nlp (neuro-linguistic programming)

NLP - neuro-linguistic programming - free training introduction, NLP principles and techniques guide
This free introduction to NLP is provided by Robert Smith MBA, a leading international practitioner in neuro-linguistic programming and NLP Master Trainer. Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP) was created in the early 1970s by Richard Bandler, a computer scientist and Gestalt therapist, and Dr John Grinder, a linguist and therapist. Bandler and Grinder invented a process known as 'modelling' that enabled them to study three of the world's greatest therapists: Dr Milton Erickson, father of modern hypnotherapy; Fritz Perls, creator of Gestalt therapy; and Virginia Satir, the mother of modern-day family therapy. They wanted to know what made these therapists effective and to train others in their methods. What is offered today as NLP is the product of this modelling process.

how does nlp optimise individual and organizational performance?

Neuro-Linguistic Programming is an extremely powerful concept. It is said by many to contain the most accessible, positive and useful aspects of modern psychology, and so can be helpful in virtually every aspect of personal and inter-personal relations. NLP has many beneficial uses for self-development, and for businesses and organizations; for example NLP enables better communications in customer service, and all types of selling. NLP enables better awareness and control of oneself, better appreciation of the other person's feelings and behavioural style, which in turn enables better empathy and cooperation. NLP improves understanding in all one-to-one communications, especially interviewing and appraisals (whether used by the interviewer or the interviewee). NLP certainly features strongly in facilitative selling. NLP is an enabling tool of Emotional Intelligence (EQ), which is an aspect of multiple intelligence theory. Neuro-Linguistic Programming can also be very helpful for stress management and developing self-belief and assertiveness and confidence. The empathic caring principles of NLP also assist the practical application of ethical and moral considerations (notably achieving detachment and objectivity), and using loving and compassionate ideas (simply, helping people) in work and life generally. These few examples illustrate the significance of NLP as a concept for personal and organizational development. The experience of undergoing NLP training is a life-changing one for many people, and its techniques offer substantial advantages to people performing most roles in organizations:

Directors and executives

Managers at all levels Sales people Administrators Engineering and technical staff Customer care operatives Receptionists Secretarial staff Trainers HR and counselling staff

NLP techniques help particularly by making it possible for people to:

Set clear goals and define realistic strategies Coach new and existing staff to help them gain greater satisfaction from their contribution Understand and reduce stress and conflict Improve new customer relationship-building and sales performance Enhance the skills of customer care staff and reduce customer loss Improve people's effectiveness, productivity and thereby profitability

nlp operational principles

NLP consists of a set of powerful techniques for rapid and effective behavioural modification, and an operational philosophy to guide their use. It is based on four operational principles, which below these headings are explained in more detail. 1. Know what outcome you want to achieve. (See nlp principle 1 - achieving outcomes.) 2. Have sufficient sensory acuity (acuity means clear understanding) to know if you are moving towards or away from your outcome (See nlp principle 2 - sensory awareness.) 3. Have sufficient flexibility of behaviour so that you can vary your behaviour until you get your outcome. (See nlp principle 3 - changing behaviour.) 4. Take action now. (See nlp principle 4 - time for action)

It is important to have specific outcomes. Many people do not have conscious outcomes and wander randomly through life. NLP stresses the importance of living with conscious purpose. In order to achieve outcomes it is necessary to act and speak in certain ways. NLP teaches a series of linguistic and behavioural patterns that have proved highly effective in enabling people to change the beliefs and behaviours of other people. In using any of these patterns NLP stresses the importance of continuous calibration of the person or people you are interacting with in order to see if what you are doing is working. If it is not working it is important to do something different. The idea is to vary your behaviour until you get the results you want. This variation in behaviour is not random. It involves the systematic application of NLP patterns. It is also important to take action, since nothing ever happens until someone takes the initiative. In short, NLP is about thinking, observing and doing to get what you want out of life.

nlp principle 1 - achieving outcomes

The importance of knowing your outcome cannot be stressed enough. Many people do not have conscious outcomes. Others have no idea what they want but know what they don't want. Their life is based on moving away from those things they don't want. NLP stresses the importance of moving towards those things you want. Without outcomes life becomes a process of wandering aimlessly. Once an outcome is determined you can begin to focus on achieving that outcome. NLP lists certain well-formedness conditions that outcomes should meet. The first of these is that the outcome needs to be stated in positive terms. This means that the outcome must be what you want and not what you don't want to happen. Outcomes must be capable of being satisfied. It is both logically and practically impossible to give someone the negation of an experience. You can't engage in the process of 'not doing'. You can only engage in the process of doing. The second well-formedness condition for outcomes is that the outcome must be testable and demonstrable in sensory experience. There must be an evidence procedure. Unless this is the case, there is no way to measure progress towards the achievement of the outcome. With an evidence procedure for the outcome it is possible to determine whether or not you are making progress towards achieving the outcome. Third, the desired state must be sensory specific. You must be able to say what you would look like, sound like and feel like if you achieved the outcome. Fourth, the outcome or desired state must be initiated and maintained by the subject. This places the locus (ie position) of control and responsibility for achieving the outcome with the subject and not with someone else. It is not a well-formed outcome when someone else does something or changes in some way. All you can do is

have an outcome in which you can change yourself or your behaviour so as to bring about a change in someone else. Fifth, the outcome must be appropriately and explicitly contextualised. This means that outcomes must not be stated as universals. You must never want either 'all the time' of 'never', but only under specific circumstances. In NLP we always strive to create more choice and never to take choice or reduce the number of possible responses. The goal instead is to make the choices or responses available in the appropriate circumstances. Sixth, the desired outcome must preserve any positive product of the present state. If this is not the case then symptom substitution may occur. Seventh and finally, the outcome or desired state must be ecologically sound. You should consider the consequences for yourself and for other people and not pursue outcomes that lead to harm to yourself or other people.

nlp principle 2 - sensory awareness

Once you know your outcome you must next have sufficient sensory acuity to know if you are moving towards it or not. NLP teaches the ability to calibrate or 'read' people. This involves the ability to interpret changes in muscle tone, skin colour and shininess, lower lip size and breathing rate and location. The NLP practitioner uses these and other indications to determine what effect they are having on other people. This information serves as feedback as to whether the other person is in the desired state. An important and often overlooked point is to know to stop when the other person is in the state that you desire.

nlp principle 3 - changing behaviour

The third operational principle of NLP is to vary your behaviour until you get the response you want. If what you are doing isn't working, then you need to do something else. You should use your sensory acuity to determine if what you are doing is leading you in the desired direction of not. It what you are doing is leading towards your outcome, then you should continue. If, on the other hand, what you are doing is leading away from your goals, then you should do something else.

nlp principle 4 - time for action

The fourth and final operational principle of NLP is to take action now. There is no place for the slogan 'Complacency rules, and I don't care.' NLP is about taking action now to

change behaviour for yourself and for others, now and in the future. So, to use another catchphrase: 'Don't delay; act today.'

nlp presuppositions
There are certain presuppositions underlying NLP. These are things that are presupposed in effective communication. Some of these are as follows. Below these headings each presupposition is explained in more detail. 1. The meaning of a communication is the response you get. 2. The map is not the territory. 3. Language is a secondary representation of experience. 4. Mind and body are parts of the same cybernetic system and affect each other. 5. The law of requisite variety (also known as the first law of cybernetics cybernetics is the science of systems and controls in animals, including humans, and machines) states that in any cybernetic system the element or person in the system with the widest range of behaviours or variability of choice will control the system. 6. Behaviour is geared towards adaptation. 7. Present behaviour represents the very best choice available to a person. 8. Behaviour is to be evaluated and appreciated or changed as appropriate in the context presented. 9. People have all the resources they need to make the changes they want. 10. 'Possible in the world' or 'possible for me' is only a matter of how. 11. The highest quality information about other people is behavioural. 12. It is useful to make a distinction between behaviour and self. 13. There is no such thing as failure; there is only feedback.

nlp presupposition 1 - meaning equals response

In communication it is usually assumed that you are transferring information to another person. You have information that 'means' something to the other person and you intend for the other person to understand what it is you intend to communicate. Frequently a person assumes that if they 'say what they mean to say', their responsibility for the communication is over. Effective communicators realise that their responsibility doesn't end when they finish talking. They realise that, for practical

purposes, what they communicate is what the other person thinks they say and not what they intend to say. Often the two are quite different. In communication it is important what the other person thinks you say and how they respond. This requires that the person pays attention to the response they are getting. If it is not the response they want, then they need to vary their own communication until they get the desired response. There are several major sources of 'misunderstanding' in communication. The first arises from the fact that each person has a different life experience associated with each word in the language. Frequently, what one person means by a word (their complex equivalence for that word) may be something different from what another person means by it. The second misunderstanding arises from the failure to realise that a person's tone of voice and facial expression also communicate information, and that the other person may respond to these as much as they do to what is said. As the old saying goes: 'Actions speak louder than words,' and in NLP people are trained that when the two are in conflict, the person should pay more attention to the actions.

nlp presupposition 2 - map and territory

Good communicators realise that the representations they use to organise their experience of the world ('map') are not the world ('territory'). It is important to distinguish between several semantic levels. First there is the world. Second comes the person's experience of the world. This experience is the person's 'map' or 'model' of the world and is different for each person. Every individual creates a unique model of the world and thus lives in a somewhat different reality from everyone else. You do not operate directly on the world but on your experience of it. This experience may or may not be correct. To the extent that your experience has a similar structure to the world it is correct and this accounts for its usefulness. A person's experience, map, model or representation of the world determines how they will perceive the world and what choices they will see as available to them. Many NLP techniques involve you changing your representation of the world to make it more useful and to bring it more into line with the way the world actually is.

nlp presupposition 3 - language and experience

Language is a secondary representation of experience. Language is at a third semantic level. First is the stimulus coming from the word. Second is the person's representation of experience of that stimulus. Third is the person's description of that experience by way of language. Language is not experience but a representation of it. Words are merely arbitrary tokens used to represent things the person sees, hears or feels. People who speak other languages use different words

to represent the same things that English speakers see, hear or feel. Also, since each person has a unique set of things that they have seen, heard and felt in their lives, their words have different meanings from each of them. People are able to communicate effectively to the degree that these meanings are similar. When they are too dissimilar, problems in communication begin to arise.

nlp presupposition 4 - body and mind affect each other

Mind and body are parts of the same cybernetic system and affect each other. There is no separate 'mind' and no separate 'body'. Both words refer to aspects of the same 'whole' or 'gestalt', They act as one and they influence each other in such a way that there is no separation. Anything that happens in one part of a cybernetic system, such as a human being, will affect all other parts of that system. This means that the way a person thinks affects how they feel and that the condition of their physical body affects how they think. A person's perceptual input, internal thought process, emotional process, physiological response and behavioural output all occur both simultaneously and through time. In practical terms, this means that a person can change how they think either by directly changing how they think or by changing their physiology or other feelings. Likewise, a person can change their physiology or their emotions by changing how they think. One important corollary of this, which will be explored later, is the importance of visualisation and mental rehearsal in improving the conduct of any activity.

nlp presupposition 5 - widest range of behaviours or choices controls the system

Control in human systems refers to the ability to influence the quality of a person's own and other people's experience in the moment and through time. The person with the greatest flexibility of behaviour - that is, the number of ways of interacting - will control the system. Choice is always preferable to no choice, and more choice is always preferable to less choice. This also relates to the third general principle of NLP, mentioned previously. This principle is that a person needs to vary their behaviour until they get their desired outcome. If what you are doing is not working, vary the behaviour and do something else. Anything else is better than continuing with what doesn't work. Keep varying your behaviour until you find something that works.

nlp presupposition 6 - behaviour and adaptation

Behaviour is geared towards adaptation. A person's behaviour is determined by the context in which that behaviour originates. Your reality is defined by your perceptions of the world. The behaviour a person exhibits is appropriate to their reality. All of a person's behaviour, whether good or bad, is an adaptation. Everything is useful in some context. All behaviour is or was adaptive, given the context in which it was learned. In another context it may not be appropriate. People need to realise this and change their behaviour when it is appropriate to do so.

nlp presupposition 7 - present behaviour is the best choice

Behind every behaviour is a positive intent. A person makes the best choice available to them at any moment in time, given who the person is and based on all their life experiences and the choices they are aware of. If offered a better choice they will take it. In order to change someone's inappropriate behaviour it is necessary to give them other choices. Once this is done they will behave accordingly. NLP has techniques for providing these additional choices. Also, in NLP we never take away choices. We only provide more choices and explicitly contextualise the existing choices.

nlp presupposition 8 - context of behaviour

You need to evaluate your behaviour in terms of what you are capable of becoming. You need to strive to become all that you are capable of being.

nlp presupposition 9 - resources to change

People have all they need to make changes they want to make. The task is to locate or access those resources and to make them available in the appropriate context. NLP provides techniques to accomplish this task. What this means in practice is that people do not need to spend time trying to gain insight into their problems or in developing resources to deal with their problems. They already have all the resources they need to deal with their problems. All that is necessary is to access these resources and transfer them to the current time frame.

nlp presupposition 10 - the how of possibility

If any other human being is capable of performing some behaviour, then it is possible for you to perform it, too. The process of determining 'how' you do it is called 'modelling', and it is the process by which NLP came into being in the first place.

