during 1997 (Table 1). Among the VIPs who visited IRRI were two heads of state, one vice-head of state, four state ministers, five international legislators, 72 ambassadors and members of the diplomatic corps, 30 donor representatives, and 22 representatives of international organizations. IRRI provided vital services, timely coordination, and logistical support for 18 international and regional conferences, workshops, symposia, meetings, and reviews, which had 578 participants from more than 30 countries (Table 2).
Program outlook
The Information and Knowledge Exchange Program will continue to focus on efficient, innovative ways to disseminate information about rice and research programs at IRRI. IRRI information activities will increasingly focus on the new electronic media while not abandoning traditional paper-based products such as books and journals. The program will continue to develop its four web sites and gradually put sites developed by other IRRI units online. Sales of IRRI publications will be facilitated by a new, online credit card payment option, which should spur demand for the dozen or more books
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Table 2. International and regional conferences held in 1997. Number of Date Title Venue 15-17 Jan 20-24 Jan 17-20 Mar 17-21 Mar 22-23 Apr 12-23 May 20-22 May 4-5 Jun 28-29 Jul 27-29 Aug 4-5 Sep 8-9 Sep 8-12 Sep 23 Sep 3 Oct 2-3 Oct 6-8 Oct 7-8 Nov 8-12 Dec Stanford Project on Agricultural Introduction and Biodiversity Quantification of Yield Losses due to Rice Pests and Analysis of Survey Data in Plant Protection Irrigated Rice Research Consortium Inaugural Meeting Upland Rice Research Consortium Steering and Technical Committee Meetings Third PhilRice-UPLB-IRRI Tripartite Work Plan Meeting Soil and Water Biochemistry Ecotoxicology Rainfed Lowland Rice Research Consortium 8th Steering Committee Meeting Agricultural Technology Utilization and Transfer Planning Meeting INMnet Steering Committee Meeting Crop Loss Assessment Planning Workshop SP-IPM Irrigated Rice Research Consortium 1st Oversight Committee Meeting Council for Partnership on Rice Research in Asia (CORRA) Planning Workshop on Getting Biological Control Technology to Rice Farmers - from Research to Application SysNet Workshop on Linear Programming (LP) Models CIO-IRRI Strategic Alliance Workplan Meeting Ecoregional Approach to Natural Resource Management in the Red River Basin China-IRRI Dialogue Project Workshop on Safeguarding and Preservation of the Biodiversity of the Rice Genepool Total IRRI IRRI IRRI IRRI Nueva Ecija IRRI India IRRI Vietnam The Hague IRRI IRRI/PCARRD China IRRI IRRI Vietnam China Malaysia Participants 15 33 23 48 65 7 20 15 13 14 9 31 29 38 36 75 70 37 Countries 5 6 7 10 1 4 5 2 7 9 8 12 8 6 5 9 2 18
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now being prepared for publication. Plans are also being developed to select hundreds of IRRIs finest slides and photographs and to make these available on CD-ROM. Also being planned are major improvements to the popular journal, IRRN. New exhibits on biotechnology and women in rice farming are being prepared for Riceworld. Rice conferences and workshops will be held as in previous years, and planning will begin for an Interna-
tional Rice Research Conference, to be held in April 2000. The Library staff will work to strengthen information ties with NARS partners in Bhutan, Indonesia, and other countries. Scientists in other countries will be informed on the librarys web site about forthcoming conferences of note, as well as the latest books on rice and allied subjects. Longer opening hours are also being proposed by the Library.
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International programs Training
DEGREE AND POSTDEGREE TRAINING 126 Development of short-term group courses 126 TRAINING MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT 127 COLLABORATIVE IN-COUNTRY TRAINING 130 Regional courses 130 National courses 130 Network or consortium courses 130 Training capabilities development 130 PARTICIPATING INSTITUTIONS 130 PROGRAM OUTLOOK 131
Training
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Training
The IRRI training program develops the research capability of rice scientists in the national agricultural research systems (NARS) through degree scholarships, postdegree on-the-job training, and short-term group training fellowships. Since 1962 the program has provided opportunities for professional advancement to 11,518 rice scientists, mainly from Asia, Africa, and Oceania and also from Latin America, Europe, and North America.
Degree and postdegree training

Degree and postdegree training supports NARS scientists either in studies leading to a Ph D or MS degree or in gaining research experience under the guidance of IRRI scientists. Degree and postdegree training opportunities in 1997 were extended to 148 scientists from 28 countries (Table 1). Fifty-six Ph D and 32 MS scholars pursued academic programs or did thesis research at IRRI during the year and 60 others updated their research skills in specific areas. Eighty-six scholars and fellows completed their programs (Table 2). A total of 2,357 scientists have participated in degree or postdegree training at IRRI since 1962. The names and countries of origin of scientists who participated in IRRIs degree and postdegree training programs in 1997 are listed in Table 3.
DEVELOPMENT OF SHORT-TERM GROUP COURSES
IRRI continued to design and implement group training courses to provide opportunities for NARS scientists to develop research expertise in specific fields, and to transfer appropriate technology, knowledge, and skills to their own research systems. Ten group courses at IRRI trained 103 NARS scientists from 20 countries (Table 4). Almost all participants came from Asia. Four courses were new for 1997. q Simulation modeling and yield trend analysis q Gene cloning, transformation, and molecular analysis of transgenic rice q Nucleic acid-based techniques for detection of rice viruses
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Table 1. Scholars and trainees, by region and country, at IRRI during 1997.a Type I Region/ country MS Ph D Type II MS Ph D Type III OJT/ ND Total
Table 2. Scholars and trainees who completed their training at IRRI during 1997.a Type I Region/ country MS Ph D Type II MS Ph D Type III OJT/ ND Total
Africa Kenya Madagascar Mozambique Somalia Uganda Subtotal Asia Bangladesh Cambodia China India Indonesia Iran Japan Korea Lao PDR Myanmar Nepal Pakistan Philippines Sri Lanka Thailand Vietnam Subtotal
0 0 0 0 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 3 0 0 0 3
0 3 0 1 0 4
1 1 1 0 0 3
1 7 1 1 1 11
Africa Kenya Madagascar Mozambique Uganda Subtotal Asia Bangladesh Cambodia China India Japan Korea Lao PDR Malaysia Myanmar Nepal Pakistan Philippines Sri Lanka Vietnam Subtotal Europe Germany Subtotal Oceania Australia Papua New Guinea Subtotal Total
0 0 0 1 1
0 0 0 0 0
0 2 0 0 2
0 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0 3
1 4 1 1 7
0 0 1 1 0 0 2 0 0 0 3 1 4 0 0 6 18
2 0 8 6 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 6 0 0 1 25
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 3 0 1 0 0 0 0 4 9
4 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 4 3 5 0 0 3 2 24
0 6 5 1 0 0 2 5 2 1 3 0 11 1 0 8 51
6 7 14 8 1 2 5 6 5 5 10 7 21 1 3 21 127
0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 2 0 5 1
0 0 4 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 11
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 3
2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 8
2 6 5 1 2 4 2 4 1 3 0 11 1 7 53
4 6 10 3 3 5 2 4 1 6 2 14 1 14 76
1 1
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
1 1
Europe and North America Canada 0 0 Germany 1 1 United Kingdom 0 0 USA 0 1 Subtotal 1 2 Oceania Australia New Zealand Papua New Guinea Subtotal Total
a
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
3 0 1 0 4
3 2 1 1 7
0 0 0 14
0 0 0 8
0 0 0 5
0 0 0 5
1 1 2 54
1 1 2 86
0 0 0 0 20
0 1 0 1 28
0 0 0 0 12
0 0 0 0 28
1 0 1 2 60
1 1 1 3 148
Type I = MS and Ph D scholars, thesis research at IRRI; Type II = MS and Ph D scholars, coursework and thesis at IRRI; Type III = on-the-job or nondegree training.
Type I = MS and Ph D scholars, thesis research at IRRI; Type II = MS and Ph D scholars, coursework and thesis at IRRI; Type III = on-the-job or nondegree training.
Training materials development

