Introduction to Local Area Network (LAN)

Protocols
What Is a LAN?

A LAN is a high-speed data network that is usually confined to a

limited geographic area, such as a single building or a college campus.
LANs can be small, linking as few as three computers, but can often
link hundreds of computers used by thousands of people. The
development of standard networking protocols and media has resulted
in worldwide proliferation of LANs throughout business and educational
organizations. It typically connects workstations, personal computers,
printers, servers, and other devices. LANs offer computer users many
advantages, including shared access to devices and applications, file
exchange between connected users, and communication between
users via electronic mail and other applications.

LAN Transmission Methods

LAN data transmissions fall into three classifications: unicast,

multicast, and broadcast. In each type of transmission, a single packet
is sent to one or more nodes.

In a unicast transmission, a single packet is sent from the source

to a destination on a network. First, the source node addresses the
packet by using the address of the destination node. The package is
then sent onto the network, and finally, the network passes the packet
to its destination.

A multicast transmission consists of a single data packet that is

copied and sent to a specific subset of nodes on the network. First, the
source node addresses the packet by using a multicast address. The
packet is then sent into the network, which makes copies of the packet
and sends a copy to each node that is part of the multicast address.

A broadcast transmission consists of a single data packet that is

copied and sent to all nodes on the network. In these types of
transmissions, the source node addresses the packet by using the
broadcast address. The packet is then sent on to the network, which
makes copies of the packet and sends a copy to every node on the
network

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Types of LAN Technology
• Ethernet

Ethernet is the most popular physical layer LAN technology in

use today. It defines the number of conductors that are required for a
connection, the performance thresholds that can be expected, and
provides the framework for data transmission. A standard Ethernet
network can transmit data at a rate up to 10 Megabits per second (10
Mbps). Other LAN types include Token Ring, Fast Ethernet, Gigabit
Ethernet, 10 Gigabit Ethernet, Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI),
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) and Local Talk.

Ethernet is popular because it strikes a good balance between

speed, cost and ease of installation. These benefits, combined with
wide acceptance in the computer marketplace and the ability to
support virtually all popular network protocols, make Ethernet an ideal
networking technology for most computer users today.

The Institute for Electrical and Electronic Engineers developed an

Ethernet standard known as IEEE Standard 802.3. This standard
defines rules for configuring an Ethernet network and also specifies
how the elements in an Ethernet network interact with one another. By
adhering to the IEEE standard, network equipment and network
protocols can communicate efficiently.

• Fast Ethernet

The Fast Ethernet standard (IEEE 802.3u) has been established

for Ethernet networks that need higher transmission speeds. This
standard raises the Ethernet speed limit from 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps
with only minimal changes to the existing cable structure. Fast
Ethernet provides faster throughput for video, multimedia, graphics,
Internet surfing and stronger error detection and correction.

There are three types of Fast Ethernet: 100BASE-TX for use with
level 5 UTP cable; 100BASE-FX for use with fiber-optic cable; and
100BASE-T4 which utilizes an extra two wires for use with level 3 UTP
cable. The 100BASE-TX standard has become the most popular due to
its close compatibility with the 10BASE-T Ethernet standard.

• Gigabit Ethernet

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 Gigabit Ethernet was developed to meet the need for faster
communication networks with applications such as multimedia and
Voice over IP (VoIP). Also known as "gigabit-Ethernet-over-copper" or
1000Base-T, GigE is a version of Ethernet that runs at speeds 10 times
faster than 100Base-T. It is defined in the IEEE 802.3 standard and is
currently used as an enterprise backbone. Existing Ethernet LANs with
10 and 100 Mbps cards can feed into a Gigabit Ethernet backbone to
interconnect high performance switches, routers and servers.

From the data link layer of the OSI model upward, the look and
implementation of Gigabit Ethernet is identical to that of Ethernet. The
most important differences between Gigabit Ethernet and Fast Ethernet
include the additional support of full duplex operation in the MAC layer
and the data rates.

• 10 Gigabit Ethernet

10 Gigabit Ethernet is the fastest and most recent of the

Ethernet standards. IEEE 802.3ae defines a version of Ethernet with a
nominal rate of 10Gbits/s that makes it 10 times faster than Gigabit
Ethernet.

