School Certificate Notes

HISTORY
Focus Issues 1. What has been the nature of the relationship between Australia and the rest of the world? 2. What have been the significant developments in Australias political history? 3. What have been the significant developments in Australias social and cultural history? 4. What has been the changing nature of Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal relations in Australia? 5. How have the rights and freedoms of various gender, cultural, social and economic groups changed? History

1. Australian Social and Political Life to 1914

How and why did Federation occur? - 1883: Federal Council was formed o Met every 2 years o Discussed minor matters o Had no power to make laws o Dissolved in 1899 - 1889: Sir Henry Parkes called for a Parliamentary Convention of Australia meeting of delegates from colonies - 1881: Convention held, draft constitution drawn up - 1893: Australian Natives Association proposes second Convention - 1898: First Referendum held and fails - 1900: Queen Victoria signs the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act - 1901: Australia officially begins as a nation o Economic advantage customs barriers/taxes abolished o Defence One large army would be more efficient o White Australia Restricting migration o Nationalistic sentiments Reflected in art and media people thought of themselves as Australians rather than British o Uniform laws and cooperation Transport Railways Telephones Post What are the main features of Australias Constitution? - Sets out the rules of the Commonwealth, or Federal government - Defines the federal powers; all other matters are left with the states - An Upper House, the Senate, was created, where all states have the same number of members - Constitution can only be changed by a Referendum, where people vote yes or no must be passed by majority of Australians and majority of states Page 1 of 18

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Parliament o Monarch as head of state, Senate and House of Reps o Makes laws 3 levels of government o federal, state and local will be interpreted by the High Court

How did Federation affect Australias links to England? - Australians took more responsibility for their own affairs - Strong links with Britain still remained, as Australia was influenced by o Foreign policy, defence and trade Britain had special treatment, eg lower tariffs If war broke out, Australian navy would be under British o Legal systems British businessmen had protection for their businesses appeals could go to the Privy Council of Britain abolished in 1986 o Political systems initial appointment of British Governor-Generals What was life like in Australia at the beginning of the 20th century? - laissez-faire economic policies of government, interfering very little - vast differences between rich and poor o Upper class: very rich, owned large amounts of land, large business or inherited wealth o Middle class: small shopkeepers, people who owned a living from professional occupations eg lawyers, teachers and accountants, or who were self-employed o Lower class: working under a boss in a manual job, little money and few opportunities for leisure - women, indigenous people and migrants had few rights - enormous changes were taking place eg technology - standard of living began to rise - Labor party began to increase wages and improve working conditions - socially conservative society Was Australia a working mans paradise? - Australian workers were much better off than those overseas - Social security legislation passed in 1905 - Old age pensions were introduced for people over 65 from 1909 - Shorter working hours, basic wage, increased leisure time, invalid pensions, workers compensation and maternity allowance - Australians ate better food and worked fewer days to pay for their food - Australian government passed introduced many reforms that we take for granted today Which groups in Australian society could not vote in 1901? - Aboriginal people Page 2 of 18

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Women

How did women achieve voting rights? - 1890s: women began to enter workforce at greater rates - 1894: SA granted women suffrage - 1899: WA granted women suffrage - 1902: Women had federal suffrage, NSW gives suffrage - 1908: VIC was final state to give women suffrage How did the voting rights of various groups in Australia compare with the rest of the world? - women had voting rights relatively early - New Zealand and Australia had women well ahead - NZ was the first to give female suffrage in 1893 - 1918: Canada - 1920: USA - 1928: GB - 1946: Japan Why did Australia restrict non-white immigration? - Economic factors o People lost their jobs and were replaced by migrants working on lower wages o Asians were accepting of lower wages and working conditions - Racist attitudes o Belief in white superiority What were the main features of the White Australia Policy? - Immigration Restriction Act, 1901 o Dictation test for migrants, designed to be failed - Pacific Island Labourers Act, 1901 o All Kanakas were forced to leave unless they had been born in Australia or had been living in QLD before 1871 How did the White Australia Policy reflect Australias view of Asia and indigenous peoples? - belief in White superiority - fear of other races bringing in cultural changes to the "Good Australian ways" - "all Australians should be alike" What forms of dispossession were carried out against Aboriginal people? - traditional land was taken by colonists for sheep pastures and European-style settlements - Europeans viewed the land as a commodity which could be purchased and used until its resources were depleted

