Laser Technology & Applications gy pp EOP4076

Dr. Mohd Ridzuan Mokhtar ridz@mmu.edu.my ridz@mmu edu my Siew Wee Ong wosiew@mmu.edu.my wosiew@mmu edu my
1

Course Overview

Chapter 1 2 3 4 5 Laser Fundamentals L F d t l Specific Laser Systems

Title

Industrial Applications of High power Laser High-power Industrial Applications of Low-power Lasers Laser Safety

Course Overview
Time \ Day 8:00 - 9:00 9:00 - 10:00 10:00 - 11:00 11:00 - 12:00 12:00 - 13:00 13:00 - 14:00 14:00 - 15:00 15:00 - 16:00 16:00 - 17:00 17:00 - 18:00 18:00 - 19:00 19:00 - 20:00 Lecture FOE CR2047 Monday Tuesday Wednesday Tutorial FOE CR1030 Lecture FOE CR2046 Lecture FOE CR2046 Thursday Friday

Course Overview
Week 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Date 17 Oct - 23 Oct 24 Oct - 30 Oct 31 Oct - 6 Nov 7 Nov - 13 Nov 14 Nov - 20 Nov 21 Nov - 27 Nov 28 Nov - 4 Dec 5 Dec - 11 Dec 12 Dec - 18 Dec 19 Dec - 25 Dec 26 Dec - 1 Jan 2012 2 Jan - 8 Jan 9 Jan - 15 Jan 16 Jan - 22 Jan 23 Jan - 29 Jan 30 Jan - 5 Feb 6 Feb - 12 Feb 13 Feb - 19 Feb Chapter 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 Mid Trimester Break 3 3,4 4 4 5 5 Study Week Study Week Exam Exam Assignment Submission Test 2 Test 1 Assignment Test and Assignment

Course Overview
Textbook:
Williams T Silf Willi T. Silfvast, Laser Fundamentals, L F d l Cambridge University Press, 1996 B. Hitz, J. J Ewing and J Hecht, Introduction to , J J. g J. , Laser Technology, IEEE Press, 2001 J. M. Senior, Optical Fiber Communications, Prentice Hall, 1992 P i H ll P. W. Milonni, J. H. Eberly, Lasers, John Wiley & Sons 1991 Sons,

References:

Course Overview
Assessment Scheme: Lab L b experiments (2) 10% i (2): Assignment: 10% Test: 20% Final exam: 60% Additional Requirements: Attendance: >75%

Laser Fundamentals Chapter 1

Chapter Outline
Definition Introduction Elements of Laser Atomic Excitation Decay of Excited States Einstein Coefficients Lasing Conditions Emission Broadening Threshold Requirements q Relaxation Oscillations Requirements for Inversions Resonators S bili Stability Pumping Techniques Laser Cavity Modes
8

Definition
Laser - Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation Processes involved - Stimulated emission, Optical feedback For amplification Key elements - Gain/amplifying medium, Resonator, Pumping mechanism Have very nearly the same

wavelength, wavelength the same direction and the same phase

Introduction
Evolution of Laser

Einstein predicted stimulated emission

Townes invented and built first MASER

Schawlow and Townes proposed LASER

Maiman built first (ruby) LASER

Javan Hall built ll b l invented Semiconductor He-Ne laser laser

1910

1920

1930

1940

1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

10

Introduction
Evolution of Laser

Alferov built first heterostructure h laser

First fiber optic communication i i system (Chicago)

Spectra introduced Ti:Sapphire laser

Faist built quantum cascade laser

Nakamura built blue laser diode

1910

1920

1930

1940

1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

IBM built first laser printer

CD player

Nanowire laser built at UCB

11

Introduction
Faces of Laser

12

Introduction
Unique Properties of Laser
Possible to produce extremely high power more than 1015 Watt peak power demonstrated, g p powers widely y used Kilowatt average commercially Possible to produce extremely short pulses less than 5 f h fs Temporally coherent the relative phase or the coherence of the two waves at two separate locations along the propagation direction of the two beams.

13

Introduction
Unique Properties of Laser
Temporal coherence length length,
2 lc = =
Wavelength difference or source linewidth

lc

14

Introduction
Example
What is the temporal coherence length lc of a mercury vapor lamp emitting in the green portion p g of the spectrum at a wavelength of 546.1 nm with an emission bandwidth of = 6 x 108 Hz?

15

Introduction
Solution
The emission bandwidth in wavelength wavelength,
c = d c = 2 d 2 = c =

(546.1 10 )

9 2

6 108

3 108 = 5.96 1013 m

16

Introduction
Solution
The temporal (longitudinal) coherence length length,
2 lc = =

(546.1 10 )

9 2

5.96 1013 = 0.50 m

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Introduction
Unique Properties of Laser
Spatially coherent describes how far apart two sources, or two portions of the same source, can be located in a direction transverse to the direction of observation and still exhibit coherent properties over a range of observation points. Spatial h S i l coherence l length, h
r lt = = s s
s r
18

Wavelength

lt

Introduction
Example
A laser produced plasma consisting of a 100 m laser-produced mdiameter ball radiates very strongly at a g wavelength of 10 nm. At a distance of 0.5 m from the source, what is the spatial coherence resulting from light emitted from opposite sides of the plasma?