nlp presupposition 11 - behaviour speaks louder than words

Listen to what people say but pay more attention to what they do. If there is any contradiction between the two then rely on the behaviour. Look for behavioural evidence of change and don't just reply on people's words

nlp presupposition 12 - distinguish behaviour and self

It is useful to make a distinction between behaviour and self. In other words, just because someone 'screws up' on something it doesn't mean that they are a 'screw-up'. Behaviour is what a person says, does or feels at any moment in time. This is not a person's self, however. A person's self is greater than their behaviours.

nlp presupposition 13 - feedback, not failure

It is more valuable for a person to view their experience in terms of a learning frame than in terms of a failure frame. If a person doesn't succeed in something, that doesn't mean they have failed. It just means that they have discovered one way not to do that particular thing. The person then needs to vary their behaviour until they find a way to succeed.

nlp techniques and definitions

NLP consists of a set of powerful techniques to effect change. Some of these techniques are as follows, with their definitions:

anchoring
The process of associating an internal response with some external trigger so that the response may be quickly, and sometimes covertly, reaccessed by activating the trigger.

anchors
These may be naturally occurring or set up deliberately. They may be established in all representational systems and serve to control both positive and negative internal states.

stacking anchors

The process of associating a series of events with one specific anchor so as to strengthen the intensity of the subject's response to a specific anchor.

collapsing anchors
A process of neutralising negative states by triggering two incompatible responses at the same time.

chaining anchors
A process by which a series of anchors is created to lead from an undesired state through a series of intermediate states to a desired state.

associated state
Being fully present in a state so as to experience the kinesthetics of it. For past states this involves being in the experience looking from the perspective of the person's own eyes.

dissociated state
Recreating a past experience from the perspective of an onlooker or observer. This means the person does not re-experience the original emotion but instead experiences the emotions of an observer.

double kinesthetic dissociation

The process of watching yourself watching a film of a past experience. This is used in cases of phobias and extreme psychic trauma.

calibration
The process of reading a subject's internal responses in an ongoing interaction by pairing them with observable behavioural cues.

change history
A process of guiding a subject to re-experience a series of past situations by the use of selective anchoring. Resource states are developed for each situation and are installed in the subject's repertoire in order to change the significance of the past events.

rapport
The process of establishing a relationship with a subject that is characterised by harmony, understanding and mutual confidence. This is done by reducing to a minimum the perceived difference at the unconscious level.

reframing
A process used to separate a problematic behaviour from the positive intention to the internal part responsible for that behaviour. New choices of behaviour are established that maintain the positive intent but don't have the problematic by-products.

strategy
A set of explicit mental and behavioural steps used to achieve a specific outcome. This is represented by a specific sequence of representational systems used to carry out the specific steps.

submodalities
The subclassification of external experience. The decomposing into its components of a picture, sound or feeling. This free NLP article is provided for this website by Robert Smith, and this is gratefully acknowledged. This material can be used freely for personal or organizational development purposes but is not to be sold or published in any form. Robert Smith biography - Robert Smith MBA is a widely sought-after international consultant renowned for his enthusiastic motivational and forthright style. He is a Master Trainer of Neuro Linguistic Programming, specialising in leadership development and 'Solution Focused' consultancy. He has over 20 years experience developing leaders in a wide range of settings. Robert's early years of consultancy were mainly working for IBM in Europe, Middle East and Africa on their leadership development programmes. Robert has a remarkable skill set including being a psychotherapist (UKCP registered) and is able, by using the latest psychological methods, to help people remove limiting beliefs relating to achievement and success. Robert has worked with the Motorola MBA intake programme and trained the United Nations peacekeeping force in Bosnia. He also worked closely with the British Foreign Office and the British Armed Forces, and has worked with many of the top organizations in the world including Cable and Wireless, the Civil Aviation Authority, Solvay Pharmaceuticals, TNT and Alstom. In more recent years Robert Smith has become a highly respected international trainer enabling the development of trainers, coaches, consultants and organizational leaders, across more

than 40 different nationalities. He now runs a training centre in Turkey as well as maintaining training and coaching activities in the UK. Robert can be contacted via email: robert-smith at freeuk.com, and also via his website treaclenlptraining.co.uk.

body language
how to read body language signs and gestures non-verbal communications - male and female, for work, social, dating, and mating relationships
Body Language - technically known as kinesics (pronounced 'kineesicks') - is a significant aspect of modern communications and relationships. Body Language is therefore very relevant to management and leadership, and to all aspects of work and business where communications can be seen and physically observed among people. Body language is also very relevant to relationships outside of work, for example in dating and mating, and in families and parenting. Communication includes listening. In terms of observable body language, non-verbal (non-spoken) signals are being exchanged whether these signals are accompanied by spoken words or not. Body language goes both ways:

Your own body language reveals your feelings and meanings to others. Other people's body language reveals their feelings and meanings to you.

The sending and receiving of body language signals happens on conscious and unconscious levels.
(N.B. US and UK-English spellings, e.g., 'ize' and 'ise' are used in this page to allow for different searching preferences. Please feel free to change these according to your local requirements when using these materials.)

body language index

introduction and basics body language definitions

background and history nature or nurture? body language and evolution universal facial expressions reading and analyzing body language body language signals and meanings :eyes | mouth | head | arms | hands | handshakes | legs and feet | personal space mirroring (synchronizing) body language seating positions and arrangements body language - examples of cultural differences flirting, courtship, dating and mating body language - male and female glossary - main body language terms body language references and books other audible signals

body language warning

Body language is not an exact science. No single body language sign is a reliable indicator. Understanding body language involves the interpretation of several consistent signals to support or indicate a particular conclusion. Skip the background theory and history, and go straight to the body language signals and meanings.

body language - basics and introduction

Body language is a powerful concept which successful people tend to understand well. So can you. The study and theory of body language has become popular in recent years because psychologists have been able to understand what we 'say' through our bodily gestures

and facial expressions, so as to translate our body language, revealing its underlying feelings and attitudes. Body Language is also referred to as 'non-verbal communications', and less commonly 'non-vocal communications'. The term 'non-verbal communications' tends to be used in a wider sense, and all these terms are somewhat vague. For the purposes of this article, the terms 'body language' and 'non-verbal communications' are broadly interchangeable. This guide also takes the view that body language/non-verbal communications is the study of how people communicate face-toface aside from the spoken words themselves, and in this respect the treatment of the subject here is broader than typical body language guides limited merely to body positions and gestures. If you carry out any serious analysis or discussion you should clarify the terminology in your own way to suit your purposes. For example: Does body language include facial expression and eye movement? - Usually, yes. What about breathing and perspiration? - This depends on your definition of body language. And while tone and pitch of voice are part of verbal signals, are these part of body language too? - Not normally, but arguably so, especially as you could ignore them if considering only the spoken words and physical gestures/expressions. There are no absolute right/wrong answers to these questions. It's a matter of interpretation. A good reason for broadening the scope of body language is to avoid missing important signals which might not be considered within a narrow definition of body language. Nevertheless confusion easily arises if definitions and context are not properly established, for example: It is commonly and carelessly quoted that 'non-verbal communications' and/or 'body language' account for up to 93% of the meaning that people take from any human communication. This statistic is actually a distortion based on Albert Mehrabian's research theory, which while itself is something of a cornerstone of body language research, certainly did not make such a sweeping claim. Mehrabian's research findings in fact focused on communications with a strong emotional or 'feelings' element. Moreover the 93% non-verbal proportion included vocal intonation (paralinguistics), which are regarded by many as falling outside of the body language definition.

Care must therefore be exercised when stating specific figures relating to percentages of meaning conveyed, or in making any firm claims in relation to body language and non-verbal communications. It is safe to say that body language represents a very significant proportion of meaning that is conveyed and interpreted between people. Many body language experts and sources seem to agree that that between 50-80% of all human communications are non-verbal. So while body language statistics vary according to situation, it is generally accepted that non-verbal communications are very important in how we understand each other (or fail to), especially in face-to-face and one-to-one communications, and most definitely when the communications involve an emotional or attitudinal element. Body language is especially crucial when we meet someone for the first time. We form our opinions of someone we meet for the first time in just a few seconds, and this initial instinctual assessment is based far more on what we see and feel about the other person than on the words they speak. On many occasions we form a strong view about a new person before they speak a single word. Consequently body language is very influential in forming impressions on first meeting someone. The effect happens both ways - to and from:

When we meet someone for the first time, their body language, on conscious and unconscious levels, largely determines our initial impression of them. In turn when someone meets us for the first time, they form their initial impression of us largely from our body language and non-verbal signals.

And this two-way effect of body language continues throughout communications and relationships between people. Body language is constantly being exchanged and interpreted between people, even though much of the time this is happening on an unconscious level. Remember - while you are interpreting (consciously or unconsciously) the body language of other people, so other people are constantly interpreting yours. The people with the most conscious awareness of, and capabilities to read, body language tend to have an advantage over those whose appreciation is limited largely to the unconscious. You will shift your own awareness of body language from the unconscious into the conscious by learning about the subject, and then by practising your reading of nonverbal communications in your dealings with others.

body language is more than body positions and movements

Body language is not just about how we hold and move our bodies. Body language potentially (although not always, depending on the definition you choose to apply) encompasses:

how we position our bodies our closeness to and the space between us and other people (proxemics), and how this changes our facial expressions our eyes especially and how our eyes move and focus, etc how we touch ourselves and others how our bodies connect with other non-bodily things, for instance, pens, cigarettes, spectacles and clothing our breathing, and other less noticeable physical effects, for example our heartbeat and perspiration

Body language tends not to include:

the pace, pitch, and intonation, volume, variation, pauses, etc., of our voice.

Arguably this last point should be encompassed by body language, because a lot happens here which can easily be missed if we consider merely the spoken word and the traditional narrow definition of body language or non-verbal communications. Voice type and other audible signals are typically not included in body language because they are audible 'verbal' signals rather than physical visual ones, nevertheless the way the voice is used is a very significant (usually unconscious) aspect of communication, aside from the bare words themselves. Consequently, voice type is always important to consider alongside the usual body language factors. Similarly breathing and heartbeat, etc., are typically excluded from many general descriptions of body language, but are certainly part of the range of non-verbal bodily actions and signals which contribute to body language in its fullest sense. More obviously, our eyes are a vital aspect of our body language.

Our reactions to other people's eyes - movement, focus, expression, etc - and their reactions to our eyes - contribute greatly to mutual assessment and understanding, consciously and unconsciously. With no words at all, massive feeling can be conveyed in a single glance. The metaphor which describes the eyes of two lovers meeting across a crowded room is not only found in old romantic movies. It's based on scientific fact - the strong powers of nonverbal communications. These effects - and similar powerful examples - have existed in real human experience and behaviour for thousands of years. The human body and our instinctive reactions have evolved to an amazingly clever degree, which many of us ignore or take for granted, and which we can all learn how to recognize more clearly if we try. Our interpretation of body language, notably eyes and facial expressions, is instinctive, and with a little thought and knowledge we can significantly increase our conscious awareness of these signals: both the signals we transmit, and the signals in others that we observe. Doing so gives us a significant advantage in life - professionally and personally - in our dealings with others. Body language is not just reading the signals in other people. Importantly, understanding body language enables better self-awareness and self-control too. We understand more about other people's feelings and meanings, and we also understand more about these things in ourselves. When we understand body language we become better able to refine and improve what our body says about us, which generates a positive improvement in the way we feel, the way we perform, and what we achieve.

body language definitions

As explained, the terms body language and non-verbal communications are rather vague. So what is body language? And more usefully, what might we regard it to be, if we are to make the most of studying and using it? The Oxford English Dictionary (revised 2005) definition is:

"body language - noun - the conscious and unconscious movements and postures by which attitudes and feelings are communicated [for example]: his intent was clearly expressed in his body language." The Oxford Business English Dictionary offers a slightly different definition. Appropriately and interestingly the Oxford Business English Dictionary emphasizes the sense that body language can be used as a tool, rather than it being an involuntary effect with no particular purpose: "body language - noun - the process of communicating what you are feeling or thinking by the way you place and move your body rather than by words [for example]: The course trains sales people in reading the customer's body language." The OED dictionary definition of kinesics - the technical term for body language depends on the interpretation of 'non-verbal communication': "kinesics - the study of the way in which certain body movements and gestures serve as a form of non-verbal communication." Body language is more than those brief descriptions.

Body language certainly also encompasses where the body is in relation to other bodies (often referred to as 'personal space'). Body language certainly also includes very small bodily movements such as facial expressions and eye movements. Body language also arguably covers all that we communicate through our bodies apart from the spoken words (thereby encompassing breathing, perspiration, pulse, blood-pressure, blushing, etc.)