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Aboriginal people viewed the land as a living part of them which could not be bought or sold and maintained a spiritual relationship with it

How was paternalism applied to Aboriginal peoples? - Paternalism an attitude that led to dealing with Aboriginal people as a father deals with his children - They were seen as inferior and in need of protection - Increasing concerns due to decline in number of Aborigines - Charles Darwin's book described "survival of the fittest" - thus it was believed that the "weaker" Aboriginal people would eventually die out How was the policy of protection implemented? - Crown land was used to create reserves for Aborigines starting in the 1850s - Aborigines lived and worked independently on reserves - They maintained their tribal customs - Few lived on "White Charity" - This was undermined by o A decision by the Privy Council in 1889 that the land was "terra nullius", and Aboriginal peoples had no right to own the land o An economic depression in the 1890s during which Aboriginal people began to ask to be placed on ration lists o Part-aborigines began to be moved off the land o Reserve land began to be sold off to farmers, and Aborigines were moved away

2. Australia and World War I

Why did Australia become involved in World War I? - Support for Britain - 96% of Australians had British ancestry - Demonstrate loyalty - Fear that the "opportunity for adventure" would pass - Desire to avoid disapproval of young women who thought not volunteering was a sign of cowardice - Chance to earn higher wages - Sense of duty to enlist - Hatred of the Germans What were the main aspects of Australias involvement in the Gallipoli campaign? - entire assault was a failure from the beginning - Anzac Cove o Turks had huge advantages eg positioning o British miscalculations undermined success chances o Tried to maintain control of beach and construct trenches o Were unsuccessful and had to be withdrawn - Lone Pine

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o Anzacs were successful o Anzacs suffered 2300 casualties, Turks suffered 6000 The Nek o Four suicidal charges against Turkish o Designed to distract the Turks so British could land on Suvla Bay o 234 light-horsemen died, 138 were wounded

How did events at Gallipoli create the Anzac legend? - military defeat, bravery and sacrifices associated with eight-month struggle - participation was a symbol of coming of age of nation - characteristics of a "true Australian" o common sense o bravery o willingness to endure hardship o spirit of independence o reluctance to accept unquestioningly the authority of others o apparent lack of class distinction What were the arguments for and against conscription? - FOR o National honour not deserting Britain in a time of need o Essential response against evil "Hun" o Means of supporting men who were already fighting o Ensure service was shared fairly o Could exclude men with wives and children and males under 19 o Men who had not enlisted were shameful - AGAINST o General anti-war movement eg pacifists o Unions feared members would be replaced by cheap foreign/female labour o It was unjust to force someone to go to war o Working classes would bear the burden of conscription, and the more privileged could get out of it o Australia had already given enough (Catholic church) o A compulsory call-up would deprive farmers of their workers How did the conscription debates divide Australians? - PM William Hughes sought the power to conscript men for military service outside Australia - Changing attitudes some felt loyalty to Britain was vital - Highlighted divisions about religion, class and inequality of sacrifice that Australian soldiers should bear What impact did the war have on the role of women? - voluntary work o Australian Army Nursing Service Page 5 of 18

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o Australian Comforts Fund, providing "comfort boxes" for soldiers o Raising money eg by selling cakes, fetes, door-knock appeals etc o AWSC Australian Women's Service Corps more active role eg ambulance drivers, cooks or hospital orderlies paid work o reserve labour force short-term place in workforce o women's wages were half male wage

3. Australia between the Wars

How and why did Australian society and culture change in the 1920s? What aspects remained the same? - New technology: jazz music, motor cars, electricity, radio and refrigerators - Ordinary lives were improved through medical breakthroughs - Rapid economic growth o Men: Assisted migration from Britain o Money: Funding from Britain o Markets: Trade with Britain - Health breakthroughs o Spanish Influenza hit in 1918 o Nursing grew in respectability o Government inquiry into unscientific medicines was launched o Royal Flying Doctor Service for rural people - Rapid social changes o Female employment began to increase, especially in teaching, nursing, textiles, food, typing and clerical work o With mass entertainment, American culture came to Australia o Young women known as "flappers" showed increased freedom in fashion and behaviour How and why was Australia affected by the Great Depression? - Britain recalled debts, and Australia owed Britain millions of pounds - Unemployment rose - Selling price of agricultural products on international market fell - Drop in earning ability from primary exports - Australia came close to bankruptcy What were the differing experiences of various groups in Australia during the Great Depression? - the unemployed suffered the humiliation of not having a job and being unable to support their families many could not cope - the middle-class were able to buy out people who had fallen on hard times, and profited by the fact that prices fell faster than their wages How did governments respond to the problems caused by the Great Depression? - Inflation Page 6 of 18