19

Introduction
Solution
The spatial (transverse) coherence length length,
r lt = s 0.5 10 109 = 100 106 = 5 105 m

20

Elements of Laser

Amplifying Medium

Key elements Pumping Mechanism Feedback

21

Elements of Laser
Amplifying Medium
Laser amplification relies on stimulated emission Rates are proportional to number of photons, and to atomic populations Must have more population in excited state than in lower level

22

Elements of Laser
Pumping Mechanism
In thermal equilibrium populations follow equilibrium, Boltzmann ratio cannot produce a population inversion
Density of atoms having electrons occupying energy level E1

N2 (E2 E1 ) / kT =e N1

Energy input from pump source necessary to get inversion Pump P p excites it population p p l ti selectively to upper laser level Populations depend on relaxation rates
23

Elements of Laser
Feedback
Why a resonator? Amplification of an optical signal from a single pass through the medium is q quite small, after multiple passes the net gain can p p g be large Superradiant lasers, e.g. Nitrogen
laser, do not need resonators

24

Elements of Laser
Example
Suppose you wanted to make a laser that could produce 1 J (1019 photons) without mirrors. p pp Assume that three photons will appear at the near end of the laser rod. How many laser rods would you need?
3 photons

25

Elements of Laser
Solution
Number of laser rods rods,
N rod = Total photons desired Photons per pass

1019 3.33 = = 3 33 1018 3

26

The Laser Wavelengths

Wavelength Regions
Far infrared: 10 1000 m Typical units: Middle infrared: 1 10 m m (microns) = 10-6 m (angstroms) = 10-10 m 9 Near infrared: 0 7 1 m 0.7 nm ( (nanometers) = 10-9 m ) Visible: 0.4 0.7 m Ultraviolet: 0 2 0 4 m 0.2 0.4 Vacuum ultraviolet: 0.1 0.2 m Extreme ultraviolet: 10 100 nm Soft X-rays: 1 nm to approximately 20-30 nm
Some overlap with EUV

27

Bandgap Transitions

Excitation Transitions Spontaneous Radiative Stimulated Si l d

28

Decay

Nonradiative

Bandgap Transitions
Excitation
Can be provided either thermally optically or thermally, electrically Can transfer electrons from the valence band to Negatively charged the conduction band When the electrons are moved to the conduction band, the vacant sites in the valence band where the electrons were allocated are referred to as holes. holes Behave as positive charges

29

Bandgap Transitions
Decay
Electrons can decay from the conduction band to the valence band by recombining with holes. Photon emission When this occurs, the electrons can either radiate the energy or give it up via interactions or collisions with the semiconductor lattice.
Induce a f I d form of l i f lattice vibration or phonon ib i h relaxation. Reduces the quantum yield of the radiation and p produces acoustic waves and unwanted heating of g the material

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Atomic Excitation
Absorption
The rate of upward transition or absorption is proportional to both the density of atoms in the g gy p lower or ground energy state and the spectral density of the radiation energy at the transition frequency. Energy density per unit frequency Hence, the upward transition rate maybe written H h d ii b i as, dN l
dt = N l Bluu ( )
Einstein coefficient of absorption

31

Decay of Excited States

Spontaneous Emission
The atom returns to the lower energy state in an entirely random manner Incoherent radiation A natural process that occurs without any external stimulus p Each photon radiated when one of the atoms decays would have a frequency of, (Eu El ) Eul
ul =

and a wavelength of,

c ul = n ul

Velocity of light in a vacuum

Index of refraction of the medium

32

Decay of Excited States

Example
A semiconductor heterojunction laser is grown with a GaAsP active-region layer with a lattice constant of 0.56 nm. Assume that the laser transition occurs from the bottom of the conduction band. Determine the laser wavelength of this material Estimate the bandgap energy to material. be 1.85 eV.

33

Decay of Excited States

Solution
hc 6.626 1034 3 108 = = 19 Eul 1.85eV 1.602 10-19 V = 6.707 107 m
There will be some broadening of the emission, due to the finite distribution of electrons above the bottom of the conduction band and of holes below the top of the valence band. band The value just obtained represents the longest wavelength in the emission band produced by this laser.

34

Decay of Excited States

Spontaneous Emission
The change of the population density Nu as the population is transferred to level l,
Einstein coefficient of spontaneous emission

The solution to the above equation is,

Radiative/spontaneous transition probability

dN u = Aul N u dt

Population density

N u = N u 0e Ault = N u 0e t / u

The lifetime of level u

The initial population density in level u

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Decay of Excited States

Spontaneous Emission
For more general case in which the population in case, level u decays radiatively to several lower-lying p y levels, the expression for the decay is written as, The solution to the above equation is,
t N u = N u e Aui exp i
0

dN u Aui N u = (Aui + Auj + Auk + ...) N u = i dt

The lifetime of energy level u is completely gy p y determined by the reciprocal of the sum of all possible radiative decay rate to lower-lying levels.
1 u = Aui
i

36

Decay of Excited States

Example
The upper laser level of the ultraviolet He Cd He-Cd lasers decays radiatively via two laser transitions ( p y that occur at 325 nm (with a transition probability of A = 7.8 x 105 s-1) and at 353.6 nm (with A = 1.6 x 105 s-1). Compute the lifetime of the upper energy level involved in this laser transition transition.
Helium-Cadmium

37

Decay of Excited States

Solution
The lifetime of the upper energy level is is,
1 u = Aui
i

1 = 7.8 105 + 1.6 105 1 = 9.4 105 = 1.06 106 s

38

Decay of Excited States

Stimulated Emission
As the density of atoms in the upper energy state is Nu, the rate of stimulated downward transition p p p is proportional to both Nu and the spectral density u() of the radiation energy at the transition frequency . Hence the rate of stimulated emission i given b H h f i l d i i is i by
dN u = N u Bul u ( ) dt
Einstein coefficient of stimulated emission

39

Einstein Coefficients
Aul Spontaneous Emission Einstein Coefficients

Bul Stimulated Emission

Blu - Absorption
40

Einstein Coefficients
Radiation Flux
Intensity per unit frequency Total power in the cavity