In this respect, standard dictionary definitions don't always describe body language fully and properly. We could define body language more fully as: "Body language is the unconscious and conscious transmission and interpretation of feelings, attitudes, and moods, through:

body posture, movement, physical state, position and relationship to other bodies, objects and surroundings, facial expression and eye movement,

(and this transmission and interpretation can be quite different to the spoken words)." Words alone - especially emotional words (or words used in emotional situations) rarely reflect full or true meaning and motive. We find clues to additional or true meaning in body language. Being able to 'read' body language therefore helps us greatly:

to know how people feel and what they mean, and to understand better how people might be perceiving our own non-verbal signals, and (often overlooked) to understand ourselves better, deeper than the words we hear ourselves saying.

body language - background and history

Philosophers and scientists have connected human physical behaviour with meaning, mood and personality for thousands of years, but only in living memory has the study of body language become as sophisticated and detailed as it is today. Body language studies and written works on the subject are very sparse until the mid1900s. The first known experts to consider aspects of body language were probably the ancient Greeks, notably Hippocrates and Aristotle, through their interest in human personality and behaviour, and the Romans, notably Cicero, relating gestures to feelings and communications. Much of this early interest was in refining ideas about oration - speech-making - given its significance to leadership and government. Isolated studies of body language appeared in more recent times, for example Francis Bacon in Advancement of Learning, 1605, explored gestures as reflection or extension of spoken communications. John Bulwer's Natural History of the Hand published in 1644, considered hand gestures. Gilbert Austin's Chironomia in 1806 looked at using gestures to improve speech-making. Charles Darwin in the late 1800s could be regarded as the earliest expert to have made serious scientific observation about body language, but there seems little substantial development of ideas for at least the next 150 years. Darwin's work pioneered much ethological thinking. Ethology began as the science of animal behaviour. It became properly established during the early 1900s and increasingly extends to human behaviour and social organization. Where ethology

considers animal evolution and communications, it relates strongly to human body language. Ethologists have progressively applied their findings to human behaviour, including body language, reflecting the evolutionary origins of much human non-verbal communication - and society's growing acceptance of evolutionary rather than creationist theory. Austrian zoologist and 1973 Nobel Prizewinner Konrad Lorenz (190389) was a founding figure in ethology. Desmond Morris, author of The Naked Ape, discussed below, is an ethologist, as is the evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins (b. 1941) a leading modern thinker in the field. Ethology, like psychology, is an overarching science which continues to clarify the understanding of body language. The popular and accessible study of body language as we know it today is very recent. In his popular 1971 book 'Body Language', Julius Fast (1919-2008) wrote: "...kinesics [body language] is still so new as a science that its authorities can be counted on the fingers of one hand..." Julius Fast was an American award winning writer of fiction and non-fiction work dealing especially with human physiology and behaviour. His book Body Language was among the first to bring the subject to a mainstream audience. Significantly the references in Julius Fast's book (Birdwhistell, Goffman, Hall, Mehrabian, Scheflen, etc - see body language references and books below) indicate the freshness of the subject in 1971. All except one of Julius Fast's cited works are from the 1950s and 1960s. The exception among Fast's contemporary influences was Charles Darwin, and specifically his book The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, written in 1872, which is commonly regarded as the beginnings of the body language science, albeit not recognised as such then. Sigmund Freud and others in the field of psychoanalysis - in the late 1800s and early 1900s - would have had good awareness of many aspects of body language, including personal space, but they did not focus on non-verbal communications concepts or develop body language theories in their own right. Freud and similar psychoanalysts and psychologists of that time were focused on behaviour and therapeutic analysis rather than the study of non-verbal communications per se. A different view of human behaviour related to and overlapping body language, surfaced strongly in Desmond Morris's 1967 book The Naked Ape, and in follow-up books such as Intimate Behaviour, 1971. Morris, a British zoologist and ethologist, linked human behaviour - much of it concerned with communications - to human 'animalistic' evolution. His work remains a popular and controversial perspective for understanding people's behaviours, and while his theories did not focus strongly on body language, Morris's popularity in the late 1960s and 1970s contributed significantly to the increasing interest among people beyond the scientific community - for a better understanding of how and why we feel and act and communicate.

An important aspect of body language is facial expression, which is arguably one part of body language for which quite early 'scientific' thinking can be traced: Physiognomy is an obscure and related concept to body language. Physiognomy refers to facial features and expressions which were/are said indicate the person's character or nature, or ethnic origin. The word physiognomy is derived from medieval Latin, and earlier Greek (phusiognominia), which originally meant (the art or capability of) judging a person's nature from his/her facial features and expressions. The ancient roots of this concept demonstrate that while body language itself is a recently defined system of analysis, the notion of inferring human nature or character from facial expression is extremely old. Kinesics (pronounced 'kineesicks' with stress on the 'ee') is the modern scientific or technical word for body language. The word kinesics was first used in English in this sense in the 1950s, deriving from the Greek word kinesis, meaning motion, and seems to have first been used by Dr Ray Birdwhistell, an American 1950s researcher and writer on body language. (See references). The introduction of a new technical word - (in this case, kinesics) - generally comes after the establishment of the subject it describes, which supports the assertion that the modern concept of body language - encompassing facial expressions and personal space - did not exist until the 1950s. Proxemics is the technical term for the personal space aspect of body language. The word was devised in the late 1950s or early 1960s by Edward Twitchell Hall, an American anthropologist. The word is Hall's adaptation of the word proximity, meaning closeness or nearness. (See personal space.) From the word kinesics, Ray Birdwhistell coined the term kine to refer to a single body language signal. This is not to be confused with the ancient and same word kine, meaning a group of cows. Neither word seems to have caught on in a big way, which in one way is a pity, but in another way probably makes matters simpler for anyone interested in the body language of cows. The Greek word kinesis is also a root word of kinaesthetics, which is the 'K' in the VAK ('see hear feel') learning styles model. Kinaesthetics (also known as kinesthetics) in the study of learning styles, is related to some of the principles of body language, in terms of conveying meaning and information via physical movement and experience. Body language is among many branches of science and education which seek to interpret and exploit messages and meaning from the 'touchy-feely' side of life.

For example, the concepts of experiential learning, games and exercises, and love and spirituality at work - are all different perspectives and attempts to unlock and develop people's potential using ideas centred around kinaesthetics, as distinct from the more tangible and easily measurable areas of facts, figures words and logic. These and similar methodologies do not necessarily reference body language directly, but there are very strong inter-connections. Bloom's Taxonomy, and Kolb's Learning Styles are also helpful perspectives in appreciating the significance of kinaesthetics, and therefore body language, in life and work today. The communications concepts of NLP (Neuro-linguistic Programming) and Transactional Analysis are closely dependent on understanding body language, NLP especially.

body language - nature or nurture?

Body language is part of human evolution, but as with many other aspects of human behaviour, the precise mixture of genetic (inherited) and environmental (learned or conditioned) influences is not known, and opinions vary. Julius Fast noted this, especially regarding facial expressions. To emphasise the shifting debate he cited for example:

Darwin's belief that human facial expressions were similar among humans of all cultures, due to evolutionary theory. Bruner and Taguiri's (see references) opposing views - in the early 1950s, after thirty years of research, they largely rejected the notion that facial expressions were inborn. and Ekman, Friesan and Sorensen's findings (see references) - in 1969, having discovered consistent emotional-facial recognition across widely diverse cultural groups, which supported Darwin's evolutionary-centred ideas.

The discussion has continued in a similar vein to the modern day - studies 'proving' genetic or environmental cause - 'nature' or 'nurture' - for one aspect of body language or another. The situation is made more complex when one considers the genetic (inherited) capability or inclination to learn body language. Is this nature or nurture? It's both.

Body language is partly genetic (inborn - 'nature') - hugely so in certain aspects of body language - and partly environmental (conditioned/learned - 'nurture'). Some body language is certainly genetically inherited and consistent among all humans. Other body language is certainly not. The use and recognition of certain fundamental facial expressions are now generally accepted to be consistent and genetically determined among all humans regardless of culture. However the use and recognition of less fundamental physical gestures (hand movements for example, or the winking of an eye), and aspects of personal space distances, are now generally accepted to be environmentally determined (learned, rather than inherited), which is significantly dependent on local society groups and cultures. Certain vocal intonation speech variations (if body language is extended to cover everything but the spoken words) also fall within this environmentally determined category. (See the 'other audible signals' section.) In summary, we can be certain that body language (namely the conscious and unconscious sending and receiving of non-verbal signals) is partly inborn, and partly learned or conditioned. Body language is part 'nature' and part 'nurture'.

body language and evolution

The evolutionary perspectives of body language are fascinating, in terms of its purpose and how it is exploited, which in turn feeds back into the purpose of body language at conscious and unconscious levels. Human beings tend to lie, deceive, manipulate, and pretend. It's in our nature to do this, if only to a small degree in some folk. For various reasons people intentionally and frequently mask their true feelings. (Transactional Analysis theory is very useful in understanding more about this.) In expectation of these 'masking' tendencies in others, humans try to imagine what another person has in their mind. The need to understand what lies behind the mask obviously increases according to the importance of the relationship. Body language helps us to manage and guard against these tendencies, and also significantly especially in flirting/dating/mating rituals - body language often helps people to communicate and resolve relationship issues when conscious behaviour and speech fails to do so.

Body language has evolved in spite of human awareness and conscious intelligence: rather like a guardian angel, body language can help take care of us, connecting us to kindred souls, and protecting us from threats. While the importance of body language in communications and management, etc., has become a popular interest and science in the last few decades, human beings have relied on body language instinctively in many ways for many thousands of years. Early natural exponents of interpreting body language were for example the poker players of the American Wild West. The winners had not only to be handy with a sixshooter, but also skilled in reading other people's non-verbal signals, and controlling their own signals. Before these times, explorers and tribal leaders had to be able to read the body language of potential foes - to know whether to trust or defend or attack. Earlier than this, our cavemen ancestors certainly needed to read body language, if only because no other language existed. Humans have also learned to read the body language of animals (and vice-versa), although humans almost certainly had greater skills in this area a long time ago. Shepherds, horse-riders and animal trainers throughout time and still today have good capabilities in reading animal body language, which for many extends to the human variety. Monty Roberts, the real life 'Horse Whisperer' is a good example. Body language, and the reading of non-verbal communications and feelings, are in our genes. Were these factors not in our genes, we would not be here today. On which point: Women tend to have better perception and interpretation of body language than men. This is perhaps a feature of evolutionary survival, since females needed good body language skills to reduce their physical vulnerability to males and the consequential threat to life, limb and offspring. Females might not be so physically vulnerable in modern times, but their body language capabilities generally continue typically to be stronger than the male of the species. Thus, women tend to be able to employ body language (for sending and interpreting signals) more effectively than men. Katherine Benziger's theories of brain types and thinking styles provides useful additional perspective. Women tend to have more empathic sensitivity than men, which naturally aids body language awareness and capabilities. Aside from gender differences, men and women with strong empathic sensitivity (typically right-basal or rear brain bias) tend to be better at picking up body language signals.

the six universal facial expressions - recognized around the world

It is now generally accepted that certain basic facial expressions of human emotion are recognized around the world - and that the use and recognition of these expressions is genetically inherited rather than socially conditioned or learned. While there have been found to be minor variations and differences among obscurely isolated tribes-people, the following basic human emotions are generally used, recognized, and part of humankind's genetic character: These emotional face expressions are:

Happiness Sadness Fear Disgust Surprise Anger

Charles Darwin was first to make these claims in his book The Expressions of the Emotions in Man and Animals, published in 1872. This book incidentally initially far outsold The Origin of Species, such was its wide (and controversial) appeal at the time. Darwin's assertions about genetically inherited facial expressions remained the subject of much debate for many years. In the 1960s a Californian psychiatrist and expert in facial expressions, Paul Ekman, (with Sorenson and Friesen - see references) conducted and published extensive studies with people of various cultures to explore the validity of Darwin's theory - that certain facial expressions and man's ability to recognize them are inborn and universal among people. Ekman's work notably included isolated tribes-people who could not have been influenced by Western media and images, and essentially proved that Darwin was right - i.e., that the use and recognition of facial expressions to convey certain basic human emotions is part of human evolved nature, genetically inherited, and not dependent on social learning or conditioning.

body language analysis

Body language is instinctively interpreted by us all to a limited degree, but the subject is potentially immensely complex. Perhaps infinitely so, given that the human body is said to be capable of producing 700,000 different movements (Hartland and Tosh, 2001 see references). As with other behavioural sciences, the study of body language benefited from the development of brain-imaging technology in the last part of the 20th century. This dramatically accelerated the research and understanding into connections between the

brain, feelings and thoughts, and body movement. We should expect to see this effect continuing and providing more solid science for body language theory, much of which remains empirical, i.e., based on experience and observation, rather than scientific test. Given the potential for confusion, here are some considerations when analysing body language:

context
Body language also depends on context: body language in a certain situation might not mean the same in another. Some 'body language' isn't what it seems at all, for example:

Someone rubbing their eye might have an irritation, rather than being tired - or disbelieving, or upset. Someone with crossed arms might be keeping warm, rather than being defensive. Someone scratching their nose might actually have an itch, rather than concealing a lie.

sufficient samples/evidence
A single body language signal isn't as reliable as several signals: As with any system of evidence, 'clusters' of body language signals provide much more reliable indication of meaning than one or two signals in isolation. Avoid interpreting only single signals. Look for combinations of signals which support an overall conclusion, especially for signals which can mean two or more quite different things.

culture/ethnicity
Certain body language is the same in all people, for example smiling and frowning (and see the six universally recognizable facial expressions above), but some body language is specific to a culture or ethnic group. See examples of cultural body language differences below. Awareness of possible cultural body language differences is especially important in today's increasingly mixed societies.