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o Continued cuts in government spending and wages o Raising taxes o Keeping up payment of overseas loans o Suggested by Sir Otto Niemeyer, from the Bank of England Deflation o Increase in government spending, especially on welfare o Relief work for the unemployed o Reduction of repayments on overseas loans o Suggested by Jack Lang, the Premier of New South Wales

How and why were Aboriginal children removed from their families? - Policy of assimilation - Labelled children of Aboriginal background as neglected and destitute - Government and church institutions would teach children to "think white, look white and act white" - Children were forcibly removed or parents were forced to sign documents, often which they could not leave What have been the consequences of these policies? - the children did not move onto a better life - many were sent to do hard labour eg farm work - when they grew up, the people suffered from an inability to function as normal adults, eg they suffered from family breakdowns and turning to alcoholism, or even suicide What was the Day of Mourning and why was it important in Aboriginal and nonAboriginal relations? - Australia celebrated 150 years of white settlement - Aborigines urged government to bring about new laws for the education and care of Aboriginal peoples and policies that would bring full citizenship and equality - Commemorating 150 years of misery and degradation imposed upon Aborigines - Ask for a New Deal a fair deal for Aborigines - Significant move by Aboriginal people to claim rights

4. Australia and World War II

Why was Australia involved in World War II? - loyalty to Britain at first - little fighting in Europe at first winter meant war was delayed by seven months however, some men slowly volunteered - when Japan declared war on America in 1941, the threat came to the Pacific and Australia had a need to defend itself as it was vulnerable lots of land, small population - Britain, the protector, had fallen, as Singapore was captured by the Japanese What were some of the experiences of Australians as a result of their involvement in the war? Page 7 of 18

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Darwin o 19 Feb 1942 o approx 250 killed, 100s wounded, much of town destroyed o US base moved to Aus Philippines under threat, Presidential orders o Sydney: people educated, barbed wire, boom nets to prevent invasion Kokoda o Japanese would go Owen Stanley Ranges to Port Moresby o Aus conscripts were hopelessly outnumbered o Helped by local "fuzzy-wuzzy angels" o Extremely rugged trail; jungle; vines; mud Tropical weather; hot and humid Supplies scarce/hard to get through Japanese well-equipped, camouflaged, long-range weapons Men ill-trained with outdated machine guns, designed to fight in deserts o Reinforcements drove the Japanese back, Gona and Buna were captured, Japanese success was weakened, start of Japanese retreat in Pacific, threat of invasion was over Launchpad for Australian invasion Use as powerful base Australian communication with US difficult Destroyed belief that Japanese were invincible Triumph over adversity = heroes POWS o Rape, murder, no contact with family, inadequate food, no medical supplies, forced to do hard labour, rations cut with each US victory o Broke rules of treatment set out by Geneva convention o Physical difficulty, crippled, internal organ damage, hatred and distrust of Japanese, character change, relationship breakdowns, hard to adapt to normal life o Strong bonds between prisoners and interdependence Home Front Life o Drills and precautions Air-raid shelters Drills of evacuation procedures Street signs/lights removed to confuse enemy Windows blacked, beaches fenced Every Australian over 14 had an identity card

How did Australias relationship with England and the USA change during World War II? - Britain fell, so Australia looked for new alliances - Australia helped the USA to fight the Japanese in the Pacific

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How and why did the Federal Government introduce conscription and censorship on the Australian homefront? - protect Australian security - truly total war everyone contributed What was the role of women on the Australian homefront during World War II? - shortage of labour led to women filling men's jobs - made up 40% of workforce in munitions factories - million women employed in industry - still managed households/cared for children - showed they were capable of all manner of jobs outside traditional sphere - seen as "reserve" labour force leave when men came back o Women's Land Army kept up food production o Nursing, Women's Army Service etc gave women opportunities to participate actively - Ideas about women's roles began to be overturned - Women were still paid less than men