I ( ) =

Cross-sectional area Source linewidth

Plancks Law for Cavity Radiation

Plancks Constant Index of refraction Energy density per unit f i frequency 8h 3 3 Frequency hn

u ( ) =

c (e
3

h / kT

1)

Temperature Velocity of light in a vacuum

41

I ( ) u ( ) = c

Einstein Coefficients
The principle of Detailed Balance
This principle states that in equilibrium the total that, equilibrium, number of particles leaving a certain quantum p q g state per unit time equals the number arriving in that state per unit time. It also states that in equilibrium the number leaving by l i b a particular pathway equals the number i l h l h b arriving by that pathway
Also been called the principle of microscopic reversibility

42

Einstein Coefficients
Einstein Relations
Assume the atoms are in thermal equilibrium equilibrium,
Number of atoms per unit volume

Nu gu (Eu El )/ kT gu Eul / kT = e = e Nl gl gl

Statistical weight of level u

Indicate the number of sublevels within the energy level El

For the population Nu and Nl to be in radiative thermal equilibrium and for the principle of detailed balance to apply,
N u Aul + N u Bul u ( ) = N l Bluu ( )
Number of spontaneous transitions from u to l per unit time per unit volume Upward flux the number of stimulated upward transitions per unit volume per unit time per unit frequency
43

Downward flux

Einstein Coefficients
Einstein Relations
Using 2 gives gives,
Aul gl Blu hul / kT e 1 u ( ) = Bul gu Bul
1

Compare with 1 and,

gives, gives

Aul 8hn 3 3 = Bul c3

gl Blu = gu Bul

44

Einstein Coefficients
Einstein Relations
Ratio of stimulated to spontaneous emission rates,
Bul u ( ) = Spontaneous Emission Rate Aul = 1 e hul / kT 1 Stimulated Emission Rate
Substitute with 1

45

Einstein Coefficients
Example
Calculate the ratio of the stimulated emission rate to the spontaneous emission rate for an p p g p incandescent lamp operating at a temperature of 1000 K. It may be assumed that the average operating wavelength is 0.5 m.

46

Einstein Coefficients
Solution
The average operating frequency is given by by, The ratio is,
c 2.998 108 = = 0.5 106

6.0 1014 Hz

Bul u ( ) 1 = hul / kT Aul e 1 =

1
6.629 1034 6 1014 1 p exp 1.381 1023 1000

= 3.1 1013
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Lasing Conditions

Population Inversion

Necessary Condition

Lasing Conditions Sufficient Condition Saturation Intensity

48

Lasing Conditions
Population Inversion
Necessary condition for amplification The case of the upper level being more populated than the lower level If stimulated emission rate exceeds absorption rate, net optical gain The relationship for the intensity at a specific distance z into medium at a frequency and width can be expressed as,
Stimulated emission cross section cross-section

I = I 0e

ul N u (gu / gl )Nl z

Population different, Nul

Intensity of the beam (power per unit area) as it enters the medium

g ( ) = ul ( ) N u (gu / gl ) N l
Gain coefficient and has dimensions of 1/length or m-1
49

Lasing Conditions
Population Inversion
Energy Nu Nl e-E/kT Energy Nu Nl e-E/kT

Eu El

Eu El

Population density Thermal equilibrium

Population density Population inversion

50

Lasing Conditions
Population Inversion
If the value of the exponent is positive the beam positive, will increase in intensity and so amplification will occur If it i negative, th b is ti the beam will d ill decrease i i t it in intensity and absorption will occur y p , The values of ul and z are always positive, thus amplification will occur only if, gu N u > Nl gl This condition is not normal under thermal q equilibrium

51

Lasing Conditions
Saturation Intensity
Sufficient condition for a laser Suggests how much gain is necessary for the beam to reach the saturation intensity as it grows within the medium di The length z of the medium at which that saturation p effect occurs can be expressed as the saturation length Lsat The intensity achieved by the beam when z = Lsat will be referred to as the saturation intensity Isat The rate equation for a steady-state equilibrium, 1 B ( ) I dN u =0 = Ru + N u + ul dt c u
Number of excitations per unit volume per unit time (pumping flux) Stimulated emission rate rate, Bul()u() = Bul()I()/c
52

Lasing Conditions
Saturation Intensity
The previous equation suggests that that, Ru Nu = Bul ( ) I 1 + u c When I = 0, the value of the population density,
N u = Ru u

The saturation intensity Isat is arbitrarily defined as intensity, the intensity at which the stimulated rate downward equals the normal radiative decay rate, I sat nBul ( ) 1 = Aul = c u c I sat = 53 Bul ( ) n u

Lasing Conditions
Saturation Intensity
A beam grows exponentially over the length Lsat
Isat Intensity

Exponential growth Lsat Amplifying medium length p y g g

54

Lasing Conditions
Example
The stimulated emission cross section is is, c2 ul ( ) = Aul ( ) 2 2 8n ul Express Isat as a function of ul.