IRRI training materials target two kinds of users: 1) participants in group training courses, and 2) groups outside IRRI in the agricultural training sector. All courses are supported by training materials. During the year, 13 new titles were developed to support training courses (Table 5). This brought to 212 the number of training materials developed at IRRI since 1987.
Soil and water biochemistry and ecotoxicology Since 1962 a total of 5,759 NARS scientists have participated in group training courses at IRRI. IRRI also intensified efforts to develop its distance learning capability by use of the internet. An on-line version of the Experimental Design and Data Analysis course was designed.
q
Training
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Table 3. Participants, by country, in IRRI's degree and postdegree programs, 1997. Name Zhao Bingyu Thevs Niels Mapa Jesudas Syamsiah Iis Shimizu Akifumi Inthavong Soulaphone Phengchanh Somphet Rasabandit Sengpaseuth Georges Simon Andrianasetra Dodelys Andriantsimialona Rakotomalala R. Mbolarinosy Adhikari Chiranjibi Regmi Sudarshan Prasad Bhattarai Kiran Upadhyay Bhawana Mian Asim Bashir Elias B. Abao, Jr. Lorelie Agbagala Marilyn A. Ong Elbert Aclan Sana Ocilaje Michael-Otai Doan Phu Cuong Huynh Thi Kim Hoa Le Van Lang Mai Thi Vinh Mai-Van Nam Nguyen My Hoa Nguyen Thi Phong Lan Nguyen Van Song Thach Thi Ngoc Anh Truong Thi Ngoc Chi Amy L. Fischer Sarkar Haran Chandra Khalequzzaman Mohammad Chharom Chin Chharom Hun Yadana Seang Lay Heng Ou Sophanna Preap Visarto Somonea Ly Schnupf Mirjam Barbara Richards Shawn Paul Golinowski Daibin Zhong Ni Junjian Xinghua Wei Guo Longbiao Zhang Linping Vidyanand Mishra Tsukaguchi Tadachi Sugii Hotaka Kamau Joseph Ireri Moon Byeong-chul Young Chan Cho Cho Yang-Hee Jeong Eung-Gi Kim Chang-kug Sipaseuth Sulasit Maniphone Hery-Lalao L. Randrianarivony Dawam Abu Bakar Husin Jaafar Bin Country China Germany India Indonesia Japan Lao PDR Lao PDR Lao PDR Madagascar Madagascar Madagascar Nepal Nepal Nepal Nepal Pakistan Philippines Philippines Philippines Philippines Uganda Vietnam Vietnam Vietnam Vietnam Vietnam Vietnam Vietnam Vietnam Vietnam Vietnam Australia Bangladesh Bangladesh Cambodia Cambodia Cambodia Cambodia Cambodia Cambodia Canada Canada Canada China China China China China India Japan Japan Kenya Korea Korea Korea Korea Korea Lao PDR Lao PDR Madagascar Malaysia Malaysia Name Siambun Mary Magdaline Muhamad Nor Ismail Bin Munisse Paulino Win Sein Shambhu Pd. Khatiwada Neelam Pradhan Ratna S. Buddha Mario R. Ramos Abner T. Montecalvo Teodora Esmabe Marilou Agaid Alicia B. Rebuelta Erlindo L. Samblaceno Florendo R. Reboroso Felicidad V. Nalitan Tagumpay S. Velasquez Lloyd M. Luciano Elias T. Tud Amos Buieba Bangamuwage D Pathinayake Katherine Patricia Barnard Le Dinh Huong Le Hung Pong Luy Trinh Thi Pham Oang Oanh Truong Van Tuyen Do Phuong Minh Minh Vo Quang Nguyen Thi Tham Alam Muhammed Murshedul Alam Syed Nurul Biswas Jatish Chandra Manoranjan K. Mondal Chharom Chin Daichang Yang Jumin Tu Lin Weihong Lu Yahai Xuhua Zhong Ying Ji-Feng Yueqiu He Zhong Xiaoyan Thomas Oberthur Deka Nivedita Gogoi Jyoti Kumar Kaur Jatinder Nath Palash Deb Dey Moul Baisakh Niranjan Alinia-Gerdroudbari Faramarz Fallah Allahyar Okada Kanako Ryu Hae Yeong Fidelis J. Andrianilana Aime Lala Razafinjara Alain N.J. Ramanantsoanirina Eow Boon Tiak Htet Kyu Khin Maung Thet Tin Htut Tun Winn Khadka Yajna Gajadhar Country Malaysia Malaysia Mozambique Myanmar Nepal Nepal Nepal Philippines Philippines Philippines Philippines Philippines Philippines Philippines Philippines Philippines Philippines Philippines Papua New Guinea Sri Lanka United Kingdom Vietnam Vietnam Vietnam Vietnam Vietnam Vietnam Vietnam Vietnam Bangladesh Bangladesh Bangladesh Bangladesh Cambodia China China China China China China China China Germany India India India India India India Iran Iran Japan Korea Madagascar Madagascar Madagascar Malaysia Myanmar Myanmar Myanmar Myanmar Nepal
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Table 3 continued. Name Ojha Gana Pati Shrestha Raj Kumar Stephen Neil Trolove Abbasi Fida Mohammad Abedullah Asghar Muhammad Faiz Ahmad Faiz Hussain Fayyaz Ijaz Muhammad Eleuterio Noel G. Bernardo Gloria Cabuslay Celsa Armecin Quimio Country Nepal Nepal New Zealand Pakistan Pakistan Pakistan Pakistan Pakistan Pakistan Philippines Philippines Philippines Name Guillermo S. Rillon Jr. Caesar Joventino M. Tado Nemesio U. Trillana Ahmed Mohamoud Dirie Lersupavithnapa Boontium Sripongpankul Krishnapong Taengsuwan Supachai Stephen M. Graw Ngo Ngoc Hung Tran Thi Ut Cuong Ngo Luc Country Philippines Philippines Philippines Somalia Thailand Thailand Thailand USA Vietnam Vietnam Vietnam
Table 4. Participants, by region and country, in headquarters short-term group training courses at IRRI, 1997.a Region/country Africa Egypt Kenya Madagascar Subtotal Asia Bangladesh Bhutan Cambodia China India Indonesia Iran Lao PDR Malaysia Myanmar Nepal Pakistan Philippines Sri Lanka Thailand Vietnam Subtotal South America Guyana Subtotal Total
a
SMYTA
GE
RRSM
SRINM
EDDA
HRSP
GIS
NAT
SWBE
IVP
Total
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 2 2
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
1 0 2 3
2 0 0 0 9 0 0 0 0 0 3 2 0 0 0 0 16
2 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 6
0 1 4 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 9
4 2 0 1 6 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 1 2 21
0 0 4 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 7
0 0 0 1 3 2 1 0 1 0 0 0 2 1 0 2 13
0 0 0 2 3 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 2 10
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 5
0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 3 8
0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 4
8 3 10 6 25 5 3 2 1 2 4 4 6 2 6 12 99
0 0 16
0 0 6
1 1 12
0 0 21
0 0 7
0 0 14
0 0 10
0 0 5
0 0 8
0 0 4
1 1 103
SMYTA = Simulation Modeling and Yield Trend Analysis; GE = GE Interaction Analysis; RRSM = Rice Research Station Management; SRINM = Strategic Research in Integrated Nutrient Management; EDDA = Experimental Design and Data Analysis; HRSP = Hybrid Rice Seed Production; GIS = Geographic Information System Training for Agroecological Characterization of Rice Production Environment; NAT = Nucleic Acidbased Techniques for Detection of Rice Viruses; SWBE = Soil and Water Biochemistry Ecotoxicology; IVP = Instructional Video Production.
Training
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Table 5. Training materials developed and produced at IRRI, 1997. Format Print on paper Manual Manual Manual Manual Manual Manual Manual Manual Manual Title
ranged from genetic resources conservation to natural resource management, and from trainers training to communication skills and scientific writing. Network or consortium courses The third and fourth offerings of the course on Problem-based Technology Generation for Rainfed Lowland Rice Environments were conducted in India and Bangladesh for 30 scientists working with the Rainfed Lowland Rice Research Consortium (RLRRC). A course on DNA Fingerprinting of the Blast Fungus was conducted for 10 scientists in China by the Asian Rice Biotechnology Network. In addition, IRRI staff members and training materials were used in a Hybrid Rice Seed Production training course coordinated by the Philippine Rice Research Institute for 270 Filipino extension workers and farmers. Training capabilities development The feasibility of in-country training in the distance learning mode was explored. A pilot video conference/lecture-discussion session was arranged for an IRRI entomologist and participants in the regional Rice Production Research course at Pathum Thani Rice Research Center, Thailand.
Manual
Stripper-harvester SG800 MK2 (operator's manual), 4th edition Field collection and conservation of rice germplasm (Madagascar edition) Field collection and conservation of rice germplasm (Bhutan edition) Field collection and conservation of rice germplasm (Nepal edition) Field collection and conservation of rice germplasm (Cambodia edition) Field collection and conservation of rice germplasm (Bangladesh edition) Field collection and conservation of rice germplasm (Myanmar edition) Hybrid rice breeding manual Problem-based technology generation for rainfed lowland environments (India edition) Problem-based technology generation for rainfed lowland environments (Bangladesh edition) How to listen How to take notes T3c Performance objectives manual
Web publication
Collaborative in-country training

