[THE BIOLOGICAL LEVEL OF ANALYSIS] Lili Yung

10/14/11 Per.2

2.1 Introduction: Historical and Cultural Development Many medical specialists and philosophers and others have attempted to discover the causes of behavior inside the human body Hippocrates (470-360 BC)- humorism/ a theory in which personality was characteristically affected by four bodily liquids (humors) o Blood o Phlegm o Black bile o Yellow bile Key Changes o Discovery of the brain and the neurons- influences behavior o Publication of Charles Darwin on the Origin of Species (1859) - new theory of revolution as all species including humans had developed over time through processes of evolutionary adaption a type of biological process of elimination. o Medicine and natural sciences grew enormously during the 19th century o The focus of psychology began to move away from the study of an unobservable mind towards working with medical and biological researchers to discover how physiological processes and behavior might interact o Sometimes extreme claims are made like nature nurture debate; e.g. offering a purely genetic or hormonal explanation for love or murder o Increasingly recognized that biological factors are extremely important in affecting our behavior thoughts and emotions and moreover o Behavior thoughts and emotions can affect ones physiology

2.2 Principles of Biological Level of Analysis o Three key principles that define the biological level of analysis o Emotions and behavior are products of the anatomy and physiology o the nervous and endocrine systems o Patterns of behavior can be inherited o Animal research may inform our understanding of behavior o Emotions and behavior are products of the anatomy and physiology of the nervous and endocrine systems o Internal mental activity o Emotions o Cognitions o Physiological events

o Links between psychological events and physiological activities o Neurotransmitters o Hormones o Brain localization o Emotions are seen to be produced by activity in the brain and by the activity of hormones. o Principle reflects a desire to find the causes of behavior emotion and thought within the human body o Required the development of an understanding of relevant components of the nervous system o Endocrine system, responsible for the secretion of hormones that also affect behavior o Not necessarily deny the influence of environmental factors on human behavior o Develop an understanding of the interaction of social and cognitive factors with physiological and genetic factors to inform a more comprehensive picture of how humans work. o Patterns of Behavior can be inherited o Two branches o Evolutionary psychology o Genetics o Humans have changed physically and behaviorally according to the demands of the environment o Genetic information is transmitted from parents to children and over time, physical characteristics and behaviors that are helpful to an individual or social group in terms of surviving and reproducing can be passed on. o Modern researchers acknowledge it is unlikely that single genes are responsible for any of the complex behavior psychologists are interested in. o Homosexuality o Differences in intelligence o Criminal behavior o Psychological disorders, e.g. schizophrenia o Inherited may be a predisposition for certain behavior that requires particular environmental stimuli before the behavior will become manifest. o The diathesis-stress model of abnormal behavior suggests that a genetic vulnerability to disorder like depression can be inherited, but that an environmental trigger like childhood separation or a traumatic divorce is required for the person to actually become depressed.

o Animal research may inform our understanding of behavior o Humans and the many types of animal are different species now because of thousands of years of evolutionary adaption to environmental demands o Common ancestral species, fundamentally the same o Physiology and behavior, it is valid to try to make inferences about human behavior based on animal research o Brains can be studied in animals that appear to be quite closely related to humans o Generalization that manipulated levels of specific neurotransmitters in the brain of other mammals. o Extremely useful to observe evolution in manageable contexts for they have shorter lifespans than humans 2.3 Biological Research Methods and Ethics o Three main research methods o Laboratory experiments o Case studies o Correlational studies o Laboratory Experiments o A key point at this level of analysis is the use of animal experiments as well as human experiments o To test the effect of changes to physiology o Test the effectiveness of a new medication e.g. schizophrenia o Unlikely that it will be ethically possible to carry out the experiment with human participants o Risk that receiving full information about the nature of the experiment might lead to changes in the participants behavior o Placebo effect o Occur when participants believe they are receiving a treatment o Their body reacts simply to being treated rather than to the specific treatment they receive o When researchers want to find out what effect can be observed when specific parts of the brain are damaged o Most important arguments in favor of animal experiments such research cannot be done on humans o Population of animals such as rats, pigeons and fruit flies for use in research. o Fruit flies in particular, their lifespan is very short and researches can control their environment o Possible for researchers to make changes to the environment and observe a form of evolution in a fairly short timeframe. o Strong argument that animal experimentation is morally wrong