55

Lasing Conditions
Solution
The saturation intensity is is,

I sat

c = Bul ( ) n u 8hn 3ul 3 c = 3 n u c Aul ( ) 8n 2ul 2 h ul = 2 c Aul ( ) u h ul = ul ( ) u

56

Lasing Conditions
Beyond The Saturation Intensity
How does I grow beyond Isat? I = I 0e gz
dI = g I 0e gz = gI dz Small-signal gain coefficient, i.e. the gain coefficient at the g g 0I centre of the emission line = 1 + I / I sat when no beam is present If I >> Isat, then

dI = gI sat dz

57

Lasing Conditions
Beyond The Saturation Intensity
Integrating gives gives,
I

1 dI =
I0

gI sat dz

I I 0 = g 0I sat z I = I 0 + g 0I sat z

58

Lasing Conditions
Beyond The Saturation Intensity
A beam grows linearly beyond the length Lsat
Linear growth Li th Inte ensity Exponential growth

Isat Lsat

Amplifying medium length

59

Emission Broadening
Homogeneous H Collisional broadening C lli i lb d i

Emission Broadening Inhomogeneous Amorphous crystal Isotope broadening broadening Doppler broadening
60

Emission Broadening
Homogeneous Broadening
Due to the lli i D t th collisions with other atoms ith th t Causes non-radiative decay The processes lead to a Lorentzian distribution of emitting frequencies All of the atoms in level u have an equal probability of participating in the emission at any frequency of that emission shape h i i h

Linewidths of individual atoms

Total laser linewidth

61

Emission Broadening
Homogeneous Broadening
The Th process can d decrease either th d ith the decay ti time u of f the atoms residing in the excited level u OR affect the linewidth Due to dephasing collisions Dephasing collisions interrupts the phase of radiating atoms without increasing their population decay rate
E(t) E(t)

t Time-dependent decay of the electric field produced by an oscillating electron when the loss of energy d t radiation l f due to di ti is taken into account

Phase interruption of a decaying electromagnetic wave due to dephasing collisions

62

Emission Broadening
Inhomogeneous Broadening
Do D not affect th lif ti t ff t the lifetime, b t d affect th but do ff t the linewidth The processes include Amorphous Crystal broadening, Doppler broadening and Isotope broadening Emission processes that l d to a G E i i h lead Gaussian i distribution of emitting frequencies Specific portions of the population density Nu contribute to different portions of the emission linewidth
Linewidths of individual atoms

Total laser linewidth

63

Emission Broadening
Amorphous Crystal Broadening
Glass materials h Gl t i l have various small regions oriented i ll i i t d in slightly different directions Thus, each of the glass molecules can have slightly strains different energy levels depending upon thethe frozen that are placed upon them in matrix This leads to different radiating frequencies for different regions diff i Since the emission line is composed of the sum of all of the individual lines this leads to a much broader lines, emission spectrum

64

Emission Broadening
Doppler Broadening
Due to D t random movements of radiating atoms i all d t f di ti t in ll directions with a range of velocities related to the temperature This causes frequency shifts depending on the directions of the movements hotter The faster the atoms move on the average, the broader h bandwidth b d the b d id h A single photon might be able to stimulate one atom to emit because that atom happened to be Doppler shifted to the photons frequency, but it might not be able to stimulate another atom because it had a different Doppler shift than the first I.e. different atoms contribute to the gain at q different frequencies within the laser bandwidth
65

Emission Broadening
Isotope Broadening
Due to the D t th presence of more th one i t i f f than isotropic form of the species These different isotopes consist of atoms having the same number of protons and electrons, but with different numbers of neutrons Identifies them as belonging to the same element Atoms with slightly diff A i h li h l different numbers of neutrons b f within their nuclei exhibit small differences in energy level values The slightly different energy level values for different isotopes provide slightly different frequencies for the transitions

66

Emission Cross Section

Stimulated Emission Cross Section
It i a constant f a specific l is t t for ifi laser t transition i a iti in specific gain medium It is strongly dependent on the emission wavelength

Homogeneous Broadening
1 ul 2Aul H ul ( 0 ) = 2 2 H n 4

Inhomogeneous B d i I h Broadening
1 ln 2 D ul ( 0 ) = 4
1/ 2

Linewidth of emission

ul 2Aul n 2 D

67

Threshold Requirements
Definition
The Th necessary requirements f th b i t for the beam t grow t to to the point at which it reaches the saturation intensity Isat

Laser with no mirror

Threshold Requirements Laser with two mirrors Laser with one mirror
68

Threshold Requirements
Laser With No Mirror
The b Th beam would ld requirement if, meet t the th threshold th h ld gain i

gth Lsat = ul ( ) N ul Lsat 12 5

This is to ensure that the beam can develop a wellwell defined direction before Isat is reached It is shown that, 2 Lsat e gthLsat = 16 Diameter of the amplifier da Large beam divergence
69

Threshold Requirements
Example
1 t A l laser medium h a gain coefficient of 60 m-1 at di has i ffi i t f the centre of the emission profile and an amplifier length of 0.2 m. For what diameter da of the gain medium would th saturation i t it b reached i di ld the t ti intensity be h d in a single pass through the amplifier? What would be the divergence half-angle of the beam exiting from the medium? h di ?

70

Threshold Requirements
Solution
e gthLsat e 600.2 Lsat = 16 da Lsat = 16 da
2

Lsat 100 da da 2 103 m

The divergence half-angle,
div

da = = = 0 01 rad 0.01 d Amplifier Length Lsat

Amplifier Diameter

71

Threshold Requirements
Laser With One Mirror
Adding a mirror can b th Addi i be thought of as adding a ht f ddi second amplifier Assuming that the beam just reaches Isat after two t passes through the amplifier, the gain medium would meet the threshold gain requirement if,

gth Lsat = gth (2L ) = gth Leff = ul ( ) N ul (2L ) 12 5

Effective saturation length

The beam is narrower, as it emerges from the end of the amplifier

72

Threshold Requirements
Example
A l laser medium with a l th of 0 12 m and a gain di ith length f 0.12 d i coefficient of 60 m-1 has a 100% reflecting mirror at the laser wavelength coated on one end of the laser rod. F a rod di d For d diameter of 5 mm, what would b th t f h t ld be the half-angle of diverging beam exiting from the amplifier? Would the beam reach the saturation intensity as i emerges f i i it from the rod after h i h d f having made a double pass through the rod?