Collaborative in-country training courses include regional offerings of IRRI courses using in-country venues and the resources of the collaborating NARS, national courses based on a requesting countrys specific needs, or courses to develop specialized skills needed in research work within networks or consortia. Regional course In 1997 IRRI conducted the sixth regional offering of the course on Rice Production Research in collaboration with Thailand. The 8-wk course was conducted at the Pathum Thani Rice Research Center for 18 NARS scientists from seven countries in Asia and Africa. National courses IRRI conducted eight national courses for 302 NARS scientists in 13 countries in Southeast Asia, the Middle East, and Africa. The course content
Participating institutions
Organizations and country projects that collaborated with IRRI in in-country training activities during the year were q Philippine Rice Research Institute q Cambodia-IRRI-Australia Project q Thailand Rice Research Institute q Lao PDR-IRRI Project q Pilot Extension Project, Lao PDR Ministry of Agriculture q Myanma Ministry of Agriculture q Iran Rice Research Institute q International Network for Genetic Evaluation of Rice q Rainfed Lowland Rice Research Consortium q India-IRRI Project q Bangladesh Rice Research Institute q Indira Gandhi Agricultural University q Asian Rice Biotechnology Network
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Program outlook
IRRI will admit a limited number of scholars and fellows with emphasis on increasing the proportion of Ph D scholars in keeping with IRRIs policy of focusing on developing strong research collaborators. Sixteen degree scholars and about 40 on-thejob trainees should complete their programs during 1998. Greater training opportunities will be provided to scientists from large rice-growing countries and from well-developed national research institutions in the major rice-growing regions as outlined in the IRRI Medium-term Plan for 1998-2000. The training needs of NARS in relation to their research agenda in 1998 as well as 5 and 10 yr into the future will be assessed. Increased effort through a course marketing and information system will seek to identify and persuade institutions and NARS with training funds to make use of IRRI group training opportunities. At the same time, a more responsive opportunity identification system for NARS and sponsoring agencies that express interest in IRRI degree and postdegree training activities will be installed. Improved computer and language laboratory facilities of the Training Center will be used to increase the number of activities for enhancing scholars and trainees computer and English language skills. The Training Center will conduct 15 group courses at IRRI and six regional in-country courses
in 1998 for a maximum of 353 participants. A course to be offered for the first time at IRRI, New Paradigms and Tools for Socioeconomic Analysis of Rice Production Systems in Asia, will be cofunded by the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR). One of the regional courses, Genetic Evaluation and Utilization (GEU), an updated version of the GEU course conducted at IRRI until 1995, will be conducted collaboratively with Thailand at the RLRRC site at Ubon Ratchathani. Three new courses will be prepared for 1999-2000: 1) Research Issues in Directseeded Rice Cultivation, 2) Natural Resource Management, and 3) Applications of Computer Modeling for Rice Research. The course on Experimental Design and Data Analysis will be conducted completely in the distance learning mode during 1998. Scientists from Asia, and hopefully Africa, are expected to take advantage of this on-line course. Twelve sets of training materials will be developed and produced for seven courses during 1998. Three will be additional trainers training courseware expected to go on the Web within the year. Three instructional videos for the Crop and Resource Management Network also will be produced. Evaluation will continue of the potential of internet-based distance learning approaches to allow IRRI to make cost-effective contributions to national and regional training activities.
Training
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International programs Strengthening international partnerships
SOUTHEAST AND SOUTH ASIA 134 Bangladesh 134 Bhutan 135 Cambodia 135 China 136 India 136 Indonesia 137 Lao PDR 137 Myanmar 138 Pakistan 139 SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA 140 Madagascar 140 CROP AND RESOURCE MANAGEMENT NETWORK (CREMNET) 141 Direct-seeded rice systems 142 PROGRAM OUTLOOK 143
Strengthening international partnerships
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Partnership with national agricultural research systems (NARS), nongovernment organizations (NGOs), and the private sector ensures a two-way flow of knowledge and technology. The program continued major projects in Cambodia, Lao PDR, Madagascar, and Myanmar, each with IRRI scientists posted in-country. Smaller projects continued in Bhutan and India. New IRRI liaison scientists were posted to Bangladesh and Indonesia and discussions on increased collaboration were held with China and Pakistan.
Southeast and South Asia