o Case Studies o Case study is another way to deal with the ethical problem of carrying out research on human participants o Researches can take advantage of naturally occurring irregulars o Brain damage o Long term drug use o By obtaining detailed information about the participants condition o Been a very useful source of information in a medical context o Ethical risk is that the depth of information obtained and the possible uniqueness of the case make it more likely that there is a threat to participants anonymity o Correlational studies o The correlational study does not usually necessitate the manipulation of an independent variable that might cause damage to the participant; instead it takes scores on two or more measures and works out the relationship between them o This approach is often at the core of twin studies and adoption studies o Information about the link between genetics and behavior o In both cases, the correlation represents the frequency of a second family member having a particular characteristic when we already know that one member of the family has it o Essentially correlating brain activity Behavior Cognition Emotion o Particular part of the brain is active while a participant experiences a particular emotion o Not sure if the brain activity is the cause of the emotion 2.4 Physiology and Behavior: Localization of function o Early attempts to locate the cause of behavior in the brain sometimes appear to us now to be rather unusual or even ridiculous o Our shared confidence that we understand the brain so much better now because science has developed more accurate ways of investigating the brain o Research suffered from the central brain to not directly study the brain in living humans o Difficult to prove early theories correct or incorrect o Phrenology o Example of brain related research that now appears inaccurate o Phrenologist Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828) assumed certain parts of the brain were responsible for specifics characteristics of personality and behavior o Manually searching for bumps and depressions o the skull one could detect the influence of the brain

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o Phrenologists attempted to make inferences about and individuals personality from this procedure Clear that some of its basic assumptions are still valid Clear that different parts of the brain do indeed have different functions and that it is possible to study the relationship between brain and behavior 19th and 20th centuries has guided us towards a much better understanding of how we should do such research and how functions of the brain are located o Localization of function refers to the idea that behavior emotions and thoughts originate in brain in specific locations. Case studies of people with naturally occurring brain damage Brain function was until the 20th century as individuals suffered a kid of brain damage or head injury. Never clearly establish a cause effect relationship between the behavior of the person before death and the location of their brain damage. As it was unethical to test what the effect on behavior right be after a volunteer had a portion of their brain removed The case study of Phineas Gage o Railway worker in 19th century survived the passing of an iron rod through his head o Undergone dramatic changes in personality after the injury o Changes for doctor had blamed on the damage to his brain The case study of Paul Boca (1824-1880) o Known as tan for this was one of the few sounds the patient could respond to o After Tan had died, Broca announced that from conducting a post-mortem autopsy of the brain, was responsible for the loss of the ability to produce coherent speech o Brocas Area Damage to this part of the brain can most easily be observed in the speech of stroke victims/ unable to produce language , a condition known as Brocas aphasia Wernickes aphasia o Speech disorder o Different part of the brain which seems to be responsible for the comprehension of speech o Problems understanding speech of others of substitute wrong words into planned phrases o Carl Wernicke worked in a similar fashion to Broca o Noting behavior and conduction post-mortem autopsies to locate brain damage after patients had died o Specific parts of the brain were responsible for specific human activities o Still difficult to find ways to investigate this further.

o Modern technology and localization of function o Advances in technology leads to Electroencephalogram (EEG) Computer tomography (CT) Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) Positron Emission tomography (PET) o Electroencephalogram (EEG) o Developed in the 20th century o Hans Berger 1929 o Electrodes are placed on the outside of the persons head in specific locations o Using a special cap or helmet so the electrons are fitted to a standardized place on the skull o Detect changes in electrical activity below them o Where areas in the brain are active, EEG produces graphical representation of the activity form each electrode o Known for sleep research o Computed tomography (CT) o CT scanner combines computer and x-ray technology o A CT scan can be taken from the top, bottom, back, front, or sides to eh head and can show the brain at any depth o A computed axial tomography (CAT) o Indicated that it was limited to scans from only one angle o Useful for showing structural changes in the brain Brain tumors Brain damage o Limitations include structural imaging only o Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) o Based on the discover that when the body is exposed to a strong magnetic field, the protons in the water inside the body change their alignment o When a magnetic field is used in conjunction the alignment of the hydrogen atoms is changed in such a way as to be detectable by a scanner o The scanner can be transformed into a visual representation o Exposure to magnetism can be dangerous for some individuals o Metals used after surgery can cause broken bones o For most people, MIRI is believed to be safe when it is often preferred over the CT scan for tumors as radiation is exposed. o Also can be used to create a three-dimensional image of the brain. o Functional MRI (fMRI) o When neurons in a particular region are active more blood is sent to that region