73

Threshold Requirements
Solution
The divergence h lf Th di half-angle, l

div

da = = Amplifier Length Leff 0.005 2.1 d = = 2 1 102 rad 2 0.12

Amplifier Diameter

74

Threshold Requirements
Solution
Finding th single pass l th t reach saturation Fi di the i l length to h t ti intensity after having a double pass 2 Leff gth Lsat e = 16 da
2 0 12 0.12 gth 2L = 16 e 0.005 gth 2L = 10 5 10.5
2

10.5 L= = 0.087 m 2 60 Therefore, the actual laser length is more than y sufficient to reach the saturation intensity
75

Threshold Requirements
Laser With Two Mirrors
Placing a mirror at each end of th amplifier Pl i i t h d f the lifi effectively adds an infinite series of amplifiers behind the original amplifier A slight amount of light is allowed to leak out the end by using a mirror with 99.9% reflectivity Two f T factors d determine if a two-mirror l i i laser can reach Isat
1. 1 Net gain per trip 2. Sufficient gain duration
Relevant to pulsed laser only

The beam emerges with a very narrow angular g y g divergence

76

Threshold Requirements
Net Gain per Round Trip
The i i Th minimum round-trip steady-state requirement dti t d t t i t for the threshold of lasing is that the gain exactly equal the loss,
Reflectivities of the mirrors

R1R2 (1 a1 )(1 a2 )e
Scattering pass losses per

(gth )2L

Distributed loss within the gain medium

=1

The solution for the threshold gain is then,

1 1 + ln gth = 2L R1R2 (1 a1 )[1 a2 ]

77

Threshold Requirements
Sufficient Gain Duration
This Thi concerns th minimum gain d ti ts f th the i i i duration for the beam to reach Isat The threshold condition for producing a laser,
gth mL 12
The Th number of passes th b f through th h the amplifier before Isat is reached

Sufficient gain duration duration, distance ts = velocity Laser mirror separation m (S L ) mL Refractive index of the + medium inside the cavity but = outside the laser amplifier c / nC c / nL

Refractive index within the l h laser gain medium d

78

= m [nC (S L ) + nLL ] / c

Threshold Requirements
Example
For He-Ne laser, assuming a mirror reflectivity of F a H N l i i fl ti it f 99.9% for each mirror and a gain-medium length of 0.2 m, how many passes must occur through the amplifier b f lifi before Isat i reached? T k gth as 0 15 m-1. is h d? Take 0.15 1

79

Threshold Requirements
Solution
12 m gth L 12 = 0.15 0.2 = 400 Therefore, approximately 400 passes through the amplifier to reach the saturation intensity Note: For a gas laser,
nC = nL = 1

80

Relaxation Oscillations

Cavity Decay Rate

Relaxation Oscillations R l i O ill i Oscillation Decay Time Constant Oscillation Frequency

81

Relaxation Oscillations
Definition
Relaxation oscillations occur when energy fl R l ti ill ti h flows b k back and forth between the population inversion and p the circulation power Since the laser output is directly proportional to the circulating power at any instant, this oscillation inside the laser shows up as fluctuation on the output beam

82

Relaxation Oscillations
Definition
Excessive photons start to p deplete the population inversion

Circu ulation Power P

The population inversion starts to build up again

The laser has just reached threshold

t
The gain equal to the loss

G Gain
Gain starts to saturate

t
83

Relaxation Oscillations
Cavity Decay Time
If a b beam of energy E were i t t f instantaneously placed l l d within a cavity with no gain present, the beam would subsequently reflect back and forth and allow part of th energy t escape via t t f the to i transmission i i through the mirror The energy would decay according to the relationship, The effective decay time of the cavity resulting dE E opticaldue to transmission from losses of a = portion of light through the dt tC mirrors during each pass The decay time tC can be expressed as, y p ,

nS tC = cLF

Distance between mirrors Fractional l F ti l loss per pass

84

Relaxation Oscillations
Cavity Decay Time
Consider the C id th round-trip steady-state equation f a dti t d t t ti for laser, which can be written as
R1R2e (g )2L = 1
The loss term The Th scattering l tt i losses per pass of a1 and a2 are ignored

R1R2e 2Le 2gL = 1

The loss term can thus be expressed as an exponential factor LF as,

R1R2e 2L = e 2LF
Include a round trip within the cavity

85

Relaxation Oscillations
Cavity Decay Time
The fractional l Th f ti l loss per pass LF can th b written thus be itt as, 1/ 2 LF = L ln (R1R2 ) Using this relationship for LF, we can now write a more explicit expression for tC as,
tC = nS L ln (R R )1/ 2 c 1 2

86

Relaxation Oscillations
Relaxation Oscillations
The l Th relaxation oscillation angular f ti ill ti l frequency,
ro

(Pu / Pu th 1) / utC

The relaxation oscillation decay rate, 1 Pu ro = th Pu u The oscillation decay time constant, 1 ro = ro

87

Relaxation Oscillations
Example
A G A semiconductor l GaAs i d t laser h a cavity l th of has it length f 0.4 mm, with the cleaved ends of the semiconductor serving as the laser mirrors. The index of refraction of th material i 3 4 and th di t ib t d l f the t i l is 3.4, d the distributed loss within ithi the GaAs material at the laser wavelength is 0.3 m-1. Assume that the pumping flux is a factor of 2 above the threshold value and u = 1 ns. h h h ld l d Find the relaxation oscillation frequency ro and the decay time constant tC for this laser system system.