BANGLADESH
IRRIs partnership and collaboration with Bangladesh reached a new height during 1997. IRRI organized, jointly with the Bangladesh Rice Research Institute (BRRI), the Bangladesh Agricultural Research Council (BARC), and the Ministry for Agriculture and Food, a comprehensive policy dialogue on food production and food security in Bangladesh. The February 1997 dialogue consisted of three interrelated activities: 1. A one-day special seminar on agricultural research and development, held at the International Conference Center, Dhaka, and attended by the prime minister, minister for agriculture and food, and key local policymakers and scientists; 15 IRRI scientists; and several key specialists from India, Indonesia, and Vietnam. 2. A one-day symposium on partnership in rice research for sustainable agricultural development in Bangladesh held at BRRI headquarters. 3. A two-day planning meeting at BRRI headquarters with participation by IRRI and Bangladeshi scientists to jointly prioritize collaborative research issues and themes, and to identify how to best address them. Local donor agencies were supplied with the outcome of this deliberation. IRRI received a 2-yr grant from BRRIs component of the Agricultural Research Management Project fund, which is an IDA credit to the Government of Bangladesh, to place an IRRI scientist in Bangladesh to enhance and support research col-
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laboration, including that for rice-wheat systems. The existing memorandum of understanding (MOU) between IRRI and BRRI was extended for 6 yr from 1 Dec 1997.
BHUTAN
recognized the potential benefits of working together to improve productivity of rice and ricebased farming systems.
CAMBODIA
The Bhutan project implemented a communitybased natural resource management research in the Lingmuteychu watershed. A study among farmers and other stakeholders in the pilot area was conducted by a multidisciplinary team from the Research, Extension, and Irrigation Division, Ministry of Agriculture, and IRRI. The objective of the study was to understand the farming systems performance and the resource interactions among enterprises. The team also defined causes of constraints and identified technical and policy opportunities to overcome them. Simple on-farm experiments were designed to address specific constraints in natural resource management. Water shortage, particularly during transplanting, was identified as the primary cause of poor rice yield. Three trials were designed to address this condition: 1) the effect of delayed planting of local varieties due to water shortage, 2) comparative varietal response in rice yield with delayed planting due to water shortage, and 3) performance of new rice varieties in farmers fields. Preliminary results indicated that the yield loss perceived by farmers may only be true if they grow traditional Maap (white) varieties in the late season. The trials demonstrated that there are local and improved varieties that could be used to maximize yield if planting is delayed. Some of the improved white varieties, planted early in the season, yielded 1 t ha-1 more than other varieties on the same unit of land. Varietal choices are not limiting and late planting may not be a serious problem unless farmers prefer certain varieties. These trials will be validated next year with continued farmers participation. Farmers have also evaluated some subtropical pasture grasses and legumes and fodder tree species to supplement animal feeds. Ficus roxburghii and Leucaena leucocephala seedlings were distributed to interested farmers for planting and observation as fodder trees. After one season, participating farmers, extension workers, and staff members of various organizations and projects working in the pilot watershed
The Cambodia-IRRI-Australia Project (CIAP) completed the first year of its current 5-yr phase. The Australian Agency for International Aid committed $788,000 for postgraduate scholarships and facilities development in addition to $7,531,000 committed for regular project activities. Achievements for 1997 include the publication of three major books: q The soils used for rice production in Cambodia: a manual for their identification and management q Ricefield fisheries handbook q Rice production in Cambodia The soils book was translated into Khmer and is commonly used for research and extension activities. The other two books are being translated for submission to Cambodian reference libraries. In-country training on the use of the soils manual, proposal development, seed production, office skills improvement training, and other topics had 356 participants. Twenty-three trainees also attended training courses outside Cambodia. Two scientists returned to the project with Ph D degrees from Australian universities. A long-running land ownership dispute at the site of the Cambodian Agricultural Research and Development Institute was finally resolved at the beginning of 1997 allowing the development of some facilities and installation of a large number of trials. Varietal improvement. The Varietal Recommendations Committee of Cambodia approved the release of one high-quality, medium-duration variety with extra long slender grains (CAR11) and two good-quality, late-duration varieties (CAR12 and CAR13). CAR12 has mild aroma. An extra $7,000 from the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC) resulted in an expansion of the Cambodian traditional and wild rice germplasm collection and conservation. Integrated nutrient management. Replicated trials of inorganic fertilizer application at 28 sites throughout Cambodia provided data for the development of fertilizer recommendations for the major
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rice soils. Soils were identified using the new soils manual. Replicated trials were followed up with 105 on-farm trials to study the interaction of modern varieties with pests and fertilizers. The problem of rice bronzing was investigated in greenhouse trials. Integrated pest management. Integrated pest management research included studies on pest and natural enemy biodiversity in rice monoculture and polyculture systems; yield losses due to key pests and pest complexes; the effects of botanical compounds on crabs and fish; and the effect of farmers practices, rice varieties, and soil fertility on pest levels and rice yields. Agricultural engineering. Agricultural engineering activities included the installation of onfarm water management trials, land preparation, direct seeding, and the development of solar-powered prototypes for grain drying. The CIAP team collaborated closely with extension personnel in developing whole farm plans for the conservation of water and improved pest control. Farming systems research. Farming systems research included the evaluation of land remodeled into ditches and dikes to increase the diversity of crops in the rainfed lowlands. Associated with this were studies of rice-fish and animals in the farming system. Two mungbean and two soybean varieties were released for evaluation in farmers fields. Household surveys indicated the subsistence nature of Cambodian farming and farm family dependence on the consumption of fish and vegetation. A 1997 survey indicated CIAP-released varieties cover more than 85% of the dry season rice-growing area in Cambodia. Productivity improvements from the release of higher yielding varieties and farmers adoption of other CIAP technology resulted in Cambodia exporting surplus rice for the second consecutive year after more than 25 yr of rice deficits.
CHINA
creasing population, and identified 12 research priorities in China, including existing collaborative projects. The dialogue participants also agreed to develop a mega-project called China-IRRI Gold Rice Bowl Project where various research institutions and multidisci-plinary scientists in China will collaborate with IRRI and other Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) centers. The major activities will include plant breeding and genetic resources, resource management and social sciences, pest management, human resource development, and infrastructure improvement. IRRI and CAAS will jointly develop the mega-project proposal for submission to external and internal donors. As a culminating event of the dialogue, the IRRIChina Office was officially opened at CAAS campus in Beijing. It is staffed with a national scientist as IRRI liaison scientist.
INDIA
A China-IRRI dialogue, jointly sponsored by IRRI and the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), was held on 7-8 Nov in Beijing and attended by 70 participants (17 from IRRI). The dialogue reviewed the achievements of IRRI-China cooperation since 1977, discussed the challenges of increasing rice production to meet the need of in-
IRRI, through an International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) project, and in collaboration with NARS in India, has taken the lead in rice environmental analysis of the rainfed rice-growing regions of eastern India. A publication, Agroclimatic atlas of eastern India, deals with biophysical parameters, mainly the climatic factors. It was prepared based on long-term meteorological records from 44 stations. A large-scale farmers testing of advanced selections was implemented using cultivars developed by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research-IRRI collaborative research network on salinity tolerance in India. The pH at test sites ranged from 9.4 to 10.0. Testing was done in collaboration with the Uttar Pradesh Land Development Corporation, Ltd. The cultivars identified by farmers were CSR10, CSR13, CSR22, CSR23, CSR24, CSR25, CSR26, and CSR27. CSR10, with yields ranging from 4 to 5.5 t ha-1 on different farmers fields, was the most popular, although the new selections yielded higherCSR23 at 6.6 t ha-1, CSR27 at 6 t ha-1, CSR26 at 5.9 t ha-1, CSR22 at 5.2 t ha-1, and CSR13 at 5.1 t ha-1. Based on the outputs of the IFAD-supported, rice-based farming systems research in eastern India, a technology package for increasing rice pro-
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ductivity was adopted by the Ministry of Agriculture for implementation through the Department of Agriculture in different states. GE trials were conducted in the 1997 wet season to study the interaction of aroma and other fine grain traits and to purify the seed lot.
INDONESIA