Management and customer service staff are particularly prone to misreading or reacting inappropriately to body language signals from people of different ethnic backgrounds, a situation made worse because this sort of misunderstanding tends to peak when emotions are high. Personal space preferences (distances inside which a person is uncomfortable when someone encroaches) can vary between people of different ethnicity. In general this article offers interpretations applicable for Western culture. If you can suggest any different ethnic interpretations of body language please send them and I'll broaden the guide accordingly.

body language is relative to age and gender

Many body language signals are relative. A gesture by one person in a certain situation can carry far more, or very little meaning, compared to the same gesture used by a different person in a different situation. Young men for example often display a lot of pronounced gestures because they are naturally energetic, uninhibited and supple. Older women, relatively, are less energetic, adopt more modest postures, and are prevented by clothing and upbringing from exhibiting very pronounced gestures. So when assessing body language - especially the strength of signals and meanings it's important to do so in relative terms, considering the type of person and situation involved.

faking/deception
Some people artificially control their outward body language to give the impression they seek to create at the time. A confident firm handshake, or direct eye contact, are examples of signals which can be quite easily be 'faked' - usually temporarily, but sometimes more consistently. However while a degree of faking is possible, it is not possible for someone to control or suppress all outgoing signals. This is an additional reason to avoid superficial analysis based on isolated signals, and to seek as many indicators as possible, especially subtle clues when suspecting things might not be what they seem. Politicians and manipulative salespeople come to mind for some reason.

Looking for 'micro gestures' (pupils contract, an eyebrow lifts, corner of the mouth twitch) can help identify the true meaning and motive behind one or two strong and potentially false signals. These micro gestures are very small, difficult to spot and are subconscious, but we cannot control them, hence their usefulness.

boredom, nervousness and insecurity signals

Many body language signals indicate negative feelings such as boredom, disinterest, anxiousness, insecurity, etc. The temptation on seeing such signals is to imagine a weakness on the part of the person exhibiting them. This can be so, however proper interpretation of body language should look beyond the person and the signal - and consider the situation, especially if you are using body language within personal development or management. Ask yourself: What is causing the negative feelings giving rise to the negative signals? It is often the situation, not the person - for example, here are examples of circumstances which can produce negative feelings and signals in people, often even if they are strong and confident:

dominance of a boss or a teacher or other person perceived to be in authority overloading a person with new knowledge or learning tiredness stress caused by anything cold weather or cold conditions lack of food and drink illness or disability alcohol or drugs being in a minority or feeling excluded unfamiliarity - newness - change

Ask yourself, when analysing body language: Are there external factors affecting the mood and condition of the individual concerned?

Do not jump to conclusions - especially negative ones - using body language analysis alone.

body language - translation of gestures, signs and other factors - quick reference guide
When translating body language signals into feelings and meanings remember that one signal does not reliably indicate a meaning. Clusters of signals more reliably indicate meaning. This is a general guide. Body language should not be used alone for making serious decisions about people. Body language is one of several indicators of mood, meaning and motive. This is a guide, not an absolutely reliable indicator, and this applies especially until you've developed good capabilities of reading body language signs. Some of these signs have obvious meanings; others not so. Even 'obvious' signs can be missed - especially if displayed as subtle movements in a group of people and if your mind is on other things - so I make no apology for including 'obvious' body language in this guide. Also remember that cultural differences influence body language signals and their interpretation. This guide is based on 'Western World' and North European behaviours. What may be 'obvious' in one culture can mean something different in another culture.

body language signs translation

The body language signals below are grouped together according to parts of the body. Left and right are for the person giving the signals and making the movements. This is a summary of the main body language signals. More signals and meanings will be added. Suggest any other signals that you wish to know, and I'll add them.

body language warning

Body language is not an exact science.

No single body language sign is a reliable indicator. Understanding body language involves the interpretation of several consistent signals to support or indicate a particular conclusion.

eyes | mouth | head | arms | hands | handshakes | legs and feet | personal space

eyes - body language

Our eyes are a very significant aspect of the non-verbal signals we send to others. To a lesser or greater extent we all 'read' people's eyes without knowing how or why, and this ability seems to be inborn. Eyes - and especially our highly developed awareness of what we see in other people's eyes - are incredible. For example we know if we have eye contact with someone at an almost unbelievable distance. Far too far away to be able to see the detail of a person's eyes - 30-40 metres away or more sometimes - we know when there is eye contact. This is an absolutely awesome capability when you think about it. Incredibly also, we can see whether another person's eyes are focused on us or not, and we can detect easily the differences between a 'glazed over' blank stare, a piercing look, a moistening eye long before tears come, and an awkward or secret glance. We probably cannot describe these and many other eye signals, but we recognise them when we see them and we know what they mean. When we additionally consider the eyelids, and the flexibility of the eyes to widen and close, and for the pupils to enlarge or contract, it becomes easier to understand how the eyes have developed such potency in human communications. A note about eyes looking right and left.. (Left and right are for the person giving the signals and making the movements) Eyes tend to look right when the brain is imagining or creating, and left when the brain is recalling or remembering. This relates to right and left sides of the brain - in this context broadly the parts of the brain handling creativity/feelings (right) and facts/memory (left). This is analysed in greater detail below, chiefly based on NLP theory developed in the 1960s. Under certain circumstances 'creating' can mean fabrication or lying, especially (but not always - beware), when the person is supposed to be recalling facts. Looking right when stating facts does not necessarily mean lying it could for example mean that the person does not know the answer, and is talking hypothetically or speculating or guessing.

signal

part possible of meaning(s) body

detailed explanation

Left and right are for the person giving the signals and making the movements. looking right (generally) eyes creating, fabricating, guessing, lying, storytelling Creating here is basically making things up and saying them. Depending on context this can indicate lying, but in other circumstances, for example, storytelling to a child, this would be perfectly normal. Looking right and down indicates accessing feelings, which again can be a perfectly genuine response or not, depending on the context, and to an extent the person. Recalling and and then stating 'facts' from memory in appropriate context often equates to telling the truth. Whether the 'facts' (memories) are correct is another matter. Left downward looking indicates silent self-conversation or self-talk, typically in trying to arrive at a view or decision. Related to imagination and creative (rightside) parts of the brain, this upwards right eye-movement can be a warning sign of fabrication if a person is supposed to be recalling and stating facts. Sideways eye movements are believed to indicate imagining (right) or recalling (left) sounds, which can include for example a person imagining or fabricating what another person has said or could say. This is a creative signal but not a fabrication - it can signal that the person is selfquestioning their feelings about something. Context particularly- and other signals - are important for interpreting more specific meaning about this signal. Related to accessing memory in the brain, rather than creating or imagining. A

looking left (generally)

eyes

recalling, remembering, retrieving 'facts'

looking eyes right and up

visual imagining, fabrication, lying

looking right sideways

eyes

imagining sounds

looking right and down

eyes

accessing feelings

looking left and up

eyes

recalling images truthfulness

reassuring sign if signalled when the person is recalling and stating facts. looking left sideways eyes recalling or remembering sounds Looking sideways suggests sounds; looking left suggests recalling or remembering - not fabricating or imagining. This therefore could indicate recalling what has been said by another person. Thinking things through by self-talk concerning an outward view, rather than the inward feelings view indicated by downward right looking.

looking left down

eyes

self-talking, rationalizing

direct eye contact (when speaking) direct eye contact (when listening) widening eyes

eyes

honesty - or faked Direct eye contact is generally regarded as a honesty sign of truthfulness, however practised liars know this and will fake the signal. attentiveness, Eyes which stay focused on the speakers interest, attraction eyes, tend to indicate focused interested attention too, which is normally a sign of attraction to the person and/or the subject. interest, appeal, invitation Widening the eyes generally signals interest in something or someone, and often invites positive response. Widened eyes with raised eyebrows can otherwise be due to shock, but aside from this, widening eyes represents an opening and welcoming expression. In women especially widened eyes tend to increase attractiveness, which is believed by some body language experts to relate to the eye/face proportions of babies, and the associated signals of attraction and prompting urges to protect and offer love and care, etc.

eyes

eyes

rubbing eye eyes or eyes

disbelief, upset, or Rubbing eyes or one eye can indicate tiredness disbelief, as if checking the vision, or upset, in which the action relates to crying, or tiredness, which can be due boredom, not necessarily a need for sleep. If the signal is accompanied by a long pronounced blink, this tends to support the tiredness interpretation.

eye shrug

eyes

frustration

An upward roll of the eyes signals frustration or exasperation, as if looking to the heavens for help. The pupil is the black centre of the eye which opens or closes to let in more or less light. Darkness causes pupils to dilate. So too, for some reason does seeing something appealing or attractive. The cause of the attraction depends on the situation. In the case of sexual attraction the effect can be mutual - dilated pupils tend to be more appealing sexually that contracted ones, perhaps because of an instinctive association with darkness, night-time, bedtime, etc., although the origins of this effect are unproven. Resist the temptation to imagine that everyone you see with dilated pupils is sexually attracted to you. Normal human blink rate is considered to be between six and twenty times a minute, depending on the expert. Significantly more than this is a sign of excitement or pressure. Blink rate can increase to up to a hundred times a minute. Blink rate is not a reliable sign of lying. Infrequent blink rate can mean different things and so offers no single clue unless combined with other signals. An infrequent blink rate is probably due to boredom if the eyes are not focused, or can be the opposite - concentration - if accompanied with a strongly focused gaze. Infrequent blink rate can also be accompanied by signals of hostility or negativity, and is therefore not the most revealing of body language signals. Quickly raising and lowering the eyebrows is called an 'eyebrow flash'. It is a common signal of greeting and acknowledgement, and is perhaps genetically influenced since it is prevalent in monkeys (body language study does not sit entirely happily alongside

pupils dilated (enlarged)

eyes

attraction, desire

blinking frequently

eyes

excitement, pressure

blinking eyes infrequently

various

eyebrow raising (eyebrow 'flash')

eyes

greeting, recognition, acknowledgement

creationism). Fear and surprise are also signalled by the eyebrow flash, in which case the eyebrows normally remain raised for longer, until the initial shock subsides. winking eyes friendly acknowledgement, complicity (e.g., sharing a secret or joke) Much fuss was made in May 2007 when George W Bush winked at the Queen. The fuss was made because a wink is quite an intimate signal, directed exclusively from one person to another, and is associated with male flirting. It is strange that a noncontact wink can carry more personal implications than a physical handshake, and in many situations more than a kiss on the cheek. A wink is given additional spice if accompanied by a click of the tongue. Not many people can carry it off. Additionally and this was partly the sense in which Bush used it - a wink can signal a shared joke or secret.

eyes | mouth | head | arms | hands | handshakes | legs and feet | personal space

mouth - body language

The mouth is associated with very many body language signals, which is not surprising given its functions - obviously speech, but also those connected with infant feeding, which connects psychologically through later life with feelings of security, love and sex. The mouth can be touched or obscured by a person's own hands or fingers, and is a tremendously flexible and expressive part of the body too, performing a central role in facial expressions. The mouth also has more visible moving parts than other sensory organs, so there's a lot more potential for variety of signalling. Unlike the nose and ears, which are generally only brought into body language action by the hands or fingers, the mouth acts quite independently, another reason for it deserving separate detailed consideration. Smiling is a big part of facial body language. As a general rule real smiles are symmetrical and produce creases around the eyes and mouth, whereas fake smiles, for whatever reason, tend to be mouth-only gestures. signal part possible detailed explanation

of body pasted smile

meaning(s) A pasted smile is one which appears quickly, is fixed for longer than a natural smile, and seems not to extend to the eyes. This typically indicates suppressed displeasure or forced agreement of some sort. Stretched across face in a straight line, teeth concealed. The smiler has a secret they are not going to share, possibly due to dislike or distrust. Can also be a rejection signal. Shows opposite emotions on each side of the face. More of a practised fake smile than an instinctive one. The jaw is dropped lower than in a natural smile, the act of which creates a smile. Head tilted sideways and downwards so as to part hide the face, from which the smile is directed via the eyes at the intended target.

mouth faked smile

tightlipped smile twisted smile

mouth secrecy or withheld feelings mouth mixed feelings or sarcasm

dropped- mouth faked smile jaw smile smile head tilted, looking up bottom lip jutting out mouth playfulness, teasing, coy

mouth upset

Like rubbing eyes can be an adult version of crying, so jutting or pushing the bottom lip forward is a part of the crying face and impulse. Bear in mind that people cry for reasons of genuine upset, or to avert attack and seek sympathy or kind treatment. Laughter deserves a section in its own right because its such an interesting area. In terms of body language genuine laughter is a sign of relaxation and feeling at ease. Natural laughter can extend to all the upper body or whole body. The physiology of laughter is significant. Endorphins are released. Pain and stress reduces. Also vulnerabilities show and can become more visible because people's guard drops when laughing. Unnatural laughter is often a signal of nervousness or stress, as an effort to dispel

laughter

mouth relaxation

forced laughter

mouth nervousness, cooperation

tension or change the atmosphere. Artificial laughter is a signal of cooperation and a wish to maintain empathy. biting lip mouth tension One of many signals suggesting tension or stress, which can be due to high concentration, but more likely to be anxiousness. Inwardly-directed 'displacement' (see body language glossary) sign, due to suppression of natural reaction due to fear or other suppressant. As above - an inwardly-directed 'displacement' sign, due to suppression of natural reaction. Otherwise however can simply be to freshen breath, or as a smoking replacement.