o fMRI machine can map metabolic changes that indicate brain activity to provide us with a picture o precision which part of the brain are active while certain actives are being performed or certain thoughts or emotions occur o allows for a wide range of human behaviors o thoughts and emotions to be correlated with brain activity as they happen o also more precise than positron emission tomography (PET) another method of studying dynamic function o Positron emission tomography (PET) o Injection of a radioactive substance into the participant o A form of sugar that produces gamma rays to metabolized by the brain o Relies on the knowledge that parts of the brain will metabolize the sugar at different rates according to whether they are more or less active o Shows a dynamic image of activity but not very precise than the fMRI Studies of individuals who have undergone brain surgery o HM, 1953 studied to correct his epilepsy o An important part of the hippocampus has been removed when he recorded from surgery o Noted that he had now a significant memory problem as detailed o Inferences about the role of the hippocampus were made. o 1997/ exactly what the extent of damage onto the hippocampus was o HM was using anti-epileptic drugs after the operation, some of which are suspected to have caused further damage to his brain Sperry and the split brain o Roger Sperry was very influential in helping neuroscientists to understand the way brain functions appear to be not only localized in specific regions but lateralized. o The corpus callosum is a part of the brain that joins the two hemispheres and it appears to be responsible for communication between them o Without this communication and under the right experiment conditions, the two hemispheres could be studied separately and their sometimes subtle differences identified Neuroplasticity o Localization of action occurs, the specific location of a function is not necessarily fixed for all individuals o The certain functions can be redistributed according to environmental demands o More a person performs a particular activity o The more neuronal connections are formed in the area of the brain responsible Environment and brain function o The brain changes in response to the way we use it

o Meditating monks appear to have different levels of brain functioning o Of the tie they have spent meditating results show the brain can change in response to brain damage and new areas can take over the function of language o E.g. taxi drivers to store more visual information than most people in their hippocampi o Shown as cognitive behavior o Whether we can draw conclusions about causes and effects in terms of the interaction between cognition and physiology o The environment is in shaping the structure of the brain and helps account for individual differences in brain structure and function 2.5 Physiology and behavior neurotransmission o How nerve cells communicate o The brain is made up of enormous number of neurons or nerve cells o As many as 100 billion in the human brain o The neuron structure is that they receive information from other neurons through their dendrites and transmit as so o Across the cell body and along the axon to the terminal buttons at the end o The synapse of such are between two neurons o Where communication from one neuron to the next occurs. o Communication between neurons is a chemical process o One neuron sends out chemicals known as neurotransmitters o Other neurons pick up the chemicals and may or may not send the message on. o Biological level of analysis, voluntary movement can be viewed as the release of neurotransmitters in the primary motor cortex of the brain o Further communication through nerve cells until he appropriate muscles are cited to perform the movement o Neurons are specific in which neurotransmitters they can release and receive o Neutrons working with certain neurotransmitters can be found in greater or lesser concentration in certain parts to he brain o The primary motor cortex is populated by neurons that use dopamine and acetylcholine to communicate o pleasure circuit: in the limbic system of the brain is populated by neurons using dopamine o There are three main parts to the transmission process at the synapse o Neurotransmitters stored in vesicles which are transported to the edge of the button and the neurotransmitters released in to the synaptic gap

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o Neurotransmitters can bind with a receptor site on the next neuron as it transmits this information across its cell body electrically o Any unused neurotransmitter is absorbed back into the neuron it came from Drugs and Behavior The brain can become addicted to some drugs like caffeine If a heavy user of caffeine prevents the transmission of adenosine enough the brain will have the brain respond by increasing the amount of adenosine released or by developing new receptor sites for adenosine Increasing the chance of successful transmission of the sleepy feeling through the body Drug user find it necessary to increase the amount of the drug they take in order to achieve the same effect Researchers have invest aged the effect of neurotransmitters on behavior and while some of their conclusions are only theoretical and others are based on having found a causal relationship through experimentation with animals and humans Dopamine levels L-dopa is a treatment for Parkinsons disease, a degenerative condition that usually involves a resting tremor, a difficulty initiating movement, and difficulty in controlling directed movement The drug was designed to relieve such symptoms as it was believed that increasing the amount of dopamine would cause a positive effect The dopamine theory of schizophrenia lead for patients to discover who were overmedicated for Parkinsons disease started to develop some of the symptoms of schizophrenia Individuals who were being medicated with tranquilizers that reduced the amount of dopamine available were less likely to experience these symptoms.