Unlike other Ethernet systems, 10 Gigabit Ethernet is based

entirely on the use of optical fiber connections. This developing
standard is moving away from a LAN design that broadcasts to all
nodes, toward a system which includes some elements of wide area
routing. As it is still very new, which of the standards will gain
commercial acceptance has yet to be determined.

• Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)

ATM is a cell-based fast-packet communication technique that

can support data-transfer rates from sub-T1 speeds to 10 Gbps. ATM
achieves its high speeds in part by transmitting data in fixed-size cells
and dispensing with error-correction protocols. It relies on the inherent
integrity of digital lines to ensure data integrity.

ATM can be integrated into an existing network as needed

without having to update the entire network. Its fixed-length cell-relay
operation is the signaling technology of the future and offers more
predictable performance than variable length frames. Networks are
extremely versatile and an ATM network can connect points in a
building, or across the country, and still be treated as a single network.

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 • Power over Ethernet (PoE)

PoE is a solution in which an electrical current is run to

networking hardware over the Ethernet Category 5 cable or higher.
This solution does not require an extra AC power cord at the product
location. This minimizes the amount of cable needed as well as
eliminates the difficulties and cost of installing extra outlets.

LAN Technology Specifications

Name IEEE Data Media Type Maximum
Standard Rate Distance
Ethernet 802.3 10 10Base-T 100 meters
Mbps
Fast Ethernet/ 802.3u 100 100Base-TX 100 meters
100Base-T Mbps 100Base-FX 2000 meters
Gigabit 802.3z 1000 1000Base-T 100 meters
Ethernet/ Mbps 1000Base-SX 275/550 meters
GigE 1000Base-LX 550/5000 meters
10 Gigabit IEEE 10 10GBase-SR 300 meters
Ethernet 802.3ae Gbps 10GBase-LX4 300m MMF/ 10km
10GBase-LR/ER SMF
10GBase- 10km/40km
SW/LW/EW 300m/10km/40km

• Token Ring

Token Ring is another form of network configuration. It differs

from Ethernet in a way that all messages are transferred in one
direction along the ring at all times. Token Ring networks sequentially
pass a “token” to each connected device. When the token arrives at a
particular computer (or device), the recipient is allowed to transmit
data onto the network. Since only one device may be transmitting at
any given time, no data collisions occur. Access to the network is
guaranteed, and time-sensitive applications can be supported.
However, these benefits come at a price. Component costs are usually
higher, and the networks themselves are considered to be more
complex and difficult to implement. Various PC vendors have been
proponents of Token Ring networks.

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Open Systems Interconnection Model
OSI Model - History, Origin, Purpose

The International Standards Organization (ISO) developed a

theoretical model of how networks should behave and how they are
put together. This model is called the Open Standards Interconnect
(OSI) Model. The "ISO OSI Model" was developed because it appeared
that IBM was going to patent the design of their SNA networks so that
no one else could use IBM's design model for networking. The ISO OSI
model is used throughout the network, internet and telecom industries
today to describe various networking issues. The OSI model is also of
use in a learning or training environment where a novice can use it as
a point of reference to learn how various technologies interact, where
they reside, what functions they perform and how each protocol
communicates with other protocols.

The ISO's Open Standards Interconnect document series defines a

model for networking which specifies:

• How information should be handled when being transported

over a network.
• How software should interact with the network.
• Layers at which specific networking functions are performed.
• Layer specific functions should be invisible to the layer above
it and below it.
• The method of communication at the boundaries between
layers.

OSI Model - A Layered Approach to Networking

Host #1 Host #2
DATA Applicatio Applicatio DATA
[DATA n n [DATA
[[DATA Presentati Presentati [[DATA
[[[DATA on on [[[DATA
[[[[DAT Session Session [[[[DATA
A Transport Transport [[[[[DAT
[[[[[DAT Network Network A
A Data Link Data Link
[[[[[[DAT
[[[[[[DA
Physical Physical A
TA

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OSI MODEL - Basic Operation
Layer 7: Application

Network-capable Applications produce DATA.

This layer supports the application and end-user processes.