88

Relaxation Oscillations
Solution
The i Th mirror reflectivities R which are d fl ti iti R, hi h due t th to the Fresnel reflections at the interface of the material and the air around it owing to the difference in index f f ti i d of refraction, 2 2 n 1 3.4 1 = = 0.3 R = n + 1 3.4 + 1 Thus, we can solve for tC as follows, nS S tC = L ln (R R )1/ 2 c 1 2 3.4 0.4 103 = 1/ 2 3 108 0.3 0.4 103 ln (0.3 0.3) 89 = 3.76 1012 s

Relaxation Oscillations
Solution
Since Pu/Puth = 2 we can estimate th relaxation Si 2, ti t the l ti oscillation frequency to be,
ro Pu / Pu th 1) / utC (

= (2 1) / (3.76 1012 1 109 ) = 1.63 1010 rad/s Or a frequency of of, ro 1.63 1010 ro = = = 2.59 109 Hz 2 2

90

Relaxation Oscillations
Solution
The l Th relaxation oscillation d ti ill ti decay rate i t is, 1 Pu ro = th u Pu
1 (2) = 2 109 s -1 = 1 109 Hence, the decay time constant is, 1 1 ro = = = 0.5 ns 9 2 10 ro

91

Requirements for Inversions

Two-level Systems

Requirements for Inversions

Three-level Three level Systems

Four-level Four level Systems

92

Requirements for Inversions

Two-level Systems Could C ld an i inversion b created i two-level systems? i be d in l l ?
Eu ul El Nl Nu

93

Requirements for Inversions

Two-level Systems
The intensity f light Th i t it of li ht emerging f i from a l laser,

I = I 0e ul Nul z = I 0e ul (Nu Nl )L
assume gu/ l = 1 /g

Since Nu + Nl = N, we can rewrite the above equation as as, ul 12(Nl / N ) NL the value of I = I 0e The pumping light will be absorbed until Nu = Nl. Then, there is no mechanism to increase the population in the upper level

the exponent is zero

94

Requirements for Inversions

Three-level Systems
i
Rapid decay

u
Laser

u
Pump Laser Pump

l
Rapid decay

l (a)
Traditional solid-state lasers

0 (b)
Gas lasers
95

Requirements for Inversions

Three-level Systems (a) Consider h intermediate l C id the i t di t level as the upper l l h laser

level It can be assumed that the energies of u and i are sufficiently high that thermal excitations from the ground-state level l to levels u and i are very small This can be shown by using the principle of detailed balance, in which
for the condition ofN u ul = N lq lu thermal equilibrium

96

Requirements for Inversions

Three-level Systems (a) Using h Boltzmann relationship, U i the B lt l i hi
Nu lu = = e (Eu El ) / kT Nl ul Since the energy separation is much greater than kT, lu i very s all f any value of Eu is e small for l f
Note: is used to denote an externally applied pumping or excitation rate, and t d i it ti t d to describe an ib excitation of decay process inherently associated with the medium

97

Requirements for Inversions

Three-level Systems (a) Consider h C id the rate equations f t ti for the population h l i densities of levels i, u and l by considering the flux entering and leaving each level per unit time:
dN l = li N l + ul N u + il N i = 0 dt dN u = ul N u + iu N i = 0 dt dN i = li N l (il + iu ) N i = 0 dt

Assume that no significant external g pumping process occurs from level l to level u

98

Requirements for Inversions

Three-level Systems (a)
Since Ni + Nu + Nl = N Si N,

ul (iu + il ) Nl = N ul (il + iu ) + (ul + iu ) li iu li Nu = N ul (il + iu ) + (ul + iu ) li

The ratio Nu/ l ( /N (assuming that gu gl) ),
Nu iu li = >1 Nl ul (iu + il )

99

Requirements for Inversions

Three-level Systems (a) We W would thus h ld h have a population i l ti inversion if i if,
this transition is primarily by radiative decay at a rate Aul

il assume this is small li > ul 1 + iu > Aul Hence, if the pumping rate li exceeds the radiative rate Aul then the population will b transferred to h h l ll be f d level i and then to level u by rapid collisional decay, which eventually produces an inversion between level u and level l

100

Requirements for Inversions

Three-level Systems (b)
Consider h C id the upper l laser l l as the hi h t l level h highest level l Assume that N0 N, since El0 and Eu0 are generally much greater th kT f th system ll h t than for the t Also assume no significant thermal excitation and so 0u, 0l and lu are neglected The rate equations for the flux entering and leaving levels u and l as

dN u = N 0 0u N u (ul + u 0 ) = 0 dt dN l = N 0 0l + N u ul N l l 0 = 0 dt
101

Requirements for Inversions

Three-level Systems (b)
For the t d t t F th steady-state solution, equate th RHS t l ti t the to zero,

N 0 0u Nu = ul + u 0 N 0 0l + 0u ul / (ul + u 0 ) Nl = l 0
In order to have gain, Nul > 0, thus
g l N u gl 0u l 0 = + ( + ) > 1 gu N l gu u 0 0l ul 0l 0u
102

Requirements for Inversions

Three-level Systems (b) Often collisional d Of lli i l decay processes are negligible li ibl
compared to radiative decay, thus
g l N u gl 0u Al 0 = A + A ( + ) > 1 gu N l gu u 0 0l ul 0l 0u

It is evident that a population inversion can be obtained if the decay from level l is significantly greater than the decay from level u, provided that the pumping to level l is not highly favored over th t t l l u that to level

103

Requirements for Inversions

Three-level Systems (b)
If Al0 i l is large, Au0 would b very small, th ld be ll thus,
g l N u gl 1 Al 0 >1 gu (1 + 0l / 0u ) Aul gu N l

It is most desirable to have a f fast d decay out of the lower laser level and a higher pumping flux to the upper laser level