teeth grinding chewing gum

mouth tension, suppression mouth tension, suppression

smoking

mouth self-comforting Smoking obviously becomes habitual and addictive, but aside from this people put things into their mouths because it's comforting like thumb-sucking is to a child, in turn rooted in baby experiences of feeding and especially breastfeeding. mouth self-comforting A self-comforting impulse in babies and children, substituting breast-feeding, which can persist as a habit into adulthood. mouth self-comforting Like smoking and infant thumbsucking. The pen is the teat. Remember that next time you chew the end of your pen... mouth thoughtfulness, As if holding the words in the mouth until they or upset are ready to be released. Can also indicate anxiousness or impatience at not being able to speak. Or quite differently can indicate upset, as if suppressing crying. mouth disapproval, / rejection tongue The tongue extends briefly and slightly at the centre of the mouth as if tasting something nasty. The gesture may be extremely subtle. An extreme version may be accompanied by a wrinkling of the nose, and a squint of the eyes. Often an unconscious gesture of self-regulation stopping speech for reasons of shock, embarrassment, or for more tactical reasons. The

thumbsucking chewing pen or pencil pursing lips

tongue poke

hand clamped over

mouth suppression, / holding back, hands shock

mouth

gesture is reminiscent of the 'speak no evil' wise monkey. The action can be observed very clearly in young children when they witness something 'unspeakably' naughty or shocking. Extreme versions of the same effect would involve both hands. mouth frustration, / suppression hands Nail-biting is an inwardly-redirected aggression borne of fear, or some other suppression of behaviour. Later nail-biting becomes reinforced as a comforting habit, again typically prompted by frustration or fear. Stress in this context is an outcome. Stress doesn't cause nail-biting; nailbiting is the outward demonstration of stress. The cause of the stress can be various things (stressors). See the stress article for more detail about stress.

nail biting

eyes | mouth | head | arms | hands | handshakes | legs and feet | personal space

head - body language

The head is very significant in body language. The head tends to lead and determine general body direction, but it is also vital and vulnerable being where our brain is, so the head is used a lot in directional (likes and dislikes) body language, and in defensive (self-protection) body language too. A person's head, due to a very flexible neck structure, can turn, jut forward, withdraw, tilt sideways, forwards, backwards. All of these movements have meanings, which given some thought about other signals can be understood. The head usually has hair, ears, eyes, nose, and a face, which has more complex and visible muscular effects than any other area of the body. The face, our eyes and our hands, are the most powerful parts of our body in sending body language signals. The head - when our hands interact with it - is therefore dynamic and busy in communicating all sorts of messages - consciously and unconsciously. signal part possible of meaning(s) body head agreement detailed explanation

head

Head nodding can occur when invited for a

nodding

response, or voluntarily while listening. Nodding is confusingly and rather daftly also referred to as 'head shaking up and down'. Head nodding when talking face-to-face one-to-one is easy to see, but do you always detect tiny head nods when addressing or observing a group? head attentive listening This can be a faked signal. As with all body language signals you must look for clusters of signals rather than relying on one alone. Look at the focus of eyes to check the validity of slow head nodding. Vigorous head nodding signifies that the listener feels the speaker has made their point or taken sufficient time. Fast head nodding is rather like the 'wind-up' hand gesture given off-camera or off-stage by a producer to a performer, indicating 'time's up - get off'. High head position signifies attentive listening, usually with an open or undecided mind, or lack of bias. Especially if exhibited with jutting chin.

slow head nodding

fast head nodding

head

hurry up, impatience

head held up head held high head tilted to one side

head

neutrality, alertness superiority, fearlessness, arrogance nonthreatening, submissive, thoughtfulness

head

head

A signal of interest, and/or vulnerability, which in turn suggests a level of trust. Head tilting is thought by some to relate to 'sizing up' something, since tilting the head changes the perspective offered by the eyes, and a different view is seen of the other person or subject. Exposing the neck is also a sign of trust. Head forward in the direction of a person or other subject indicates interest. The rule also applies to a forward leaning upper body, commonly sitting, but also standing, where the movement can be a distinct and significant advancement into a closer personal space zone of the other person. Head forward and upright is different to head tilted downward. Head tilted downwards towards a person is

head forward, upright

head / body

interest, positive reaction

head tilted

head

criticism,

downward head shaking head

admonishment commonly a signal of criticism or reprimand or disapproval, usually from a position of authority. disagreement Sideways shaking of the head generally indicates disagreement, but can also signal feelings of disbelief, frustration or exasperation. Obvious of course, but often ignored or missed where the movement is small, especially in groups seemingly reacting in silent acceptance. The strength of movement of the head usually relates to strength of feeling, and often to the force by which the head-shaker seeks to send this message to the receiver. This is an immensely powerful signal and is used intentionally by some people to dominate others. Head down is generally a signal of rejection (of someone's ideas etc), unless the head is down for a purpose like reading supporting notes, etc. Head down when responding to criticism is a signal of failure, vulnerability (hence seeking protection), or feeling ashamed. Lowering the head is a sign of loss, defeat, shame, etc. Hence the expressions such as 'don't let your head drop', and 'don't let your head go down', especially in sports and competitive activities. Head down also tends to cause shoulders and upper back to to slump, increasing the signs of weakness at that moment. Very similar to the 'head held high' signal. Holding the chin up naturally alters the angle of the head backwards, exposing the neck, which is a signal of strength, resilience, pride, resistance, etc. A pronounced raised chin does other interesting things to the body too - it tends to lift the sternum (breast-bone), which draws in air, puffing out the chest, and it widens the shoulders. These combined effects make the person stand bigger. An exposed neck is also a sign of confidence. 'Chin up' is for these reasons

pronounced head head shaking

strong disagreement

head down head (in response to a speaker or proposition) head down (while performing an activity) head

negative, disinterested

defeat, tiredness

chin up

head

pride, defiance, confidence

a long-standing expression used to encourage someone to be brave. active listening head / face attention, interest, attraction When people are listening actively and responsively this shows in their facial expression and their head movements. The head and face are seen to respond fittingly and appropriately to what is being said by the speaker. Nodding is relevant to what is being said. Smiles and other expressions are relevant too. The head may tilt sideways. Mirroring of expressions may occur. Silences are used to absorb meaning. The eyes remain sharply focused on the eyes of the speaker, although at times might lower to look at the mouth, especially in male-female engagements.

eyes | mouth | head | arms | hands | handshakes | legs and feet | personal space

arms - body language

Arms act as defensive barriers when across the body, and conversely indicate feelings of openness and security when in open positions, especially combined with open palms. Arms are quite reliable indicators of mood and feeling, especially when interpreted with other body language. This provides a good opportunity to illustrate how signals combine to enable safer analysis. For example:

crossed arms = possibly defensive crossed arms + crossed legs = probably defensive crossed arms + crossed legs + frowning + clenched fists = definitely defensive, and probably hostile too.

While this might seem obvious written in simple language, it's not always so clear if your attention is on other matters. Body language is more than just knowing the theory - it's being aware constantly of the signals people are giving. signal part of possible detailed explanation

body crossed arms (folded arms) arms

meaning(s) defensiveness, Crossed arms represent a protective or reluctance separating barrier. This can be due to various causes, ranging from severe animosity or concern to mild boredom or being too tired to be interested and attentive. Crossed arms is a commonly exhibited signal by subordinates feeling threatened by bosses and figures of authority. N.B. People also cross arms when they are feeling cold, so be careful not to misread this signal. hostile defensiveness Clenched fists reinforce stubbornness, aggression or the lack of empathy indicated by crossed arms. Gripping upper arms while folded is effectively self-hugging. Self-hugging is an attempt to reassure unhappy or unsafe feelings. Women use this gesture. Men tend not to. It's a 'barrier' protective signal, and also selfhugging.

crossed arms with clenched fists gripping own upper arms

arms

arms

insecurity

one arm arms across body clasping other arm by side (female) arms held behind body with hands clasped handbag held in front of body (female) holding papers across chest arms

nervousness

confidence, authority

As demonstrated by members of the royal family, armed forces officers, teachers, policemen, etc.

arms

nervousness

Another 'barrier' protective signal.

arms

nervousness

Another 'barrier' protective signal, especially when arm is across chest.

(mainly male) adjusting arms cuff, watchstrap, tie, etc., using an arm across the body arms/hands arms / covering hands genital region (male) holding a drink in front of body with both hands seated, holding drink on one side with hand from other side arms / hands nervousness Another 'barrier' protective signal.

nervousness

Another 'barrier' protective signal.

nervousness

Another 'barrier' protective signal.

arms / hands

nervousness

One arm rests on the table across the body, holding a drink (or pen, etc). Another 'barrier' protective signal.

touching or arms / nervousness scratching shoulder shoulder using arm across body

Another 'barrier' protective signal.

eyes | mouth | head | arms | hands | handshakes | legs and feet | personal space

hands - body language

Body language involving hands is extensive. This is because hands are such expressive parts of the body, and because hands interact with other parts of the body.

Hands contain many more nerve connections (to the brain) than most if not all other body parts. They are extremely expressive and flexible tools, so it is natural for hands to be used a lot in signalling consciously - as with emphasizing gestures - or unconsciously - as in a wide range of unintentional movements which indicate otherwise hidden feelings and thoughts. A nose or an ear by itself can do little to signal a feeling, but when a hand or finger is also involved then there is probably a signal of some sort. Hands body language is used for various purposes, notably:

emphasis, (pointing, jabbing, and chopping actions, etc) illustration (drawing, shaping, mimicking actions or sizing things in the air - this big/long/wide/etc., phoning actions, etc) specific conscious signals like the American OK, the thumbs-up, the Victory-sign, and for rude gestures, etc. greeting people and waving goodbye (which might be included in the above category) and more interestingly in unconscious 'leakage' signals including interaction with items like pens and cigarettes and other parts of the body, indicating feelings such as doubt, deceit, pressure, openness, expectation, etc.

Body language experts generally agree that hands send more signals than any part of the body except for the face. Studying hand body language therefore yields a lot of information; hence the hands section below is large. There are many cultural body language differences in hand signals. The section below focuses on Western behaviour. Much applies elsewhere, but avoid assuming that it all does. signal palm(s) up or open part of body hands possible meaning(s) submissive, truthful, honesty, appealing detailed explanation Said to evolve from when open upward palms showed no weapon was held. A common gesture with various meanings around a main theme of openness. Can also mean "I don't have the answer," or an appeal. In some situations this can

indicate confidence (such as to enable openness), or trust/trustworthiness. An easily faked gesture to convey innocence. Outward open forearms or whole arms are more extreme versions of the signal. palm(s) up, fingers pointing up hands defensive, instruction to stop Relaxed hands are more likely to be defensive as if offered up in protection; rigid fingers indicates a more authoritative instruction or request to stop whatever behaviour is promoting the reaction. Where the lower arm moves across the body with palm down this is generally defiance or firm disagreement. The hand is empty, but figuratively holds a problem or idea as if weighing it. The signal is one of 'weighing' possibilities.

palm(s) down

hands

authority, strength, dominance striving for or seeking an answer

palm up hands and moving up and down as if weighing hand(s) on heart (left side of chest) hands

seeking to be believed

Although easy to fake, the underlying meaning is one of wanting to be believed, whether being truthful or not. Hand on heart can be proactive, as when a salesman tries to convince a buyer, or reactive, as when claiming innocence or shock. Whatever, the sender of this signal typically feels the need to emphasise their position as if mortally threatened, which is rarely the case. Pointing at a person is very confrontational and dictatorial. Commonly adults do this to young people. Adult to adult it is generally unacceptable and tends to indicate a lack of social awareness or self-control aside from arrogance on the part of the finger pointer. The finger is thought to represent a gun, or pointed weapon.

finger hands pointing (at a person)

aggression, threat, emphasis

Strongly associated with anger, directed at another person. An exception to the generally aggressive meaning of finger pointing is the finger point and wink, below. finger point hands/ and wink eyes acknowledgement The subtle use of a winked eye with a or confirmation pointed finger changes the finger point into a different signal, that of acknowledging something, often a contribution or remark made by someone, in which case the finger and wink are directed at the person concerned, and can be a signal of positive appreciation, as if to say, "You got it," or "You understand it, well done". emphasis Pointing in the air is generally used to add emphasis, by a person feeling in authority or power. Rather like the waving of a pistol as a threat. Stop it/do as you are told, or else.. The action is like pressing a button on a keypad several times. Like when a computer or elevator won't work, as if pressing the button lots of times will make any difference..

finger hands pointing (in the air) finger wagging (side to side) finger wagging (up and down) hand chop hands

warning, refusal

hands

admonishment, emphasis

hands

emphasis The hand is used like a guillotine, as if to especially the last kill the discussion. word on a matter resistance, aggression, determination One or two clenched fists can indicate different feelings - defensive, offensive, positive or negative, depending on context and other signals. Logically a clenched fist prepares the hand (and mind and body) for battle of one sort or another, but in isolation the signal is impossible to interpret more precisely than a basic feeling of resolve.