Within this layer, user privacy is considered and communication
partners, service and constraints are all identified. File transfers, email,
Telnet and FTP applications are all provided within this layer.

Layer 6: Presentation (Syntax)

Each layer in the OSI Model adds its own information to the front of the data it
receives from the layer above it. This information in front of the data is called a
header and contains information specific to the protocol operating at that layer. The
process of adding the header is called encapsulation. Encapsulated data is
transmitted in Protocol Data Units (PDUs). There are Presentation PDU's, Session
PDU's, Transport PDU's etc. Thus, PDU's from an upper layer are encapsulated
inside the PDU of the layer below. it.

Within this layer, information is translated back and forth

between application and network formats. This translation transforms
the information into data the application layer and network recognize
regardless of encryption and formatting.

Layer 5: Session

PDU's are passed down through the stack of layers (called 'the stack' for
short) optionally repeating the encapsulation process until they can be transmitted
over the Physical layer. The physical layer is the wire connecting all the computers
on the network.

Within this layer, connections between applications are made,

managed and terminated as needed to allow for data exchanges
between applications at each end of a dialogue.

Layer 4: Transport

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 Complete data transfer is ensured as information is transferred transparently
between systems in this layer. The transport layer also assures appropriate flow
control and end-to-end error recovery.

The OSI standards specify that a layer on host #1 speaks the

same language as the same layer on host #2 or any other host on the
network. Thus, all hosts can communicate via the Physical layer. This
communication between layers is represented by the symbols .

Layer 3: Network

DATA passed upwards is unencapsulated before being passed farther up

(represented by the colored brackets [[[[[[ ).

Using switching and routing technologies, this layer is

responsible for creating virtual circuits to transmit information from
node to node. Other functions include routing, forwarding, addressing,
internetworking, error and congestion control, and packet sequencing.

Layer 2: Data Link

All information is passed down through all layers until it reaches the Physical
layer (represented by the vertical red arrows).

Information in data packets are encoded and decoded into bits

within this layer. Errors from the physical layer flow control and frame
synchronization are corrected here utilizing transmission protocol
knowledge and management. This layer consists of two sub layers: the
Media Access Control (MAC) layer, which controls the way networked
computers gain access to data and transmit it, and the Logical Link
Control (LLC) layer, which controls frame synchronization, flow control
and error checking.

Layer 1: Physical

The Physical layer chops up the PDU's and transmits the PDU's over the
physical connection (copper wire, fiber optic cable, radio link etc.). The Physical
layer provides the real physical connectivity between hosts over which all
communication occurs.

This layer enables hardware to send and receive data over a

carrier such as cabling, a card or other physical means. It conveys the
bitstream through the network at the electrical and mechanical level.
Fast Ethernet, RS232, and ATM are all protocols with physical layer
components.

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Local Area Network Topologies
Local Area Networks (LANs) use one of the following physical layout
designs. These designs are referred to as 'topologies'.

Topology Types
(Logical
Bus
Ethernet)
Hub and Spoke (Physical
(Star) Ethernet)
Hybrid (Bus & Star) Ethernet
Point To Point / Daisy
Serial
Chaining
Point to Multipoint Frame Relay
FDDI, Token
Ring
Ring

BUS TOPOLOGY
Networks employing a bus topology
use a common physical connection
for communication. That means the
physical media is shared between
stations. When one station
transmits on the bus, all devices
hear the transmission. If more than
one device transmits at the same

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time, the two transmissions will collide with each other and both
transmissions will destroy each other.

When two or more of these devices attempts to access the

network bus at the same time, some method must be used to prevent
a collision (CSMA/CD). Historically, bus networks used coaxial cable
as their medium of transmission. Token Bus, Ethernet (Thinnet
and Thicknet) are common examples of bus topologies. Although some
installations of Ethernet using coaxial cable still exist, all modern
installations now use a hub and spoke or star topology.

HUB AND SPOKE (STAR) TOPOLOGY

Note that this is not called a hub
and spoke design because there is a
network hub in the drawing. This
drawing is to show how a star or hub
and spoke network resembles the hub
and spokes of a wheel. The Hub and
Spoke topology refers to a network
topology where there is a central
connection point to which multiple
devices are connected.