2.6 Physiology and behavior: Hormones o Adrenaline o Fight of flight response; adrenaline prepares the body for action to help the organism deal with such a threat o Adrenaline increase the flow of oxygen and blood to the brain by increasing activity of the heart o At times used medically when a person has a heart attack or an allergic or asthmatic reaction o Increase in heart rate o Increase in blood pressure o Dilation of pupils

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o Transfer of key sources like oxygen and glucose away from internal organs but towards the extremities of the body Melatonin o Hormone with a role in the cycle of sleep o Secreted from the pineal gland at the base of the brain o Noted as the third eye for the ability to sense change in light, a function more important in non-human animals Signals from the eyes and other sense organs relating to light and temperature for information about the time of day o SAD is a type of depression related to the beginning and end of winter, as the phenomenon of seasonal affective disorder may be related to melatonin levels Receive dawn simulation One to receive a more traditional bright light therapy One to receive a placebo of a dim red light at down Using a structured interview to result in a depression rating specific to this disorder, Related to a shift in the participants sleep patters Bright light therapy and dawn simulation were both able to help realign the sleep patterns with participants lifestyles by encouraging the inhibition of melatonin secretion at an appropriate time. Relationship between melatonin and sleep-wake cycle has been useful when applied to help explain the phenomenon of jet lag o Can be taken in pill form during the flight and arrival at the destination to reprogrammed the brain to fit with a new location o Train ourselves to adapt to the new location by allowing ourselves to leap only at specific times for a limited time while flying. Oxytocin love hormone Suggested that the function of this oxytocin is not only one of bonding, but also one of stress reduction. Releases a trigger for contractions in the uterus as a woman is giving birth Physical stimulation for breastfeeding.

2.7 Genetics and behavior o Sexual reproduction brings together genetic information from two parents in a fertilized egg. o This accounts for a large number of inherited characteristics each new organism has o Most obviously observed in the breeding of dogs a horses, where breeders have for centuries been attempting to encourage stronger, faster, roar more attractive animals. o Knowledge that some of these characteristics would be passed onto offspring o Genetic information is contained in chromosomes o Genes are thought be responsible for the development of physical and behavioral characteristics o Genes are groupings within the DNA of any chromos o 23 pairs of chromosomes in every human cell o Each chromosome pair consists of one chromosome from each parent. o What does genetic information do? o In many countries, prenatal tests for PKU are normal. The condition can be managed and its effects are avoided. o For such findings from genetic research for a number or reasons. A gene has been identified The role of the gene is clear An intervention follows o Research is reported poorly in the media, resulting in a tendency for people to feel that genetic information has a stronger influence on their behavioral and physical characteristics than there is evidence for. 2.8 Evolutionary Psychology o Predisposition for certain behaviors is merited o The principles of evolution dictate that genetically based behaviors of an individual who has recorded are passed on o Behaviors we observe today should have evolutionary explanations o Human behavior must have been adaptive under some circumstances in the past o How could homosexuality be adaptive behavior? o The concord several existing explanations The presence of an individual homosexual person in the family offers some kind of reproductive advantage to others in the family Sharing resources and care of others Increasing the reductive fitness of the family while not reproducing themselves o Increasing his attractiveness to women, Sketch is heterosexual

o Linked to other research which shows that women are more attracted to men with more feminine faces at certain times during their menstrual cycle o Men e are attracted to women who have the stereotypically masculine features of competitiveness and sexual willingness o Could homicide be adaptive behavior? o Humans today have evolved with some psychological adaptions for killing. o A possible psychological advantage in an environment or contexts where killing is required Hunting o Or increase ones own chances or reproductive success Killing potential rivals Stepchildren Defending resources Or protecting ones own children o Comparative psychology research has indicated that other species engage in killing heavier within their species o Adaption based on increasing in their own offsprings chances of survival o Due to evolutionary psychology, it is sometimes necessary to carry out a cost-benefit analysis. Advantages and disadvantages of killing are weighed against each other Behavior is the result of successful adaption o Rape cannot be an adaptive behavior as the sorts outweigh the benefits o The example of evolutionary psychology in action illustrates many of the problems with this branch of psychology. Incredibly difficult to prove with an evolutionary explanation that is so accurate o It is therefore necessary to settle for the kind of correlational evidence by Leitch. 2.9 Ethical consideration in search into genetic influences on behavior o Genetic Testing o The role of genes in determining about behavior and identify specific genes associated with risk for disease and disorders o Genetic heritage is the core of ethical issues in the psychology field o Consequences for any individual who finds out they have a genetic predisposition to a disorder or behavior is unpleasant o There are additional problems if other parties are allowed to know

Insurance companies Might prevent a person from reviving life insurance o Employers of such may refuse employment Genetic testing requires consent from the person involved. o Research Findings o Ethical issue is the interpretation of research findings. o Bell Curve 1994 o IQ test Scores between black and white Americans and between socioeconomic groups lead to a conclusion Widely reported and exaggerated in the media Dedication programs for those with low access would not yield useful results as differences in IQ are genetic. o While the assumption that intelligence is partly genetic, seems to have good support, none of the available research has sidelined the role of environmental factors.