104

Requirements for Inversions

Four-level Systems
This Thi arrangement i t i l of many solid-state t is typical f lid t t lasers and organic dye lasers i iu
Pump Rapid decay

u
Laser

0i

ul 0l

l0 Rapid decay 0
105

Requirements for Inversions

Four-level Systems Neglect N l t upward rates b d t because the l h large energy
separation Specific downward rates il, i0 and u0 are also neglected since they are very small, owing to the large energy separations
dN l = 0l N 0 l 0N l + ul N u = 0 dt dN u = ul N u + iu N i = 0 dt dN i = 0i N 0 iu N i = 0 dt
106

Requirements for Inversions

Four-level Systems
N0 + Nl + Nu + Ni = N th N, thus
the total number of dopant ions per unit volume and is therefore constant

dN 0 dN l dN u dN i = dt dt dt dt
We W can solve these equations and obtain, l h i d b i

0i Nu = N0 ul ( 0l + 0i ) N0 Nl = l 0
107

Requirements for Inversions

Four-level Systems
The ti Th ratio Nu/Nl ( (assuming th t gu gl) i that ),
Nu l 0 0i = >1 Nl ul ( 0l + 0i )

Therefore, a population i Th f l i inversion will occur f a i ill for pumping flux 0i if, 0l ul l0 is typically much 0i > (l 0 ul ) greater than ul 0l > ul = e El 0 / kT ul l 0
108

Requirements for Inversions

Four-level Systems
It I can b seen that the pumping requirements of be h h i i t f the four-level system are significantly reduced compared to the traditional three-level system p y
by the factor e-El0/kT

El0 is typically much greater than kT at or near room temperature and thus e-El0/kT << 1 for most solid-state lasers

109

Resonators Stability

Stable Resonators

Resonators S bili R Stability

Unstable Resonators

110

Resonators Stability
Stable Resonators
The Th curvatures of th mirrors k t f the i keep th li ht the light concentrated near the axis of the resonator The only way light can escape from the resonator is to go through one of the mirrors

111

Resonators Stability
Unstable Resonators
The light Th li ht rays continue t move away f ti to from th the resonator axis until eventually they miss the small caused by the shadow convex mirror altogether of the small mirror The output beam from this resonator will have a doughnut-like shape with a hole in the middle The d Th advantage i that they usually produce a l is h h ll d larger beam volume inside the gain medium
The beam can interact with more of the population inversion and thereby produce more output power

112

Pumping Techniques
Transfer Across Transfer from Below Optical Pumping Indirect Pumping Transfer from Above Particle Pumping

Pumping Techniques

Direct Pumping
113

Pumping Techniques
Threshold Requirements
The t d t t Th steady-state solution f Nu i l ti for is,

Nu =

N j ju
u

= N j ju u

The density in the state j of the species from which the energy is to be transferred

ul + u 0

The expression involving the minimum pumping flux ju as,

ul N u L = ul N j ju u L 12 5 1 1 ul N u L = ul N j ju u L = ln 2 R1R2
With no mirrors With t two mirrors

114

Pumping Techniques
Direct Pumping
The Th excitation fl i i flux i sent di tl to the upper is directly h laser level u from a source or target state j, in which g y p p g the source state is the highly populated ground state 0 of the laser species u
Laser

l
Pump

0u =

1 B0u c

0
115

Pumping Techniques
Optical Pumping
Often Oft used f solid-state and organic d l d for lid t t d i dye lasers The pumping rate, I ( ) I 0u = B0 u = B0u c c

Particle Pumping P i l P i
Generally used for gas lasers and also semiconductor lasers The reaction probability for causing a transition The pumping rate, from level 0 to level u
0u = N p k 0u = N p v p 0 0u
Pumping particle density p gp y The average velocity between the colliding species p and the target species 0 116

Pumping Techniques
Direct Pumping
Disadvantages Several effects can prevent direct pumping from being an effective excitation process for many potential lasers. These effects are listed as follows follows. 1. There may be no efficient direct route from the ground state 0 to the laser state u. For optical pumping, that would mean that the B0 associated with pump 0u absorption is too small to produce enough gain; for particle pumping, it would mean that the electron collisional excitation cross section 0u is too small. 2. There may be a good direct route from 0 to u, but there may also be a better route from 0 to l (the lower laser level) by the same process. In this case 0l/0u may be too l large to allow an i ll inversion. i

117

Pumping Techniques
Direct Pumping
Disadvantages 3. Even though there may be a good probability for excitation - via absorption either of the pump light associated with B0 for optical excitation or of 0 e for 0u 0u electron excitation - there may not be a good source of pumping flux available. That is, there may be insufficient intensity, I for optical pumping, or insufficient d i i ffi i density Np ( (or electron d i l density ne) f for particle pumping, at the specific energies necessary for pumping population from level 0 to level u.

118

Pumping Techniques
Indirect Pumping
Indirect pumping processes all involve an intermediate level q and can be considered in three general categories as diagrammed in the figure below: transfer from below, transfer across, and transfer from above.