clenched fist(s)

hands

finger tips hands and thumbs touching each other on opposite hands ('steepling')

thoughtfulness, looking for or explaining connections or engagement

Very brainy folk use this gesture since it reflects complex and/or elevated thinking. In this gesture only the fingertips touch - each finger with the corresponding digit of the other hand, pointing upwards like the rafters of a tall church roof. Fingers are spread and may be rigidly straight or relaxed and curved. Alternating the positions (pushing fingers together then relaxing again - like a spider doing press-ups on a mirror) enables the fascinating effect (nothing to do with body language), which after enough repetition can produce a sensation of having a greased sheet of glass between the fingers. Try it - it's very strange. Very brainy people probably don't do this because they have more important things to think about. It's their loss. The upwards-pointing version tends to indicate high-minded or connective/complex thinking, however when this hand shape is directed forward it also acts as a defensive or distancing barrier between the thinker and other(s) present. Seen often in rowdy meetings the gesture is typically a few inches above the table top, but is also seen standing up. The action is one of suppressing or holding down a rising pressure. Teachers use this gesture when trying to quieten a class. Usually male. Machismo or habit. Meaning depends on context. No-one knows still exactly how the noise is made, but the notion that the practice leads to arthritis is now generally thought to be nonsense. Usually hands would be on a table or

steepled fingers pointing forward

hands

thoughtfulness and barrier

palms down hands moving up and down, fingers spread

seeking or asking for calm, loss of control of a group or situation

cracking knuckles

hands

comforting habit, attention-seeking

interwoven

hands

frustration,

clenched fingers index finger hands and thumb touching at tips

negativity, anxiousness satisfaction, 'OK'

held across stomach or on lap. This is generally seen to be the 'OK' signal, similar to the 'thumbs up'. The signal may be to oneself quietly, or more pronounced directed to others. There is also the sense of this suggesting something being 'just right' as if the finger and thumb are making a fine adjustment with a pinch of spice or a tiny turn of a control knob. The circle formed by the joined finger and thumb resembles the O from OK. The remaining three fingers are spread.

thumb(s) up

hands

positive approval, In the Western world this signal is so agreement, all commonly used and recognized it has well become a language term in its own right: 'thumbs up' means approved. It's a very positive signal. Two hands is a bigger statement of the same meaning. disapproval, failure Logically the opposite of thumbs up. Rightly or wrongly the thumbs up and down signals are associated with the gladiatorial contests of the ancient Roman arenas in which the presiding dignitary would signal the fate of the losing contestants. As with other signals involving holding or stroking a part of one's own body this tends to indicate self-comforting. Also thumbs are potent and flexible tools, so disabling them logically reduces a person's readiness for action. Signalling that a decision or outcome, normally finely balanced and difficult to predict or control, could go one way or another. A signal - often a conscious gesture - of positive expectation, and often related to

thumbs down

hands

thumb(s) clenched inside fist(s)

hands

self-comforting, frustration, insecurity

hand held hands horizontally and rocked from side to side rubbing hands hands

undecided, in the balance

anticipation, relish

together hand(s) clamped over mouth touching nose, while speaking hands / mouth hands / nose suppression, shock lying or exaggeration

material or financial reward, or an enjoyable activity and outcome. See mouth/hand clamp entry in mouth section, which is a subject in its own right. This is said to hide the reddening of the nose caused by increased blood flow. Can also indicate mild embellishment or fabrication. The children's story about Pinocchio (the wooden puppet boy whose nose grew when he told lies) reflects long-standing associations between the nose and telling lies. Nose-scratching while speaking is a warning sign, unless the person genuinely has an itchy nose. Often exhibited when recounting an event or incident. In many cases this is an unconscious signalling of holding back or delaying a response or opinion. Pinching the nose physically obstructs breathing and speech, especially if the mouth is covered at the same time. Rather like the more obvious hand-clamp over the mouth, people displaying this gesture probably have something to say but are choosing not to say it yet. Nose picking is actually extremely common among adults but does not aid career development or social acceptance and is therefore normally a private affair. When observed, nose-picking can signify various states of mind, none particularly positive. Usually accompanied with a long single blink. Not surprisingly gestures involving hands

scratching nose, while speaking

hands / nose

lying or exaggeration

pinching or rubbing nose, while listening

hands / nose

thoughtfulness, suppressing comment

picking nose

hands / nose

day-dreaming, inattentive, socially disconnected, stress

pinching bridge of nose hands

hands / nose hands /

negative evaluation rejection of or

clamped on ears

ears

resistance to something

covering the ears signify a reluctance to listen and/or to agree with what is being said or to the situation as a whole. The gesture is occasionally seen by a person doing the talking, in which case it tends to indicate that other views and opinions are not wanted or will be ignored. People fiddle with their own bodies in various ways when seeking comfort, but ear-pulling or tugging given suitable supporting signs can instead indicate indecision and related pondering. Hands clasping head is like a protective helmet against some disaster or problem. The stroking of a beard is a similar signal, although rare among women. Usually the forearm is vertical from the supporting elbow on a table. People who display this signal are commonly assessing or evaluating next actions, options, or reactions to something or someone. If the resting is heavier and more prolonged, and the gaze is unfocused or averted, then tiredness or boredom is a more likely cause. A lighter resting contact is more likely to be evaluation, as is lightly resting the chin on the knuckles. This is a more reliable signal of evaluation than the above full-hand support. Normally the supporting elbow will be on a table or surface. The middle finger commonly rests horizontally between chin and lower lip. Perhaps evolved from a feeling of distrust and instinct to protect the vulnerable neck area. Who knows whatever, the signal is generally due to

ear tugging

hands / ears

indecision, selfcomforting

hands clasping head hand stroking chin hand supporting chin or side of face

hands / head hands / chin hands / chin, face

calamity

thoughtfulness

evaluation, tiredness or boredom

chin resting hands / on thumb, chin index finger pointing up against face neck scratching hands / neck

evaluation

doubt, disbelief

doubting or distrusting what is being said. hand clasping wrist running hands through hair hands / wrist frustration Clasping a wrist, which may be behind the back or in open view, can be a signal of frustration, as if holding oneself back. Take your pick - running hands through the hair is commonly associated with flirting, and sometimes it is, although given different supporting signals, running hands through the hair can indicate exasperation or upset. The person is emphasizing their presence and readiness for action. Observable in various situations, notably sport, and less pronounced poses in social and work situations. In social and flirting context it is said that the hands are drawing attention to the genital area. The obvious signal is one of inaction, and not being ready for action. Those who stand with hands in pockets - in situations where there is an expectation for people to be enthusiastic and ready for action - demonstrate apathy and lack of interest for the situation. For people who wear reading-only spectacles, this is an example of an announcement or alerting gesture, where a person readies themselves to speak and attracts attention to the fact. Other alerting signals include raising the hand, taking a breath, moving upwards and forwards in their seat, etc. The 'air violin' has been around a lot longer than the 'air guitar', and is based on the traditional use of violin music as a theme or background for sad scenes in movies and in music generally. The 'air violin' is not typically included in body

hair / hair flirting, or vexation, exasperation

hand(s) on hip(s)

hands / arms

confidence, readiness, availability

hands in pockets

hands / arms

disinterest, boredom

removing spectacles

hands / alerting wish to spectacles speak

playing an imaginary violin

hands / arms

mock sympathy or sadness

language guides; it's here as an amusing gesture which demonstrates our conscious practice and recognition of certain signals. thumb and hands fingers formed into a tube and rocked side to side or up and down (mainly male) offensive mockery, dissatisfaction, expression of inferior quality A conscious signal, usually one-handed. Insulting gesture if directed at a person, typically male to male, since it mimics masturbation, like calling a person a 'tosser' or a 'wanker' (UK) or a jerk-off (US). This is obviously rude and not used in respectable company such as the queen or a group of clergymen. The gesture is also used as a response to something regarded as poor quality, which might be a performance or piece of work or a comment on a product of some sort. The allusion is to masturbation being a poor substitute for sex with a woman, and that those who masturbate are not 'real men'. Unsurprisingly the gesture is mainly male, directed at other males, especially in tribal-like gatherings. Rare female use of this gesture directed at males can be very effective due to its humiliating value. For obvious reasons the gesture is unlikely to be used by females or males directed at females. A consciously offensive and aggressive gesture, also called 'flicking the Vs', widely but probably incorrectly thought to derive from the 1415 Battle of Agincourt in the Hundred Years War when the tactically pivotal Welsh longbowmen supposedly derided the beaten French soldiers' and their threats to cut off the bowmen's fingers. British 2nd World War leader Winston Churchill popularised the victory usage, although apparently, significantly if so, first used the palm inwards version until he was told what it meant to the

twofingered Vsign, palm inward (mainly male)

hands / fingers

offensive derision, contempt

twofingered Vsign, palm outward

hands fingers

victory, peace

working classes. eyes | mouth | head | arms | hands | handshakes | legs and feet | personal space

handshakes - body language

Firmness of handshake is not the reliable indicator of firmness of character that many believe it to be. Firm handshakes tend to be those of confident people, especially those who have spent some time in business, and who realise that most people in business consider a firm handshake to be a good thing. Handshakes that are uncomfortably firm show a lack of respect or awareness, especially if used in cultures (Eastern especially) where firm handshaking is not normal. Handshaking evolved from ancient times as an initial gesture of trust, to show that no weapon was being held. Naturally also the handshake offers the most obvious way to connect physically as a way to signal trust or friendship. In more recent times, especially from the 1800s onwards, a handshake became the way to confirm a commercial transaction. Handshaking by women became common practice much later, reflecting the change of social attitudes and the increasing equality of women, for whom a hundred years back such physical contact was considered improper. Women have throughout time generally been subservient to men, hence the very subservient female curtsey gesture (also spelled curtsy), which survives now only in traditional situations such as meeting royalty, or ending a stage performance. signal part of body possible meaning(s) detailed explanation Usually a firm handshake, the 'upper hand' tends to impose and/or create a dominant impression.

handshake handshake dominance - palm down

handshake handshake submission, Usually not a strong handshake, the lower - palm up accommodating hand has submitted to the upper hand dominance. How all this ultimately translates into the subsequent relationship and outcomes can depend on more significant factors than the handshake. handshake handshake seeking to Whether genuine or not, this handshake is - both convey unduly physical and (often) uncomfortably hands trustworthiness domineering. and honesty, seeking to control

handshake handshake non- equal threatening, and relaxed vertical pumping handshake enthusiasm handshake

Most handshakes are like this, when neither person seeks to control or to yield.

A vigorous pumping handshake tends to indicate energy and enthusiasm of the shaker towards the other person, the meeting, situation or project, etc). There is a sense of attempting to transfer energy and enthusiasm, literally, from the vigorous handshaker to the shaken person, hence the behaviour is popular in motivational folk and evangelists, etc. Avoid the common view that a weak handshake is the sign of a weak or submissive person. It is not. Weak handshakes can be due to various aspects of personality, mood, etc. People who use their hands in their profession, for example, musicians, artists, surgeons, etc., can have quite gentle sensitive handshakes. Strong but passive people can have gentle handshakes. Old people can have weak handshakes. A weak handshake might be due to arthritis. Young people unaccustomed to handshaking can have weak handshakes. It's potentially a very misleading signal. Avoid the common view that a firm handshake is the sign of a strong solid person. It is not. Firm handshakes are a sign of outward confidence, which could mask deceit or a weak bullying nature, or indicate a strong solid person. Strength of a handshake is not by itself an indicator of positive 'good' mood or personality, and caution is required in reading this signal. It is widely misinterpreted. When a handshake is accompanied by the left hand clasping the other person's right arm this indicates a wish to control or a

weak handshake various handshake

firm handshake outward handshake confidence

handshake handshake seeking with arm control, clasp paternalism

feeling of care, which can be due to arrogance. To many this represents an unwanted invasion of personal space, since touching 'permission' is for the handshake only. eyes | mouth | head | arms | hands | handshakes | legs and feet | personal space

legs and feet - body language

Legs and feet body language is more difficult to control consciously or fake than some body language of arms and hands and face. Legs and feet can therefore provide good clues to feelings and moods, if you know the signs. Men and women sit differently, which needs to be considered when reading leg body language. Partly due to clothing and partly due to sexual differences, men naturally exhibit more open leg positions than women, which should be allowed for when interpreting signals. Certain open-leg male positions are not especially significant in men, but would be notable in women, especially combined with a short skirt. Older women tend to adopt more modest closed leg positions than younger women, due to upbringing, social trends, equality and clothing. Again take account of these influences when evaluating signals. Also consider that when people sit for half-an-hour or more they tend to change their leg positions, which can include leg crossing purely for comfort reasons. Again allow for this when interpreting signals. Leg signals tend to be supported by corresponding arms signals, for example crossed arms and crossed legs, which aside from comfort reasons generally indicate detachment, disinterest, rejection or insecurity, etc. N.B. Where the terms 'leg crossing' and 'crossed legs' are used alone, this refers to the legs being crossed at both knees. The 'American' or 'Figure-4' leg cross entails the supporting leg being crossed just above the knee by the ankle or lower calf of the crossing leg. This makes a figure-4 shape, hence the name. The posture is also called the American leg cross because of its supposed popularity in the US compared to the UK, notably among males. signal leg direction, sitting part of body possible meaning(s) detailed explanation Generally a seated person directs their knee or knees towards the point of interest. The converse is true also - legs tend to point