5. Post-war Australia to the 1970s

How and why did Australias patterns of migration change? - Before WWII mainly British o Populate or Perish need for labour and defence o People would work in factories and boost economy o Young people keen on good life looking for opportunities - After WWII Europeans o All Europeans granted entry refugees and immigrants o Displaced postwar people making fresh start o Labour shortages government gave free travel - Modern era all people o Influx of Asian migrants, trying to give children better future o Family reunions, Humanitarian, Skills/economic o Multicultural Australia What contribution did migrants make to Australias social, cultural and economic development? - Strengthened workforce and economy - Different foods/beverages - More entertainment - New sports/recreation - Architecture What was assimilation and how was it applied to both migrants and Aboriginal people? - Anglo Saxon culture considered superior must transform Aboriginals and Migrants - Speak English, adopt lifestyle, blend in with Whites

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Cultural differences unacceptable un-Australian No special provisions for non-English speakers Exploitation, ridicule, criminalisation, isolation o Migrants from similar regions moved near to each other for security and comfort

What did Aboriginal people achieve as a result of the protest movements from the 1940s to 1972? - Freedom Rides o Northern NSW towns eg Moree o Aboriginal activists + non-Aboriginal students on buses o Aimed to confront discrimination o Draw attention to racism o Led by people eg Charles Perkins - Wave Hill o Won Land rights back o Gough Whitlam handed land back in 1975 - Tent Embassy o International recognition What issues did the 1967 referendum address? - Aboriginal people were able to vote after 1962, but they were not allowed to be counted in the census - State governments could make laws affecting Aboriginal people living only in the respective state - Many overseas countries were critical of Australia's treatment of indigenous people - Referendum was successful o Aboriginal people were then counted as part of the population o The Federal government could then make laws to help improve conditions for Aboriginal people, no matter where they lived in Australia Additional money improved standards of housing, health and education Council for Aboriginal land rights established How did the policy of assimilation change to integration in relation to migrants and Aboriginal people? - Understanding that all people have right to keep culture, as long as practises do not impinge on others - Valuing of other cultures besides White culture - Communication opened - Translation services and cultures - End of blank imitation How did the Australian government respond to the threat of communism in Australia?

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propaganda depicting communism as an evil threat to freedom attempt to outlaw Communist Party guilty until proven innocent policy upon accused communists communists barred from trade union jobs or government organisations censorship of communist media

Why was Australia involved in the Vietnam War? - fear of domino effect all the Asian countries would fall victim to communism, one by one, up until Australia's doorstep - anti-communism desire - supporting the USA - "defence" of Australia - ANZUS and SEATO How did various groups respond to Australias involvement in the Vietnam War? - Reasons o Against conscription Method lottery evil form of gambling Pacifists opposed being forced to kill others Conscripts should not have been forced to go overseas during relative peacetime o Against the whole war Australia being led by USA Government "covering up" Futile war in which Australians were dying without good cause - Aims o Stop conscription o End whole war and withdraw all Australian troops o Rally more support more numbers bigger impact - Methods o Moratorium people stopped work to protest in the streets o Save Our Sons distributed leaflets and marched around army barracks o Fill-a-Falsi filling out false registration forms o Monash University Labor Club collected money for North Vietnamese "freedom fighters" o Students for a Democratic Society aimed to stop war and stop conscription with vigorous promotions - Support increased because o Young people always like to rebel o Public allowed more of a voice o Other freedom movements were taking place o "Good" people like Bill White began to speak out led to inspiration o Television fuelled "anti-war revulsion" o Vietnamese portrayed as freedom fighters o Strategic, effective promotion Page 11 of 18

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Successes/Failures o Did little against conscription/removal of troops o US were pulling out anyhow o Government upheld conscription laws o First time Australian people had protested peacefully together as a large mass and lobbied the government in unity o People realised the government wasn't always right, and they had the power to speak out o People became more outspoken o Young people proved themselves to be independent, resourceful and strong-minded

What were the goals, methods and successes of the womens liberation movement? - goals o create equality o liberate women from traditional roles and restrictions o empower women by changing beliefs and attitudes o men and women had to unlearn all sexist ideas - methods o confrontationist approach o direct action o protesting in the streets o pressuring the government - successes o anti-discrimination legislation o implementation of affirmative action o greater flexibility for working mothers o men are beginning to learn to share housework How did the attitude and role of women and men in Australian society change? - Before 1890s: women were silenced mothers and housewives, not recognised legally at all - Men were in first place: they were the stronger sex who would control the family - 1920s: women had the vote, women began to become more socially free as they took on jobs and had more money to spend - WWII: women took on "men's jobs" eg heavy industry and proved themselves to be invaluable - 1950s: childbearers and housekeepers, must marry and have children - Men were fathers and husbands, who gave orders to their wives and children and acted as providers for the family - 50s+60s: women excelled at sport (eg Betty Cuthbert) and arts (eg Joan Sutherland) - Dawn Fraser was a particular inspiration, as she showed women could challenge authority and have success - 1960s: women encouraged to continue education