A new nationally recruited IRRI liaison scientist was posted in Indonesia. He will prepare for the next Agency for Agricultural Research and Development-IRRI dialogue to determine the direction of collaboration between Indonesia and IRRI for the next 5-10 yr.
LAO PDR
The Lao-IRRI Research and Training Project is a 10-15-yr project for research development, research support, and training to strengthen the research capability of the Lao PDR. Financial support for the project is provided by the Government of Switzerland through SDC. The project started in Aug 1990 and is currently in its third phase, which extends to Dec 1999. The total SDC commitment to the project has been $10.381 million. Institution development. The national rice research network that was developed with Lao-IRRI Project support has become increasingly recognized as the Lao National Rice Research Program. By the end of 1997, more than 120 Lao personnel (research staff, technicians, national and provincial coordinators, and training personnel) were identified with the program, with research operations in all provinces. Increased emphasis was given to strengthening the regional aspects of the national rice research program. Development work was completed for a rice research station in the northern province of Luang Namtha on the Chinese border. Infrastructure facilities were strengthened at three other research stations in provinces Sayabouly, Vientiane, and Savannakhet of the central agricultural region. Development of a geographic information system (GIS) capability was initiated within the Soil Survey and Land Classification Center of the Lao Department of Agriculture and Extension. Research program development. Facilities were developed early in 1997 at the National Agri-
cultural Research Center (NARC) to support a crossing program to develop improved glutinous varieties for the irrigated and rainfed lowland environments. This program was necessary because of limited availability of genotypes with a glutinous endosperm from other countries in the region. Development and refinement of fertilizer recommendations for the rainfed lowland and irrigated environments continued. There are two major areas where lowland rice is grown in Laos. The largest area is the central and southern agricultural regions in the Mekong River Valley. A smaller area is in valleys in the north. Fifty-five NPK omission studies were conducted throughout the country between 1992 and 1997. Thirty-seven studies were in the rainfed lowland environment during the wet season (WS) and 18 were in irrigated lowlands during the dry season (DS). In both the Mekong River Valley and the north, almost 50% of sites did not show any response to N without first applying P. The P deficiency is widespread and often acute. Less than 50% of the sites gave a yield response to the joint application of P and K, without N. The average yield response to the application of individual nutrients applied alone was less than 0.5 t ha-1 in both regions. The response to N (60 kg ha-1) when other nutrients were applied was 1.2 t ha-1 in the Mekong River Valley and 0.5 t ha-1 in the north. The average yield response to P was much larger in the Mekong River Valley (0.9 t ha-1) than in the north (0.3 t ha -1). The higher efficiency of P in the Mekong River Valley reflects both the severe P deficiency and the low buffering capacity of the sandy soils that prevail. The average yield response to K in the Mekong River Valley was about 0.25 t ha-1. However, at sites where K was limiting, K application resulted in a yield increase of 0.7 t ha-1. Only 13% of sites in the north showed a response to K, with an average grain yield increase of less than 0.5 t ha-1. In the DS irrigated environment, yield without application of fertilizer averaged only 1.6 t ha-1 in both regions. When N, P, and K were applied together, the yield averaged 3.3 t ha-1 in the north but only 2.6 t ha-1 in the Mekong River Valley. The reason for the lower yields in the Mekong River Valley has yet to be defined. It may possibly
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be an effect of high temperature on flowering and grain filling during April, the hottest month of the year. Preliminary analysis of past data indicated that for each day delay in transplanting in January (which delays flowering and grain filling to the hottest part of the year), there was a resulting yield decline of 70 kg ha-1 (R2=0.27, P=0.01). In DS nutrient response studies, about 50% of the sites were shown to be acutely P deficient. Responses to the application of individual nutrients were generally low. An exception was for the application of N alone (60 kg ha-1) in the north, where an average yield response of almost 0.9 t ha-1 was measured. When N was applied in combination with P and K, the yield response was 0.9 t ha-1 in the Mekong River Valley and 1.5 t ha-1 in the north. The yield response to P was similar for both regions, averaging about 0.6 t ha-1. The yield response to K was small in both regions, averaging less than 0.2 t ha-1. These results highlight the importance of balanced fertilizer recommendations. The yield response of applying N, P, or K alone is generally low and uneconomical. However, when applied in combination with good management, potential yield responses are good. Other nutrients may be limiting yields. Ongoing studies are also focusing on increasing N and P use efficiency in the rainfed lowland and irrigated environments. Training. The Agricultural Training Center at NARC continues to provide the focus for all incountry training, workshops, and conferences associated with the National Rice Research Program. The training center offers Lao language courses, adapted from those offered by IRRI, in basic rice production research and farming systems research. Adaptations of these courses have also been developed for training of Lao extension personnel. The Lao-IRRI Project supports ongoing English language training for key Lao scientists. Places in English for Agriculture courses are offered on a regular basis to various NGO and development projects operating in Laos. Fourteen Lao scientists participated in specialized nondegree training or were supported for specialized work experience during 1997. Development of collaborative research programs and linkages. Initiatives have been taken to establish and strengthen links between the Lao National Rice Research Program and other agencies,
thereby broadening the support base for research and training within the Lao program. Agencies with which these links have been established include the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, the World Phosphate Institute, the International Potash and Phosphate Institute (PPI), the Danish International Development Agency, and the Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences. Laos is a full member of the SDCsupported Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Network and the Rainfed Upland Rice Research Consortium and has associate membership in the Rainfed Lowland Research Consortium. The Lao program also has close collaborative links with the national program of Thailand. A small collaborative project with the University of California aimed at incorporating genes for flooding tolerance in selected Lao lowland rice varieties was initiated in 1997 with funding from the United States Department of Agriculture.
MYANMAR
Community-based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM). CBNRM is a 3-yr project jointly funded by the International Development Research Centre (IDRC), IRRI, and the Myanmar Agriculture Service. The IDRC component was approved in Sep 1996 but the project was officially started in 1997. Implementation is at three sitesrainfed upland, rainfed lowland, and irrigated lowland with intensive rice cultivation. As an outcome of a work plan meeting between the Central Agriculture Research Institute (CARI) and IRRI, the following activities were implemented: 1) a 2-wk training course on CBNRM at the Central Agricultural Development Training Center; 2) a field survey to characterize three village communities and their resources; 3) a farm-level survey and analysis of three sites to characterize farm productivity and constraints to production; 4) an analysis of the community-managed common property resources in three village communities; 5) farmer participatory research on varietal evaluation, fertilizer and nutrient management, crop establishment, soil erosion control, forage evaluation, IPM, and water management; (6) multipurpose tree species evaluation and community tree planting; and 7) testing of a small credit scheme for nonfarm households.
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Social science. A survey and analysis of the socioeconomic impact of new rice-based technologies in the delta area was accomplished. Results were reported in a paper titled Farming practices and constraints to increased rice productivity in Myanmar: findings from a household survey. Germplasm collection for rice biodiversity. In collaboration with CARI seedbank and with support from the SDC-funded Rice Biodiversity Project, several accessions of rice and wild rice germplasm were collected in Shan and Chin states. Samples were sent to the International Rice Genebank at IRRI. A 1-wk, in-country course on collection and preservation of the rice genepool had 22 participants. A 2-wk course on data management and information systems had 8 participants. Geographic information systems. Collaborative work on GIS-based analysis of biophysical and socioeconomic determinants of rice production was done with the Census and Statistics Department of the Settlement and Land Record Department (SLRD), Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation (MAI). One SLRD researcher attended a 2-mo, inservice training at IRRI. Agricultural machinery. IRRI-designed threshers were evaluated, modified, and mass produced in collaboration with the Agricultural Mechanization Department (AMD) of MAI. AMD used a prototype brought by the Crop and Resource Management Network (CREMNET) to reproduce the urea tablet applicator and developed two machines for use in pilot areas. CREMNET supported collaboration with a private manufacturer, Agricultural Mechanization Cooperative, to develop and evaluate the IRRI-designed stripper harvester, TC-800 thresher, drum seeder, and hydrotiller. The TC-800 was accepted by farmers and more than 40 units were sold. CREMNET also supported two training courses for AMD and AMC engineers on fabrication and evaluation of the Vietnamese SRR-1 grain dryer and fabrication of a hydrotiller. Varietal improvement. Several promising lines and accessions provided by IRRI were evaluated and used as parental materials. Varietal trials were established with INGER materials.