legs/knees interest, attentiveness (according to

general

direction)

away from something or someone which is uninteresting or threatening. The rule applies with crossed legs also, where the upper knee indicates interest or disinterest according to where it points. The more direct and obvious the position, the keener the attraction or repellent feeling. In sitting positions, open uncrossed leg positions generally indicate an open attitude, contrasting with with crossed legs, which normally indicate a closed attitude or a degree of caution or uncertainty. This unusual in men, especially if the knees point an angle other than straight ahead. The posture was common in women due to upbringing and clothing and indicates a sense of properness. Crossed legs tend to indicate a degree of caution or disinterest, which can be due to various reasons, ranging from feeling threatened, to mildly insecure. Generally the upper crossed leg and knee will point according to the person's interest. If the knee points towards a person then it signifies interest in or enthusiasm for that person; if it points away from a person it signifies disinterest in or a perceived threat from that person. Signs are more indicative when people first sit down and adopt initial positions in relation to others present. Signs become less reliable when people have been sitting for half-an-hour or so, when leg crossing can change more for comfort than body language reasons. The 'American' or 'figure-4' leg cross is a far more confident posture than the conventional 'both knees' leg cross. It exposes the genital region, and typically causes the upper body to lean back. The crossed leg is nevertheless a protective

uncrossed legs, sitting - general

legs

openness

parallel legs legs together, sitting (mainly female) crossed legs, sitting - general crossing legs, sitting - specific change legs

properness

caution, disinterest

legs

interest or disinterest in direction of upper crossed knee

American or legs figure-4 leg cross

independent, stubborn

barrier, and so this posture is regarded as more stubborn than the 'both knees' leg cross. American or legs / arm resistant, figure-4 leg / hand stubborn cross with hand clamp This is a more protective and stubborn version of the plain American leg cross, in which (usually) the opposite hand to the crossing leg clamps and holds the ankle of the crossing leg, effectively producing a locked position, which reflects the mood of the person. This is a confident dominant posture. Happily extreme male open-crotch posing is rarely exhibited in polite or formal situations since the signal is mainly sexual. This is a clear exception to the leg/knee point rule since the pointing is being done by the crotch, whose target might be a single person or a wider audience. Not a gesture popularly used by women, especially in formal situations and not in a skirt. Regardless of gender this posture is also combative because it requires space and makes the person look bigger. The impression of confidence is increased when arms are also in a wide or open position.

open legs, sitting (mainly male)

legs

arrogance, combative, sexual posturing

ankle lock, sitting

legs

defensiveness Knees may be apart (among men predominantly) or together (more natural in women). There is also a suggestion of suppressing negative emotion. aggression, ready for action Splayed, that is wide-parted legs create (usually unconsciously) a firm base from which to defend or attack, and also make the body look wider. Hands on hips support the interpretation. Standing upright, legs straight, together and parallel, body quite upright, shoulders back, arms by sides - this is like the military 'at attention' posture and is often a signal of respect or subservience adopted when addressed by someone in authority.

splayed legs, standing

legs

legs / standing 'at body attention'

respectful

legs legs intertwined, sitting (female)

insecurity or Also called 'leg twine', this is a tightly sexual posing crossed leg, twined or wrapped around the supporting leg. Depending on the circumstances the leg twine can either be a sign of retreat and protection, or a sexual display of leg shapeliness, since a tight legcross tends to emphasise muscle and tone. Assessing additional body language is crucial for interpreting such signals of potentially very different meanings. insecurity or Typically observed in groups of standing submission or people at parties or other gatherings, engagement defensive signals such as crossed legs and arms among the less confident group members is often reinforced by a physical and audible lack of involvement and connection with more lively sections of the group. Where legs are crossed and arms are not, this can indicate a submissive or committed agreement to stand and engage, so the standing leg cross relays potentially quite different things. under pressure Obviously a pronounced knee buckle is effectively a collapse due to severe stress or actually carrying a heavy weight, and similarly a less obvious knee bend while standing can indicate the anticipation of an uncomfortable burden or responsibility. Like knees, feet tend to point towards the focus of interest - or away from something or someone if it is not of interest. Foot direction or pointing in this context is a subtle aspect of posture - this is not using the foot to point at something; it is merely the direction of the feet when sitting or standing in relation to people close by. The signal is interesting among groups, when it can indicate perceptions of leadership or dominance, i.e., the forward foot points at the leader or strongest member of the group.

legs crossed, standing (scissor stance)

legs

knee buckle, standing

legs / knees

feet or foot direction or pointing

feet

foot direction indicates direction of interest

foot forward, standing

feet

directed towards dominant group member

shoe-play (female)

feet

relaxation, flirting, sexual

A woman would usually be relaxed to display this signal. In certain situations dangling a shoe from the foot, and more so slipping the foot in and out of the shoe has sexual overtones.

eyes | mouth | head | arms | hands | handshakes | legs and feet | personal space

personal space
The technical term for the personal space aspect of body language is proxemics. The word was devised by Edward Twitchell Hall (b.1914), an American anthropologist and writer on body language and non-verbal communications, especially relating to crosscultural understanding. His 1963 book, Proxemics, A Study of Man's Spacial Relationship, no doubt helped popularize the new word. Here is Edward Twitchell Hall's website - he's an interesting character, and one of the founding fathers of modern body language theory. His other books are listed in the body language references section below. Robert Ardrey is cited by Julius Fast as another significant expert and writer in personal space. Proxemics - personal space - is defined as (the study of) the amount of space that people find comfortable between themselves and others. Personal space dimensions depend notably on the individual, cultural and living background, the situation, and relationships, however some general parameters apply to most people, which for Western societies, are shown below. There are five distinct space zones, which were originally identified by Edward T Hall, and which remain the basis of personal space analysis today. The first zone is sometimes shown as a single zone comprising two sub-zones. zone 1. Close intimate distance for 0-15cm 0-6in lovers, and physical touching relationships detail Sometimes included with the 2nd zone below, this is a markedly different zone in certain situations, for example face-to-face contact with close friends rarely encroaches within 6 inches, but commonly does with a lover.

2. Intimate

15-45cm 6-18in

physical Usually reserved for intimate relationships and touching close friendships, but also applies during relationships consenting close activities such as contact sports, and crowded places such as parties, bars, concerts, public transport, queues and entertainment and sports spectating events.

Non-consenting intrusion into this space is normally felt to be uncomfortable at best, or very threatening and upsetting at worst. Within the intimate zone a person's senses of smell and touch (being touched) become especially exercised. 3. Personal 45120cm 18in-4ft family and Touching is possible in this zone, but intimacy close friends is off-limits. Hence touching other than handshaking is potentially uncomfortable. Significantly hand-shaking is only possible within this zone only if both people reach out to do it. Touching is not possible unless both people reach to do it. People establish this zonal space when they seek to avoid interaction with others nearby. When this space is intruded by another person is creates a discomfort or an expectation of interaction.

4. Social1.2-3.6m non-touch consultative 4-12ft interaction, social, business 5. Public 3.6m+ 12ft+ no interaction, ignoring

eyes | mouth | head | arms | hands | handshakes | legs and feet | personal space

mirroring - matching body language signals

When body language and speech characteristics are mirrored or synchronized between people this tends to assist the process of creating and keeping rapport (a mutual feeling of empathy, understanding, trust). The term synchronized is arguably a more accurate technical term because mirroring implies visual signals only, when the principles of matching body language extend to audible signals also - notably speech pace, pitch, tone, etc. 'Mirrored' or synchronized body language between two people encourages feelings of trust and rapport because it generates unconscious feelings of affirmation. When another person displays similar body language to our own, this makes us react unconsciously to feel, "This person is like me and agrees with the way I am. I like this person because we are similar, and he/she likes me too." The converse effect applies. When two people's body language signals are different i.e., not synchronized - they feel less like each other, and the engagement is less comfortable. Each person senses a conflict arising from the mismatching of signals - the two people are not affirming each other; instead the mismatched signals translate into unconscious feelings of discord, discomfort or even rejection. The unconscious mind

thinks, "This person is not like me; he/she is different to me, I am not being affirmed, therefore I feel defensive." Advocates and users of NLP (Neuro-Linguistic Programming) use mirroring consciously, as a method of 'getting in tune' with another person, and with a little practice are able to first match and then actually and gently to alter the signals - and supposedly thereby the feelings and attitudes - of other people, using mirroring techniques. Speech pace or speed is an example. When you are speaking with someone, first match their pace of speaking, then gently change your pace - slower or faster - and see if the other person follows you. Often they will do. People, mostly being peaceful cooperative souls, commonly quite naturally match each other's body language. To do otherwise can sometimes feel uncomfortable, even though we rarely think consciously about it. When another person leans forward towards us at a table, we often mirror and do likewise. When they lean back and relax, we do the same. Sales people and other professional communicators are widely taught to mirror all sorts of more subtle signals, as a means of creating trust and rapport with the other person, and to influence attitudes. Mirroring in this conscious sense is not simply copying or mimicking. Mirroring is effective when movements and gestures are reflected in a similar way so that the effect remains unconscious and subtle. Obvious copying would be regarded as strange or insulting. See NLP (Neuro-Linguistic Programming), and Empathy.

body language of seating positioning in relation to others

Lots of unnecessary friction is created in work and communications situations due to ignorance and lack of thought about seating positions. The 'science' of where people sit in relation to each other, and on what and around what, is fascinating and offers opportunities for improving relationships, communications, cooperation and understanding. Here are some guidelines. These points are generally for the purpose of a leader or someone aspiring to lead, or coach, counsel, etc. They also relate to one-to-one situations like appraisals, interviews, etc.

Sitting opposite someone creates a feeling of confrontation. For one-to-one meetings, especially with emotional potential (appraisals for example) take care to arrange seating before the meeting to avoid opposite-facing positions. If you cannot arrange the seating give very deliberate thought to seating positions before you sit down and/or before you invite the other person to sit - don't just let it happen because commonly, strangely, people often end up sitting opposite if free to do so. Consider the rules about personal space. Do not place chairs so close together that personal space will be invaded. Conversely sitting too far apart will prevent building feelings of trust and private/personal discussion. Sitting opposite someone across a table or desk adds a barrier to the confrontational set-up and can create a tension even when the relationship is good and strong. It's easy to forget this and to find yourself sitting opposite someone when there are only two of you at the table. Sitting opposite across a table is okay for lovers gazing into each other's eyes, but not good for work, counselling, coaching, etc. Sitting behind a work-desk (the boss behind his/her own desk especially) and having someone (especially a subordinate) sit in a less expensive lower chair across the desk emphasises authority of the boss and adds unhelpfully to the barrier and the confrontational set-up. This seating arrangement will increase the defensiveness of anyone already feeling insecure or inferior. This positioning is favoured by certain bosses seeking to reinforce their power, but it is not helpful in most modern work situations, and is not a good way to increase respectful natural authority anyway. Incidentally the expression 'on the carpet' - meaning being told off or 'bollocked' derives from the extreme form of this positional strategy, when the victim, called into the office would stand to receive their bollocking on the carpet in front of the boss who sat high and mighty behind his desk. (The boss would typically be male, and beaten/abused/neglected as a child, but that's another story.) Sitting at a diagonal angle of about 45 degrees to another person is a comfortable and cooperative arrangement. This is achieved naturally by both sitting around the same corner of a square table, which also enables papers to be seen together without too much twisting. The same angle is appropriate for and easy-chairs around a coffee-table. A table ceases to become a barrier when people are sitting at a diagonal angle, instead it becomes a common work surface for studying papers, or exploring issues together. Sitting side by side on a settee is not a good arrangement for working relationships. It threatens personal space, and obstructs communications. Low settees and easy-chairs and low coffee tables cause people to sink and relax back are usually unhelpful for work meetings. For this reason much seating in hotel lounges is entirely unsuitable for work meetings. People naturally are more alert and focused using higher formal table and chairs.

Interviews and appraisals can benefit from relaxed or more formal seating depending on the situation. Importantly - make a conscious choice about furniture depending on the tone of the meeting, and how relaxed you want the meeting to be. The 45-degree rule is approximate, and anyway under most circumstances seating angles are influenced by furniture and available space. Importantly, simply try to avoid opposite or side-by-side positions. An angle between these two extremes is best somewhere in the range of 30-60 degrees if you want to be technical about it. Round tables are better than square or oblong tables for group and team meetings. Obviously this works well because no-one is at the head of the table, which promotes a feeling of equality and teamwork. King Arthur - or the creator of the legend (King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table) - opted for a round table for this reason. The term 'round table' has come to symbolise teamwork and fairness, etc., for a long time. Unfortunately round tables aren't common in offices, which means thinking carefully about best seating arrangements for square or oblong tables. A confident leader will be happy to avoid taking the 'head of the table' position, instead to sit among the team, especially if there are particular reasons for creating a cooperative atmosphere. Conversely it is perfectly normal for a leader to take the 'head of the table' if firmness is required in chairing or mediating, etc. It is usually easier to chair a meeting from the head of the table position. Theory suggests that when a group sits around a table the person sitting on the leader's right will generally be the most loyal and aligned to the leader's thinking and wishes. A (likely) mythical origin is said to be that in Roman times a leader would place their most loyal supporter to their right because this was the most advantageous position from which to attempt an assassination by stabbing (given that most people then as now were right-handed). Assassination by stabbing is rare in modern work meetings, so positioning an opponent on your right side (instead of allowing the normal opposite positioning to happen) can be a useful tactic since this indicates confidence and strength. In large gatherings of 20-30 people or more, a 'top table' is often appropriate for the leader and guest speakers. While this seems like a throwback to more autocratic times, it is perfectly workable. Groups of people above a certain size are far more likely to expect firm direction/leadership, if not in making decisions, certainly to keep order and ensure smooth running of proceedings. Therefore seating arrangements for large groups should provide a clear position of control for the chairperson or event leaders.

body language in different cultures

Here are some brief pointers concerning body language variations and gestures in cultures which differ from Western (US/UK notably) behaviour.

