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p
0
_
RT
0
_
p
T
p
0
_
1/
2
1
1
_
p
T
p
0
_
(1)/
1/2
,
(2)
Table 1: Main engine characteristics.
Engine Four-stroke spark-ignition
Number of cylinders, N
c
4
Number of valves per cylinder, N
v
2
Stroke/Bore, L/B 1.167
Intake valve diameter/Bore, D
i
/B 0.461
Exhaust valve diameter/Bore, D
e
/B 0.387
Table 2: Measuring conditions.
Analysed system Intake Exhaust
Pressure drop, p 10 kPa 10 kPa
Dimensionless valve lift,
L
v
/D
v
0.060 0.301 0.072 0.358
Throttle angle, F 30, 40, 50, 70, 90
while, if the ow is choked, the mass ow is formalized as
follows:
m
r
= A
ref
p
0
_
R T
0
1/2
_
2
+ 1
_
(+1)/[2(1)]
, (3)
where p
0
is the intake system pressure when the intake
phase is analysed (or the cylinder pressure when the exhaust
phase is considered), p
T
is the cylinder pressure when the
intake phase is investigated (or the exhaust system pressure
when the exhaust phase is analysed), T
0
is the intake
system temperature when the intake phase is considered
(or the cylinder temperature when the exhaust phase is
investigated), and A
ref
is the reference area.
The dierence between the discharge and ow coecient
lies in the denition of the reference area A
ref
[9]. For the
discharge coecient, this area is the valve curtain area and,
therefore, it is a linear function of valve lift L
v
A
ref
= D
v
L
v
. (4)
For the ow coecient, the reference area is given by the
valve outer seat area:
A
ref
=
D
2
v
4
.
(5)
Furthermore, absolute ow coecients C
abs
were dened
to characterize the intake and the exhaust system eciency
independently of the valve lift [22]
C
abs
=
Am
Ad
, (6)
where
Ad
represents the dimensionless theoretical ow
rate downstream of the valve, based on the isentropic ow
condition
Ad
=
_
2
1
_
p
T
p
0
_
2/
_
p
T
p
0
_
(+1)/
, (7)
ISRN Mechanical Engineering 3
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
F
l
o
w
c
o
e
c
i
e
n
t
(
)
Dimensionless valve lift ()
(a)
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
D
i
s
c
h
a
r
g
e
c
o
e
c
i
e
n
t
(
)
Dimensionless valve lift ()
(b)
Figure 2: Inuence of valve lift on ow (a) and discharge (b) coecients. Intake phaseWide open throttle (WOT) conguration.
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
F
l
o
w
c
o
e
c
i
e
n
t
(
)
Cam angle (
)
60 40 20 0 20 40 60
(a)
Cam angle (
)
D
i
s
c
h
a
r
g
e
c
o
e
c
i
e
n
t
(
)
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
60 40 20 0 20 40 60
(b)
Figure 3: Inuence of cam angle on ow (a) and discharge (b) coecients. Intake phaseWide open throttle (WOT) conguration.
while
Am
is the dimensionless actual owrate, averaged over
the dimensionless valve lift
Am
=
_
(Lv/Dv)
max
0
m
meas
/
_
A
ref
0
a
0
_
d(L
v
/D
v
)
(L
v
/D
v
)
max
,
(8)
where
0
is the air density and a
0
is the sound speed.
Moreover, mean ow coecients were calculated in line
with Li et al. [23]
C
f Mean
=
1
_
2
1
C
f
d, (9)
where is the camangle, 1 refers to the minimum camangle,
and 2 refers to the maximum cam angle.
The overall uncertainty of dimensionless owcoecients
and absolute ow coecients was always lower than 3%, and
it decreased with valve lift and throttle angle.
4. Results
Figure 2 shows the uid dynamic eciency of the intake
system in terms of ow and discharge coecients as a
function of the dimensionless valve lift (L
v
/D
v
). The gure
refers to the wide-open throttle (WOT) conguration. A
progressive raise in the ow coecient is observed when the
valve lift increases, while decreasing values of the discharge
coecient are registered for L
v
/D
v
> 0.090. Data reect
the continuous upsurge in the mass ow rate entering the
combustion chamber. A plateau is reached for L
v
/D
v
> 0.241,
and there are negligible eects on the head breathability
owing to the dimensions of the intake port and the valve stem
that dene the minimumowarea at high valve lifts. Figure 2
reveals also the presence of dierent regions, characterized
by decreasing slopes in the ow coecients curve, which
corresponds to dierent ow regimes. This nding is in line
4 ISRN Mechanical Engineering
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
F
l
o
w
c
o
e
c
i
e
n
t
(
)
Dimensionless valve lift ()
(a)
1 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.6
0.7
Dimensionless valve lift ()
D
i
s
c
h
a
r
g
e
c
o
e
c
i
e
n
t
(
)
0.5
(b)
Figure 4: Inuence of valve lift on ow (a) and discharge (b) coecient. Exhaust phase.