A network hub device is not the

only device usable in this configuration. A switch may also be used and
in some cases, a router. Ethernet utilizing twisted pair still considered a
bus architecture from a logical standpoint; however, physically, an
Ethernet network can be physically wired as a hub and spoke model.

RING TOPOLOGY
Ring topologies are similar to bus
topologies, except they transmit in
one direction only from station to
station. Typically, a ring architecture
will use separate physical ports and
wires for transmit and receive.

Token Ring is one example of a

network technology that uses a ring
topology.

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POINT TO POINT (Daisy Chaining) TOPOLOGY
Point to Point topologies are simplest
and most straightforward. You must
picture them as a chain of devices and
another name for this type of
connectivity is called daisy chaining.
Most computers can 'daisy chain' a series of serial devices from one of
its serial ports. Networks of routers are often configured as point-to-
point topologies.

POINT TO MULTIPOINT TOPOLOGY

This is not quite the same as a hub and
spoke configuration. In a hub and spoke
topology, all transmissions from all devices pass
through the hub--the hub broadcasts all
communication from any single device to all
other devices connected to it.

In a multipoint topology the hub can send

to one or more systems based on an address.
Frame Relay is the most common technology to
implement this scheme, and it is typically used as a WAN technology.
All the remote connection points are connected to a single Frame
Relay switch or router port, and communication between sites is
managed by that central point. In hub and spoke, all spokes or only
one spoke hears a given transmission. In point to multipoint, any
number of remote stations can be accessed.

Logical Network Topologies

• Peer-to-Peer

A peer-to-peer network is composed of two or more self-sufficient

computers. Each computer handles all functions, logging in, storage,
providing a user interface etc. The computers on a peer-to-peer
network can communicate, but do not need the resources or services

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available from the other computers on the network. Peer-to-peer is the
opposite of the client-server logical network model.

A Microsoft Windows Workgroup is one example of a peer-to-peer

network. UNIX servers running as stand-alone systems are also a peer-
to-peer network. Logins, services and files are local to the computer.
You can only access resources on other peer computers if you have
logins on the peer computers.

• Client - Server

The simplest client-server network is composed of a server and

one or more clients. The server provides a service that the client
computer needs. Clients connect to the server across the network in
order to access the service. A server can be a piece of software
running on a computer, or it can be the computer itself.

One of the simplest examples of client-server is a File Transfer

Protocol (FTP) session. File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a protocol and
service that allows your computer to get or put files to a second
computer using a network connection. A computer running FTP
software opens a session to an FTP server to download or upload a file.
The FTP server is providing file storage services over the network.
Because it is providing file storage services, it is said to be a 'file
server'. A client software application is required to access the FTP
service running on the file server.

Most computer networks today control logins on all machines

from a centralized logon server. When you sit down to a computer and
type in your username and password, your username and password
are sent by the computer to the logon server. UNIX servers use NIS,
NIS+ or LDAP to provide these login services. Microsoft Windows
computers use Active Directory and Windows Logon and/or an LDAP
client. Users on a client-server network will usually only need one login
to access resources on the network.

• Distributed Services

Computer networks using distributed services provide those

services to client computers, but not from a centralized server. The
services are running on more than one computer and some or all of the
functions provided by the service are provided by more than one
server.

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 The simplest example of a distributed service is Domain Name
Service (DNS) which performs the function of turning human-
understandable names into computer numbers called IP addresses.
Whenever you browse a web page, your computer uses DNS. Your
computer sends a DNS request to your local DNS server. That local
server will then go to a remote server on the Internet called a "DNS
Root Server" to begin the lookup process. This Root Server will then
direct your local DNS server to the owner of the domain name the
website is a part of. Thus, there are at least three DNS servers involved
in the process of finding and providing the IP address of the website
you intended to browse. Your local DNS server provides the query
functions and asks other servers for information. The Root DNS server
tells your local DNS server where to find an answer. The DNS server
that 'owns' the domain of the website you are trying to browse tells
your local DNS server the correct IP address. Your computer stores that
IP address in its own local DNS cache. Thus, DNS is a distributed
service that runs everywhere, but no one computer can do the job by
itself.

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