119

Pumping Techniques
Indirect Pumping
For all three cases the flux transfer rate from a level q to the cases, upper laser level u can be written as

for particle transfer, such as electrons or heavy particles, where Np is the pumping particle density, and is the average relative vp velocity b l i between the colliding species p and the target species q. h llidi i d h i The flux transfer rate from a level q to the upper laser level u can be written as

for f transfer b photons, where i the absorption li f by h h is h b i linewidth. id h

120

Laser Cavity Modes

Longitudinal Laser Cavity Modes
We have seen that one or more longitudinal laser mode frequencies can occur when a two-mirror cavity is placed around the laser gain medium and sufficient time (typically 10 ns to 1 s) is allowed for such modes to develop. The total number of modes present i d b f d is determined b the separation d i d by h i between the mirrors, as well as by the laser bandwidth and type of broadening (homogeneous or inhomogeneous) that is present. present The actual laser mode frequencies can be obtained by by,

for lasers in which the index of refraction is the same throughout the pathway of the laser beam within the optical cavity, as shown in the figure on the next slide. Remember that n is a positive integer so as to satisfy the standing-wave conditions of the Fabry-Perot resonator.
121

Laser Cavity Modes

Longitudinal Laser Cavity Modes
This expression is valid for almost all gas lasers as well as for lasers, solid-state and dye lasers in which the mirrors are placed immediately at the ends of the gain medium. If a laser has a space of length d - L between the gain medium and the mirrors, and if that cavity space h a diff d h i has different value f the i d of l for h index f refraction C than the index L of the laser gain medium, then a specific laser mode frequency associated with a mode number n can be expressed as as,

122

Laser Cavity Modes

Transverse Laser Cavity Modes
U (x y) is its own Fourier transform The simplest solution of (x, transform. such a function is the Gaussian function

Functions that are their own Fourier transforms can be written more generally as the products of Hermite polynomials and the Gaussian di ib i f G i distribution function of the equation above: i f h i b

In this solution for x y symmetry, p and q are integers that designate the order of the H d i h d f h Hermite polynomials. Th i l i l Thus, every set of (p, q) represents a specific stable distribution of wave amplitude at one of the mirrors, or a specific transverse mode of the open-walled cavity open walled cavity.
123

Laser Cavity Modes

Transverse Laser Cavity Modes
We can list several Hermite polynomials as follows:

where u denotes one or the other of the terms or . We can designate these transverse mode distributions as TEMpq, where TEM stands for transverse electromagnetic. transverse electromagnetic The lowest-order mode is designated TEM00. The TEM00 mode has a Gaussian distribution of the form for the electric field as shown in the figure below where E0 is the value of the below, electric field at the center of the mirror ( = 0).

124

Laser Cavity Modes

Transverse Laser Cavity Modes
Adjacent to that diagram is the intensity distribution which is distribution, determined by taking the square of the electric field at each point on the mirror such that I0 = E02. The radial distribution of the intensity from the center of the mirror is then . The l Th values of the electric fi ld di ib i and i f h l i field distribution d intensity f the i for h TEM01 mode on the mirrors are shown in the figure below.

125

Cavity Effects
Spectral Hole Burning
For the inhomogeneous Doppler-broadened medium typical of inhomogeneous, most gas lasers, the population in the upper laser level will be reduced only at the frequencies where the modes are developing. This is because different populations within the upper laser level contribute to different frequency components of the gain spectrum. The gain will thus be depleted only at the locations of those modes over a frequency width equivalent to the natural linewidth of each of those radiating atoms. Thus, if the natural emission linewidth of the transition is significantly narrower than the Doppler width (which it is for most visible gas lasers), then the gain spectrum while the laser is i operating will h i ill have a periodic variation spaced according to i di i i d di the longitudinal mode spacing.

126

Cavity Effects
Spectral Hole Burning

127

Cavity Effects
Spatial Hole Burning
When the standing-wave pattern of a single longitudinal mode develops within the homogeneously broadened laser cavity (that is typical of most solid-state lasers), the laser intensity pattern along the length of the gain medium is regularly spaced. d The spacings occur at half-wavelength intervals, with the intensity being zero at the cavity mirrors and at every halfwavelength i l h interval b l between the mirrors. h i Within the amplifier, at those null points of the intensity pattern where the electric field is zero, there is no stimulated emission and thus no reduction i the gain. i i d h d i in h i The gain profile thus has a periodic spatial variation within the gain medium that is 90 (/2) out of phase with the laser intensity profile within the gain medium. i i fil i hi h i di

128

Cavity Effects
Spatial Hole Burning

129

Cavity Effects
Q-Switching
Process Pump the gain media for the duration of u without the cavity in place and then suddenly switch the cavity back into place. Consequently, the l C l h laser will operate with the hi h ill i h h highest possible ibl gain and thus obtain a higher energy output. This would only be temporary: the laser output would be in the form of a giant pulse, since the gain i f above the steadyf f i l i h i is far b h d state conditions for gain in the cavity and would therefore be rapidly reduced by stimulated emission. Pulse Evolution P l E l i

130

Cavity Effects
Q-Switching
Requirements 1. The lifetime u of the upper laser level u must be longer than the cavity build-up time ts, so that the upper level can store the extra energy pumped into it over the extended pumping time: u > ts 2. The 2 Th pumping fl d i flux duration TP must b l i be longer than the h h cavity buildup time, and preferably at least as long as the upper level lifetime u: TP u 3. The initial cavity losses must be high enough during the pumping duration u to prevent beam growth and oscillation f ill i from occurring d i that time: i during h i [initial cavity losses] > [amplifier gain]
131

Cavity Effects
Q-Switching
Requirements 4. The cavity losses must be reduced almost instantaneously, by suddenly introducing a high-Q cavity, cavity so that the beam could then evolve and extract the extra energy that had previously built up in the upper laser level u of the gain medium.

Mode-Locking
Process Mode-locking is achieved by combining in phase a number of g y g p distinct longitudinal modes of a laser, all having slightly different frequencies. When these frequencies (modes) are added in phase, they q ( ) p , y combine to produce a total field amplitude and intensity output that has a characteristic repetitive pulsed nature.

132

Cavity Effects
Mode-Locking
Pulse Evolution

133

The End

Thank Th k you

134