60 40 20 0 20 40 60
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
F
l
o
w
c
o
e
c
i
e
n
t
(
)
Cam angle (
)
(a)
60 40 20 0 20 40 60
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
D
i
s
c
h
a
r
g
e
c
o
e
c
i
e
n
t
(
)
Cam angle (
)
(b)
Figure 5: Inuence of cam angle on ow (a) and discharge (b) coecient. Exhaust phase.
with the literature [1, 24]. Specically, for low valve lift, the
ow remains attached to the valve seat and head due to the
high viscous phenomena. When the curtain area increases, it
is possible to observe a ow separation, rstly, at the valve
head and, successively, at the valve seat.
Figure 3 shows the two dimensionless coecients versus
the cam angle, while Table 3 resumes the absolute dimen-
sionless coecients. It is evident that the ow coecient,
and in turn the mass ow rate, maintains values larger than
80% of the maximum level for about 80
Absolute ow coecient, C
f Abs
0.291
Absolute discharge coecient, C
d Abs
0.469
Mean ow coecient, C
f Mean
0.330
Mean discharge coecient, C
d Mean
0.427
Maximum ow coecient, C
f Max
0.376
Maximum discharge coecient, C
d Max
0.559
The gure depicts a continuous increase in the ow
coecient when the valve lift increases, because of the
progressive raise in the exhaust mass ow rate. A plateau
is found for L
v
/D
v
> 0.323 and negligible eects on the
head breathability at high valve lifts are visible. Here, the
ISRN Mechanical Engineering 5
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Throttle angle
F = 90
F = 70
F = 50
F = 40
F = 30
F
l
o
w
c
o
e
c
i
e
n
t
(
)
Dimensionless valve lift ()
(a)
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.7
Throttle angle
0.6
F = 90
F = 70
F = 50
F = 40
F = 30
c
i
e
n
t
(
)
(b)
Figure 6: Inuence of throttle angle on head permeability in terms of dimensionless ow (a) and discharge (b) coecient. Intake phase.
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
0
10
20
30
40
50
Throttle angle
F
l
o
w
c
o
e
c
i
e
n
t
v
a
r
i
a
t
i
o
n
(
%
)
F = 70
F = 50
F = 40
F = 30
, they
develop at L
v
/D
v
= 0.090 and L
v
/D
v
= 0.231, respectively.
In addition, the plot illustrates the noticeable inuence of
the throttle valve opening on the volumetric eciency of the
intake system. As expected, a progressive increase in the head
6 ISRN Mechanical Engineering
0.13
0.18
0.18
0.23
0.27
0.27
0.3
0.32
0.32
0.35
0.37
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
T
h
r
o
t
t
l
e
a
n
g
l
e
(
)
Dimensionless valve lift ()
0.27 0.24 0.21 0.18 0.15 0.12 0.09 0.06 0.3
(a)
0.42
0.46
0.46
0.38
0.33
0.51
0.53
0.29
0.24
0.56
0.2
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
0.27 0.24 0.21 0.18 0.15 0.12 0.09 0.06 0.3
T
h
r
o
t
t
l
e
a
n
g
l
e
(
)
Dimensionless valve lift ()
(b)
Figure 8: Dimensionless ow (a) and discharge (b) coecients contour plot. Intake phase.
Table 5: Inuence of the throttle angle on the absolute and mean ow coecients. Intake system.
Throttle angle, F 90
70
50
40
30
Absolute ow coecient, C
f Abs
0.291 0.289 0.277 0.246 0.185
Absolute discharge coecient, C
d Abs
0.469 0.466 0.448 0.407 0.321
Mean ow coecient, C
f Mean
0.330 0.328 0.313 0.253 0.202
Mean discharge coecient, C
d Mean
0.427 0.424 0.406 0.373 0.272
Maximum ow coecient, C
f Max
0.376 0.372 0.355 0.304 0.217
Maximum discharge coecient, C
d Max
0.559 0.553 0.537 0.507 0.459
0.5 1
1.5
2 2.5
0.5
0.75
1
1.25
1.5
F/F
0.85
()
C
f
/
C
f
0
.
8
5
(
)
Figure 9: Universal trend in the dimensionless ow coecients.
Intake phase.
permeability is observed when the throttle angle upsurges.
However, this eect tends to reduce signicantly with the
throttle angle and there are small eects on the uid dynamic
eciency of the intake system when F > 70
. Specically,
the percentage variations between the WOT conguration
(assumed as a reference) and the throttled congurations
are reported in Figure 7. The analysis highlights that the
dierences raise with the valve lift and by throttling the ow.
Specically, the values are always lower than 1.6% when the
throttle angle passes from F = 70
to F = 90
. Conversely, by
moving from F = 30