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Today: men are being taught to help out with housework and other previously considered "feminine jobs" Today: more girls than boys complete their HSC Women are more in control of own destiny

How and why did American popular culture influence Australian society? - Rock n' Roll culture hit Australia - Technology improved communication with the USA - USA is geographically closer to us than UK - Music, dance, movies, TV, food, clothes and fads dominated - TV arrived in 1956 and brought more American culture - People identified with the values, politics and culture of the USA, seen as less conservative than Britain

6. Social and Political Issues from the 1970s to the 1990s

How have Australias relations with Asian nations changed? - relationship with Japan has changed from being a bitter to a bright one - cooperation and understanding between nations - learning to live with Japan Australia is developing a future in Asia - new business partnerships in Asia, eg Hong Kong - our closer neighbours the Asia-Pacific Region Why was the policy of multiculturalism introduced? - White Australia Policy had become a humiliation to Asians and source of conflict between Australia and neighbours - Australia no longer saw itself as White and British - Australia had its own identity, a multicultural one How has multiculturalism influenced Australian society? - 3 basic necessary principles o economic efficiency need to maintain and develop skills and talents of all Australians regardless of background o cultural identity right of all to express and share cultural heritage, language and religion o equality of opportunity right of all to equality of treatment, removal of barriers of race, ethnicity, culture, religion, language gender or place of birth What has been the impact of multiculturalism on Australian society? - enriched Australian culture - given Australia a new identity - celebration of variety Why and how was the Whitlam government dismissed? - Problems o Economic Page 13 of 18

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Rising unemployment Low economic growth Inflation Difficult for government to follow aims Unable to maintain spending on welfare o Scandals Jim Cairns sacked for misleading parliament Rex Connor tried to borrow $4 billion from Saddam Hussein Opposition ridicule Undid Labor unity Senate cut supply, as the opposition had a majority and could block bills Forced double-dissolution of 1974 Sir John Kerr used "reserve powers" and dismissed him Whitlam proposed senate election, Kerr ignored him Double dissolution and the Coalition won Question of conspiracy Fraser + Kerr "Nothing will save the Governor-General" Fraser became the PM

What legislation was introduced by federal and State governments to counter gender discrimination? - 1973: Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women - 1974: Adult wage rather than male/female wages - 1975: Family Law Act women could divorce husbands more easily - 1977: Anti-Discrimination Act of NSW - 1980: Unpaid Maternity Leave jobs secured - 1984: Sex Discrimination Act - 1986: Affirmative Action Act, identifying policies/practices against women - 1994: Labour assured 35% of winnable seats would be filled by women by 2000 What impact did the feminist movement of the 1970s and 1980s have on attitudes and practices within society and the workplace? - Encouraged women to abandon acceptance of the roles society gave them - Women's Electoral Lobby began to pressure government to promote women's rights, eg supporting health care, family planning and women's health - Provision of more opportunities for women to become involved beyond home - Reducing stigma of combining motherhood with working role - Equal pay established by 1972 - Affirmative Action encouraged allow women to progress in the workplace What steps took place leading to the recognition of land rights and native title? - 1966: Wave Hill o members of Gurindji tribe had been exploited at Wave Hill Station o went on strike and walked out o peaceful demonstration

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o started up their own cattle station and became successful 1972: Aboriginal Tent Embassy o Publicising Land Rights issue o Inspiring Indigenous Australians to get involved o Pressure government o Ask for response to injustice of dispossession o Focused National and International attention on injustice o Traditions, culture, rights recognised o Aboriginal Flag created o Extensive media coverage 1982: Mabo o High Court recognises Aboriginal land ownership o The Native Title Act is created o Legal recognition for Aboriginal ownership rights over land o Overturned the concept of "terra nullius" by recognising that Aborigines inhabited Australia before white settlement