A hybrid rice proposal was approved for financial support by the Food and Agriculture Organization. Training and breeding work, using materials from IRRI, China, and Myanmar, started in June.
PAKISTAN
A planning meeting with the Pakistan Agricultural Research Council (PARC) identified areas of collaboration and ways of strengthening linkages between IRRI and Pakistans research programs. Participants included senior administrators and scientists from Rice Research Institutes of Dokri and Kala Shah Kaku (KSK), University of Agriculture in Faisalabad, Center for Excellence in Molecular Biotechnology, National Institute for Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering, Nuclear Institute for Agriculture and Biology, and the National Agricultural Research Center. Project proposals were jointly developed as the basis of collaboration: q Development of high-yielding rice varieties with Basmati grain quality and multiple resistance. q IPM for rice. q Improvement of field-level water use and nutrient use efficiency in rice-wheat systems. q Biotechnology approaches for achieving salinity tolerance for basmati and highyielding rices of Pakistan. q Development of hybrid rice technology. q Improvement of the association between rice and N2-fixing bacteria. Technical assistance was extended to KSK and the Dokri Rice Research Institute before the collaborative project officially started. The chlorophyll meter for better N management was tested at a KSK research station through IRRIs Rice-Wheat Program. Procurement and evaluation of Chinese transplanters were facilitated and seeds of promising IRRI varieties to replace IR6 were sent for field testing. The Pakistan-IRRI Rice Research and Training Collaborative Project officially started in Sep 1997 with the implementation of a short-term project supported by the World Bank-funded Pakistan Agricultural Research Project II. The project, to be implemented over a 9-mo period, includes training, technical assistance, exchange visits, and procurement of essential research equipment.
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Sub-Saharan Africa
MADAGASCAR
The third phase of the Madagascar-IRRI Rice Research Project ended 31 Dec 1997. The IRRI technical assistance team provided support to the National Center for Research Applied to Rural Development (FOFIFA) in the areas of plant breeding, agronomy, socioeconomics, and agricultural mechanization. Institutional development. A national rice shuttle breeding program was established within FOFIFA. Three FOFIFA stations representing high, mid, and low elevations were the principal sites. Three greenhouses and a combination solar-wind energy generating station were installed at the lowelevation station, Tsararano, in the North West region. The station researchers and technicians have water and electricity for the first time in 10 yr. Three additional hectares of ricefields for rainfed lowland research were established at the Miadana Station, also in the North West, and a greenhouse was constructed at the mid-altitude site, the Lac Alaotra Agronomic Research Center. The North West Region research team received substantial Madagascar-IRRI project support for their on-station and on-farm research programs, which included breeding, agronomic, socioeconomic, and agricultural mechanization research. The project also provided support for the research planning meetings held in Lac Alaotra, the North West, and the High Plateau. Those three regions account for more than 70% of national rice production. Research program. Varietal improvement. FOFIFA continued to evaluate introduced germplasm but emphasis of the breeding program shifted to hybridization. The objective is to capitalize on the adaptability and other desirable traits of local rices and the improved plant type and high yield potential of introduced germplasm. During the 1996-97 cropping seasons, 5,250 entries (F3 to F7) were evaluated in the pedigree nurseries. Four selections from the crossing program went to on-farm testing for the High Plateau in 1996-97. The farmers ranked all four higher than the local check varieties with MR10211-1-16B-2 ranked first. It yielded 3.1 t ha-1 vs 2 t ha-1 for the check variety.
Rice yellow mottle virus (RYMV). RYMV is an important problem in the mid and low elevations of Madagascar. Screening for varieties with resistance to RYMV has been a major objective of the breeding program. Five selections introduced from the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture were identified as promising. After on-farm evaluations and additional screening, TOX3217-71-2-1 and TOX 3233-31-62-1-1A were multiplied in collaboration with the Plant Protection Service, with financial support from the German Technical Cooperation. Crossing started in 1993-94 using the two TOX lines and the variety Ciwini from Brazil. As of 1997, there were 60 lines ready for evaluation in observational nurseries and five ready for on-farm testing. Those were MR10855-9-2-3-1P, MR10855-9-4P-3-3, MR10855-12-3-1-1P, MR10855-12-3-1-3P, MR1085523-1-2-2, and MR10859-1-1-3-1P. While the main sources of resistance to RYMV are from Oryza sativa varieties, the program is also drawing resistance from O. longistaminata. BC3 F2 populations were evaluated at Tsararano and Lac Alaotra in 1996-97. There are about 1,400 F3 lines with parents from original O. sativa/O. longistaminata cross made in 1992. Rice germplasm collection and conservation. The Madagascar rice collection was moved to the Mahitsy Research Station where cold storage facilities are available. The collection now has more than 5,000 accessions, of which about 1,500 are of local origin. Seeds of 4,000 entries are kept in freezers and there are facilities for additional medium-term and short-term seed storage. FOFIFA is collecting previously uncollected rice varieties, with funding from the SDCs Biodiversity Project. Wild species collection includes O. punctata and O. longistaminata. Agronomy. Initial on-farm experiments were conducted on direct-seeded rice in the 1996-97 cropping season. Dry-seeded and wet-seeded rice with use of hand-operated and animal-drawn seeders were evaluated by farmers. Direct-seeded fields planted with seeders gave higher yields and reduced labor requirements when compared with transplanted rice. Farmers using wet seeding gained at least 2 wk in the establishment of their crop and had reduced labor costs for nursery preparation and transplanting.
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Land preparation equipment adapted by the agricultural machinery program went into on-farm research in 1996-97. Traditional methods of land preparation were compared with the improved methods using animal traction. Initial results indicate that the depth of plowing and the composition and distribution of weed flora were modified significantly by improved methods, resulting in increased rice yields. The cono weeder, which had previously been tested on-farm for weed control, was demonstrated to be more effective than other equipment for managing azolla. Ramilamina, a local NGO, that promotes the use of azolla, began distributing the cono weeder to farmers in the High Plateau region. Agricultural mechanization. The strategy linking public sector, private sector, and NGOs in the promotion of agricultural mechanization started bearing results during the 1996-97 season. A blacksmiths association in the North West produced and sold 14 tapak-tapak pumps using rudimentary equipment and traditional charcoal bellows for heating metal. A French NGO in the North West sold five cono puddlers, which are currently being promoted by a regional development organization working in small-scale irrigation schemes. A large factory in Antananarivo agreed to produce cono puddlers and tapak-tapaks after increased requests for the machines came from farmers and development organizations on the High Plateau. A local entrepreneur in Mahajanga was trained to produce pedal threshers, cono puddlers, and the tapak-tapak pump. He was subcontracted by a factory in Mahajanga to assist in filling requests for those machines and anticipates expanding his workshop to respond to orders. Training. Emphasis was placed on in-country training during the last phase of project activities. An animal traction training center was developed at the Miadana Station and the third course for herdsmen-trainers was conducted making a total of 36 persons trained from the North West and the Mid West regions. The project also developed a course for the instructors from the National Center for Agricultural Mechanization, which is reorganizing its training program to include animal traction. Researchers, university faculty, and plant protection service personnel participated in two courses
on ecological methods for measuring biodiversity as part of expanded collaboration in the area of IPM. Twenty development agents and representatives of farmer groups received training in village-level nursery management for multipurpose tree planting. The course was organized at the request of farmercollaborators who had been participating in on-farm research using new rice varieties. Farmers recognized that their ricefields were being effected by soil erosion and many women were spending too much time collecting fuel wood. The project also assisted in organizing training in seed multiplication techniques. One womens group produced 1 t of seed from 10 kg of seed received during the training course. This group was responsible for large-scale diffusion of X360 in the Port Berge area of the North West. Regional research collaboration. MadagascarIRRI Rice Research Project, in collaboration with FOFIFA, hosted a consultative meeting for researchers from East, Central, and Southern Africa in Aug 1997. The objective was to discuss the establishment of a collaborative research network for the region. The Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in East and Central Africa agreed to sponsor the network, which will also include several countries from southern Africa. FOFIFA has agreed to provide office space and logistic support for the network coordination office. It is anticipated that the network will be functioning by the end of 1998.
Crop and resource management network

The CREMNET provides a bridge for flow of knowledge among rice scientists and farmers with a view to optimize crop and resource productivity and profitability. The network collaborates with national agricultural research and extension services (NARES), voluntary agencies (NGO), and cooperative and private sectors as well as farmer leaders. CREMNET strengthens NARES by sharing of information, knowledge, and technology, and by appropriate training of national collaborators. CREMNET works on four areasefficient nutrient management, management of direct-seeded rice systems, mechanization and increasing labor productivity, and technologies or enterprises for improved income of women and marginal farmers.
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Table 1. Classification of direct-seeded rice methods. CREMNET, 1997. Seeding method Dry-seeded rice (DSR) Wet-seeded rice (WSR) Aerobic wet seeding (aerobic WSR) Anaerobic wet seeding (anaerobic WSR) Water seeding (WSR on water) Seedbed condition Dry soil, mostly aerobic Puddled soil, aerobic or anaerobic Puddled soil, mostly aerobic Puddled soil Seeding pattern Broadcasting, drilling, or sowing in rows Various Broadcasting on puddled soil surface or row seeding in open furrows or on flat soil surface Broadcasting and covering with a thin layer of settling mud or row seeding in furrows and covering with soil Broadcasting on water
In standing water, mostly anaerobic
DIRECT-SEEDED RICE SYSTEMS
Suitable rice varieties, inexpensive and effective herbicides, and good water control in pump-irrigated areas favor the spread of direct seeding methods. Appropriate seeders have been developed to seed rice in rows. Classification of direct-seeded rice methods. A classification of direct seeding methods was developed (Table 1) to help eliminate confusion caused by terminology. The two major methods, dry and wet seeding, are based on the physical condition of the seedbed and seeds. Wet seeding is further divided into subgroups based on oxygen level around germinating seeds. Nitrogen fertilizer management in wet-seeded rice (WSR). The total amount and timing of N fertilizer application for WSR will vary with soil type, inherent soil nutrient status, rice variety, planting season, weather, hydrological condition, and cropping history. NPK fertilizer rates for WSR range from 60-1530 kg ha-1 for rainfed rice to more than 120-30-60 kg ha-1 for DS irrigated rice. Yields of improved rice varieties can be as high as 10 t ha-1 with adequate fertilization of WSR. Split application of fertilizers, especially N, is necessary not only to obtain high grain yields but also to minimize pest damage in WSR. Most farmers in the Philippines apply fertilizers in 2-3 splits from 15-20 to 49 d after seeding (DAS). Farmers in the Mekong River Delta, Vietnam, apply N fertilizer in three equal splits at 10, 25, and 45 DAS. In Malaysia, four splits of N at 20, 40, 55, and 75 DAS are recommended for WSR. Farmers in Thailand use two splits at 10-25 and 45-50 DAS (panicle initiation stage). Delaying first N application until 10 DAS in Vietnam and 30 DAS in Malaysia and Thailand did not decrease yields of WSR.
Results of the 1995 and 1996 DS wet seeding trials in Central Luzon, Philippines, indicated that two N splits at 21 and 35-42 DAS in row-seeded WSR or three N splits at 21, 35, and 49 DAS in broadcast WSR improved grain yields and agronomic N use efficiency. Chlorophyll meter thresholds for split N application in WSR. Wet-seeded rice is characterized by early excessive vegetative growth (leaf area and tillers) and low foliar N. A portable chlorophyll meter (SPAD meter) was used in 1997 DS to monitor the foliar N concentration in a set of on-farm trials in Central Luzon, Philippines. The SPAD values of 29, 32, and 35 were tested with broadcast WSR and row WSR to fix the threshold values for optimum grain yield and fertilizer use efficiency. Treatments included application of 120 kg N ha-1 in two splits (21 and 42 DAS) and three splits (21, 35, and 49 DAS). The results indicated that the SPAD threshold value of 35, considered optimum for transplanted rice was not suitable for WSR because it overestimated the N requirement and drastically reduced the fertilizer use efficiency in both broadcast and row WSR. The optimum SPAD threshold was around 29 for broadcast WSR with a mean productive tiller density of 808 m-2 and 32 for row WSR with a productive tiller density of 662 m-2. The N rates were 100 kg ha-1 for broadcast rice and 114 kg ha-1 for row WSR for grain yields of 6.8 t ha-1. The corresponding values for agronomic efficiency of applied N (AEN = kg additional grain per kg N applied) were 18 for broadcast WSR and 19 for row WSR. Monitoring the foliar N status by SPAD indicated that the application of 120 kg N ha-1 in three splits (21, 35, and 49 DAS) for broadcast WSR and two splits (21 and 42 DAS) for row WSR gave similar SPAD profiles and grain yields6.9 t ha-1 for SPAD 29 in broadcast WSR and 6.7 t ha-1 for SPAD 32 in row WSR.
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Thus, the adequacy of split N recommendations can be verified by SPAD meter and adjusted to optimize rice yields. NARES researchers can experiment with the suggested SPAD thresholds to arrive at optimum SPAD values for WSR in their respective soil-crop conditions.
Program outlook
IRRI will continue to support country and regional programs focusing on strengthening NARS capabilities and collaborative linkages. The existing MOU between IRRI and BRRI was extended for 6 years from 1 Dec 1997. A resident IRRI scientist assigned in Bangladesh effective 1 Jan 1998 will represent a new chapter in the history of IRRI-Bangladesh collaboration. The Department for International Development, British High Commission, Dhaka, Bangladesh, has proposed a long-term project for BRRI-IRRI collaboration. An appraisal of the project is scheduled for early 1998. If approved, the project, in which non-BRRI research institutions and NGOs will have a significant role, will be implemented through the existing BRRI-IRRI MOU. The appointment of a nationally recruited IRRI liaison scientist in Indonesia, by virtue of his con-
tacts with the Central Research Institute for Food Crops and the Agency for Agricultural Research and Development, will strengthen the collaborative research and training activities between IRRI and Indonesian agencies. The objectives set forth for Phase 3 of the LaoIRRI project will be largely met by Dec 1999. The project will be reviewed in Nov 1998 for possible funding of Phase 4. Fourteen years of uninterrupted United States Agency for International Development funding for rice research and institution building in Madagascar was completed in Dec 1997. A project focusing on technology development and dissemination has been funded for 1998-2001. CREMNET will be renamed as Delivery of Knowledge-intensive Technologies (KIT): CREMNET, under an Accelerating Impact of Rice Research program for IRRIs 1998-2000 Mediumterm Plan. Its outputs will be 1) efficient nutrient management, 2) crop establishment and nutrient management methods for direct-seeded rice, 3) onfarm seed production and multiplication techniques for hybrid rice, and 4) appropriate machines for smallholder rice systems.
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Research support services