How have traditional views about Australias history been challenged by the end of terra nullius? - Original "Noble Savage" belief - Social Darwinism came into play - Now we value Aboriginal Australian culture - Native Title Act has allowed Aboriginal people to reclaim their land - Myths of peaceful Australian settlement, when in reality Aboriginal people were fighting for their land Why was there a Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody? - Indigenous people were 29 times more likely to be in jail, 20 times more likely to be picked up by police, less likely to receive bail or legal rep and more likely to plead guilty - less likely to be called up for jury duty - huge injustices suffered under Justice System - there were increasing concerns from the government and community about the high proportion of Aboriginal people in jail, and the numbers of Aboriginal people dying in custody

7. Contemporary Australia
Is Australia an egalitarian society? - Egalitarianism is the belief in equality for all people - Economic inequality o 2% of people control 50% of economic resources o 50% of people control 90% of wealth o 15% of people live below poverty line - Not a working man's paradise o Unemployment rate of 7.4% Page 15 of 18

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o Ruthless competition between workers o Casualisation of the workforce Sticky floors and glass ceilings o Women still fight for equality in the workforce o Male- and female- job segregation o Women invested only 1/3 of what men invested in superannuation City vs country o Hardships resulting from remoteness o Downturns in rural economy o Problem caused by droughts and floods

How have images of being Australian changed? - Aborigines shared common understandings of kinship, traditions and land - Australians once saw themselves as being British - Most people followed Christianity and all its cultural traditions - Australians began to break away after WWI, with o Lack of class distinctions o Respect for ability, not just authority o Spirit of independence o Resourcefulness o High regard for "mateship" o View that everyone deserves a "fair go" - Harsh climate, geographic isolation, unusual flora/fauna, pioneer spirit - Second half of 20th century: Australia is a multicultural society - Freedom of speech, religion, voting; protection of rights etc What is meant by self-determination and reconciliation? - Self-Determination o Allowing Aboriginal people to be in charge of their own lives - Reconciliation o Making peace between Aboriginal Australians and non-Aboriginal Australians, by righting the wrongs that have been done against them What are the arguments for and against an Australian republic? - Against a Republic Why change a perfectly good system and take the risk of an untried model? The Queen is purely a symbol - she has no power over Australia as the governor-general acts as the practical head of state - even when Sir John Kerr removed Whitlam from power in 1975, he did this on his own initiative, not after consulting the queen - the Australian constitution tightly controls what a governor-general is allowed to do. Having the British monarch as the head of state provides the country with tradition, stability and continuity

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The multicultural nature of Australia is, in fact, an argument in favour of retaining the monarchy. - the monarch is above politics, above ethnic differences - the monarch can provide a uniting rallying call to all the different ethnic and racial groups that have migrated to Australia

For a Republic Australia should have an Australian as its head of state, not a foreigner It is ridiculous that an independent nation like Australia should have as its head of state a person who is also the head of state of another nation. Having the queen as head of state reduces Australias status in the world as it creates the image that Australia is secondary to Britain. It suggests that Australia is not really independent. Australia is no longer tied to the apron strings of the mother country - Britain is no longer Australias main defence ally - Britain is no longer our key source of economic support - Australia has moved away from all forms of dependence on Britain - Australia has an independent voice and role in the world Britain has no real interest in Australia - Its focus has been clearly in Europe ever since it joined the European Community in 1973 - Britain is no longer a great imperial power and has virtually no possessions in our region - Britains special relationship, as successive prime ministers have stated, is with the United States The Monarchy might have been appropriate for an earlier Australia; it is not an appropriate institution for 21st century Australia - It symbolises an older Australia where allegiance to the queen, empire and Union Jack was a key part of Australian values - It was appropriate for a time when 90% of Australians were British born or descendants of British-born migrants - In modern multicultural society where Austrlaias citizens come from over 100 different countries, loyalty to a British monarch is illogical. - As time goes on, fewer and fewer Australians will have a British heritage (background and tradition) - Equally, as respect for indigenous Australians and their culture has increased, loyalty to a foreign monarch seems misplaced. What have been some of the major developments in the move towards an Australian republic? - 1975 Republican issue was sparked by Whitlam's dismissal - 1991 Australian Republican Movement was formed, with Malcom Turnbull as the leader - 1995 Paul Keating announced a goal to make Australia a republic with an Australian head of state - 1997 Constitutional Convention Page 17 of 18

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1999 referendum was unsuccessful

How and why have Australians sought to preserve their natural and built heritage? - calls to protect native plants and animals, minimise pollution and protect forests - active concern for conservation of culturally valuable buildings - "green bans" union refusals to work on developments that could destroy important heritage areas - pressure groups lobbying the government to protect the environment

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