Analytical Service Laboratories 146 Biometrics 148 Communication support 148 Computer Services 148 Experiment Station 149 Controlled Growth Facilities and Grounds Seed Health Unit 150
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150 153
Publications and seminarS

Institute publications 153 Rice research seminars 163 Division seminars 163
Staff changes 167 Finances 172 Weather summary
173

Program Report For 1997

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Research programs Irrigated rice ecosystem

Irrigated rice ecosystem

Irrigated rice ecosystem

Raising the yield plateau

IRRI program report for 1997

Irrigated rice ecosystem

1966-73 1974-83 1984-95

IRRI program report for 1997

Resistance segregates = Pi 2(t) = Pi 4(t) with pi a With pi a Resistance segregates with pi a

Resistance segregates with Pi a

RILs of CO 39/Moroberekan. bLines of Nipponbare/Kasalath.

Irrigated rice ecosystem

IRRI program report for 1997

Variety and line (donor)

Shin 2 Nipponbare IRBLsh-S (Shin 2) MLsh-S (Shin 2)

Pi sh Pi b, Pi sh Pi b Pi k-s Pi k-s Pi k-s Pi k-s Pi k-s

MS~M RH MS~S MS~S M M R~M MS

Fujisaka 5 IRBLi-F5 (Fujisaka 5) Yashiromochi Mlta-K1 (K1) (sister line of IRBLta-K1)

Irrigated rice ecosystem

PO6-6 S 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 R 338 354 184 203 28 0 0 0 0 M20 16 9 20 0 0 6 3 0 M+ 36 52 26 37 0 0 14 4 5 S 49 75 34 9 0 36 21 0 23 R

468 460 296 295 29 44 45 3 21

R=resistant; M=moderate; S=susceptible.

IRRI program report for 1997

BN111 MM+ S R 201 214 281 226 170 0 17 27 26 1 7

R=resistant; M=moderately resistant; S=susceptible.

Irrigated rice ecosystem

IRRI program report for 1997

Japonica line for temperate countries O. glumaepatula cytoplasm

New plant type

Irrigated rice ecosystem

IR LINES NAMED AS VARIETIES

Reversing trends of declining productivity

IRRI program report for 1997

6.8 7.4 7.3 4.7 10.1 7.0 6.9

Irrigated rice ecosystem

IRRI program report for 1997

29.2 12.8 54.2 3.8

31.7 10.0 41.8 16.5

14.8 7.1 74.2 3.9

33.0 9.4 56.1 1.5

23.2 2.0 70.6 4.2

Irrigated rice ecosystem

19,220 19,000 220 (1%) 4150 4370 (105%)

IRRI program report for 1997

Irrigated rice ecosystem

Improving pest management

IRRI program report for 1997

Examining global climate change

Irrigated rice ecosystem

Infection (%) RTSV RTBV

* Signifies mixtures of varieties of IR or PSBRc.

IRRI program report for 1997

Improving rice - wheat systems

Irrigated rice ecosystem

4.3 a 3.6 b 3.6 b 3.8

4.1 a 4.0 a 3.0 b 3.7

4.2 a 3.8 b 3.3 c 3.8 13.5

2.9 a 3.2 a 2.3 b 1.6 c 2.5

3.8 b 4.5 a 3.2 b 1.4 c 3.2

3.3 b 3.8 a 2.7 c 1.5 d 2.8 23.2

IRRI program report for 1997

80.99 a 55.94 b 55.60 b 64.18

66.17 a 54.36 b 36.98 c 52.03

0.78 0.90 0.42

0.85 0.87 0.43

0.65 0.92 0.65**

0.71 0.73 0.89**