I welcome refinements and additions to this section. Please send any you can contribute. People in/from parts of India may to shake their head from side to side as a sign of agreement and active listening. In the UK/west we tend to nod our head to agree and affirm and to show we are listening; in India it is not unusual for people to move their heads from side to side in giving these reactions. It is also seen as respectful practice. (Thanks S Churchill. Incidentally on this point, sideways head-shaking of this sort is not a vigorous twisting movement; it is usually more of a sideways tilting of the head from one side to the other.) This point (thanks R Fox) concerns eye contact. Eye contact (other than unwanted staring) is generally regarded as a positive aspect of body language in Western cultures, which in this context typically refers to white European people and descendents. A specific difference regarding eye contact can be found in some black Caribbean cultures however, whereby young people tend to be instructed not look at someone eye to eye when being told off or disciplined. When cultures meet obviously this provides potential for friction, given the 'Western' expectation in such situations, for example, "Look at me when I'm talking to you". Filipino people (and in fact many other people of all races) can find it offensive/uncomfortable when beckoned by a repeatedly curled index finger - the gesture evokes feelings of having done something wrong and being chastised for it. In some Australian Aboriginal cultures, it is disrespectful to look an elder, or person of a rank above you, in the eyes. It is a sign of respect to drop your eyes, (whereas in Western culture not meeting somebody's gaze is commonly considered to be a negative sign, indicating deceit, lying, lack of attention, lack of confidence, etc). Showing the soles of the feet is insulting and rude in many Asian and Arab cultures. Similarly pointing the foot or feet at anyone is rude. Feet are considered dirty. In Arab culture the left hand is commonly considered unclean due to associations with toilet functions, and should therefore not be offered or used for touching or eating. When in doubt in Arab environments, using the right hand for everything is a safer idea. In Arab countries the thumbs-up gesture is rude. The eyebrow flash may be considered rude or to carry sexual connotations in Japanese culture. Informal male-female touching is less common and can be considered improper in Japan. The American-style 'OK' sign - a circle made with thumb and index-finger with other fingers fanned or outstretched - is a rude gesture in some cultures, notably Latin America, Germany and the Middle East.

Beckoning gestures in Eastern cultures are commonly made with the palm down, whereas Western beckoning is generally palm up. The offensive British/Western two-fingered V-sign is not necessarily offensive in Japan and may be considered positive like the Western palm-outwards 'victory' or 'peace' Vsign in the West. In some countries, Greece, Turkey and Bulgaria for example, moving the head up/down or from side to side may have additional or different meanings to those conventionally interpreted in the UK/US. Specifically, in Turkey, aside from using conventional (US/UKstyle) head nodding and shaking, some people may also signal 'no' by moving their head up. (This is a refinement of previous details about head movements in body language, and I welcome more information especially from people overseas as to precise variations to US/UK conventional meanings in signally yes and no, and anything else, with head movements.) Arab handshaking tends to be more frequent and less firm - on meeting and departing, even several times in the same day. In Japan the male bow is still commonly used, when the depth of the bow increases with the amount of respect shown, and is therefore a signal of relative status between two people. In The Netherlands people touch the temple with the index finger in order to indicate someone (or an action) is smart or intelligent. Touching the forehead with the index finger means someone (or an action) is stupid or crazy. In Russia these meanings are reversed. Here are some Japanese body language insights, especially for doing business in Japan (thanks R Wilkes):

High-pitched laughter means nervousness. On introduction, do not offer a handshake. Depth of bow is impossible to judge without immense experience: it is sufficient for a Westerner to bow shallowly. Business cards should be exchanged at the first possible opportunity. The card received should be held in both hands and examined carefully, and then stored, preferably in a wallet, on the upper half of the body. Holding a person's identity in one hand is casual/disrespectful. The trouser pocket is a rude place. Blowing one's nose into a handkerchief in public is obscene. (What other bodily waste do you wrap up in cotton and put in your pocket?..)

Japanese businesses (unless they cannot afford it) have two types of meeting room: a Western style room with central table, and a room with sofas. The sofa room is for non-antagonistic meetings. In general, the 45 degree rule seems to apply here - better to sit on adjacent sides than across from one another. This room can be a great place to cut deals. Nevertheless, the 'table' room is where transactions are formalised. There the host of the meeting sits nearest to (and preferably with his back to) the door. (This is probably chivalric in origin - he is first in the way of any invader to the room.) His team sits on the same side of the table in descending rank. The chief guest sits opposite him and similarly the minions decline to the side. The head of the table is not generally used in bilateral (two parties) meetings except by people brought in to advise on components of the agenda. A great boss may spend much of the meeting with his eyes closed. He is considering what is being said by the subordinates and does not need visual distraction. However, if he has a firm steer to give, he will instruct his deputy and this will be relayed immediately. Loss of eye contact is quite normal with lower ranking people: if they drop their head, this indicates deep thought. Otherwise, pure body signals are quite similar to Western ones, with one notable exception: touching the tip of the nose from straight ahead signals 'I/me'. The Japanese language does have a word for 'no' but it is rarely used in business for fear of causing offence or loss of face. "Yes, but..." is substantially more acceptable.

I welcome refinements and additions for body language in other cultures. Please send any you can contribute. (Thanks to D Ofek, G van Duin, L Campbell, F Suzara, M Baniasadi, S Aydogmus, and particularly to R Wilkes for the Japanese section.)

flirting, courtship, dating and mating - sexual body language

Many signals in flirting, dating and mating body language are covered in the general translation signals above, and the fundamental principles of social/work body language also apply to the development or blocking of sexual relationships. Of course lots of flirting, and more, goes on at work, but for the purposes of this article it's easier to keep the two situations separate. There are some differences which can completely change the nature of a signal given in a sexual context. Sitting opposite someone is an example, which is confrontational at work, but is often intimate and enabling for sexual and romantic relationships: full constant eye-to-eye contact is helpful for intimacy, as is full frontal facing between male and female for obvious reasons. Personal space must also be considered in a different way in social-sexual situations compared to work and non-sexual situations: At work, the primary consideration is given to respecting the personal zones and not invading closer than the situation warrants. In a sexual flirting context however, personal space becomes the arena for ritual and play, and within reason is more of a game than a set of fixed limits. Dancing is further example of how body language operates at a different level in sexual-social situations. Different tolerances and tacit (implied) permissions apply. It's a ritual and a game which humans have played for thousands of years. Dancing relates strongly to the attention stage of the dating/mating/courtship process. In many ways courtship echoes the selling and advertising model AIDA (Attention, Interest, Desire, Action). This is also known as the Hierarchy of Effects, since steps must be successfully completed in order to achieve the sale at the end. For example, nothing happens without first attracting attention, a point commonly ignored by people looking for a mate. The attention stage is even more critical in crowded and highly competitive environments such as nightclubs and dating websites. And while not technically part of body language, environment is a vital aspect of dating and mating. The environment in which the dating activity is pursued equates to market/audience-targeting in business. People seeking a mate are effectively marketing themselves. Commonly people head to where everyone else goes - to nightclubs and dating websites - but crucially these environments are highly unsuitable markets for many people, for instance those not good at dancing, and those not good at writing and communicating online. Just as a business needs to find the best markets and ways of reaching its target audience, so in dating people can seek environments where they can best display their strengths and where relevant 'buyers' will be. Knowing about flirting body language becomes more useful in a favourable environment.

female indications of interest in a male

Females have very many more ways of attracting attention to themselves than males, and so are able to express interest and availability in far more ways than males tend to do. Female interest in males is relatively selective. Male interest in females is by comparison constant and indiscriminate. This is due fundamentally to human mating behaviour, evolved over many thousands of years, in which essentially women control the chase and the choice, and men respond primarily to female availability and permissions. These differences in behaviour perhaps mainly exist because females produce one viable egg per month, about 500 in a lifetime, whereas males make several hundred sperm every day. Do the math, as they say. As with interpreting body language generally, beware of concluding anything based on a single signal. Clusters of signals are more reliable. Foot pointing, knee pointing, and leg-crossing signals can all be due simply to comfort, rather than expressions of interest or sexual appeal. Aside from the specific flirting and sexual attraction signs below, females also express interest using the general signalling explained in the earlier sections, e.g., prolonged direct eye contact, active responsive listening, attentive open alert postures and body positions, etc. Here are the most common female flirting body language signals and meanings, according to experts on the subject: eye contact - anything more than a glance indicates initial interest. eye catch and look away - establishing eye contact then looking away or down is said by many experts to be the standard initial signal of interest designed to hook male reaction. The reliability of the signal meaning is strengthened when repeated and/or reinforced with longer eye-contact. eye-widening - interest, simultaneously increasing attractiveness/appeal. eyelash flicker - subtle movement of eyelashes to widen eyes briefly. pupil dilating - interest, liking what is seen, arousal. looking sideways up - lowering head, slightly sideways, and looking up - also known as doe-eyes, with eyelashes normally slightly lowered - displays interest and vulnerability/coyness, most famously employed by Diana Princess of Wales, notably in her interview with Martin Bashir in battle for public sympathy following her split with Prince Charles.

shoulder glance - looking sideways towards the target over the shoulder signals availability, and hence interest. smiling - obvious sign of welcoming and friendliness. moistening lips - lips are significant in signalling because (psychologists say) they mimic the female labia, hence the potency of red lipstick (suggesting increased blood flow) and moistening/licking the lips. parted lips - significant and potent attraction signal. preening - especially of hair, which exposes the soft underarm. flicking hair - often combined with a slight tossing movement of the head. canting (tilting) head - also exposes neck. showing inner wrist or forearm - a soft vulnerable area and erogenous zone. straightening posture - standing taller, chest out, stomach in - a natural response to feeling the urge to appear more appealing. self-touching - drawing attention to sexually appealing parts of the body; neck, hair, cleavage, thigh, etc. - additionally self-touching is said to represent transference/imagining of being touched - and of course demonstration of what it would be like for the target to do the touching; teasing in other words. self thigh-stroking - usually while sitting down - same as self-touching. standing opposite - normally a confrontational positioning, but in flirting allows direct eye contact and optimizes engagement. Refer also to personal space rules: less than 4ft between people is personal; less than 18 inches is intimate and only sustainable when there is some mutual interest and attraction, especially when direct facing and not in a crowded environment. N.B. Crowded environments distort the personal space rules, where implied permissions (e.g., for public transport and dense crowds or queues) override normal interpretations. leaning forward - sitting or standing; leaning forwards towards a person indicates interest and attraction. foot pointing - direction can indicate person of interest. knee-pointing - as foot pointing. leg twine - a tight-leg cross 'aimed' (combined with eye contact) at a target, or when sitting one-to-one, increases sexual allure since it emphasises leg shape and tone. When employed flirtatiously, female leg crossing and uncrossing also has obvious sexual connotations and stimulates basic urges in males.

shoe-dangling - positive signal of relaxation or of greater promise, especially if the foot thrusts in and out of the shoe. pouting - pouting involves tightening the lips together; the tongue rises to the roof of the mouth as if ready to swallow. Pouting displays various emotions, not always a sexual one, for example projection of the lower lip indicates upset. An attraction pout looks more like the initial forming of a kiss. picking fluff - removing fluff, hair, etc., from the target's clothes is playing in the intimate personal space zone, in which the fluff picking is merely a pretext or excuse. fondling cylindrical objects - phallic transference, for instance using pens, a dangling earring, a wine glass stem, etc. mirroring - mirroring or synchronizing gestures and positions is a signal of interest and attraction. See mirroring. When considering body language in such detail, remember that males and females rely greatly on conversation and verbal communication to determine mutual attraction as soon as the situation allows. Body language in flirting can be significant in indicating a strong match, but just as easily can merely be an initial filtering stage which progresses no further because other (infinitely variable) personal or situational criteria on either or both sides are not met. Also bear in mind that a lot of flirting happens for fun with no intention of proceeding to sexual or romantic attachment. The purpose of this page is chiefly to explain body language signals, not to explain human relationships.

male interest in females

As stated earlier there are reasons for the relative sparseness of male signals compared to female flirting signals. Most men are interested perpetually in most women, and therefore male signals are generally designed to attract the attention of any females, rather than directed at one female in particular. Male interest is basically always switched on and ready to respond to opportunity when female availability and interest are signalled and noticed. Men believe they take the lead, but actually mostly women do. Male signals of interest in females essentially follow normal body language rules, for example widening eyes, dilated pupils, forward leaning, prolonged direct eye contact, active listening reactions, and these come into play once eye contact and/or proximity is established.

The most prevalent signals males use to announce their availability and attract female attention are summarised below. Under many circumstances these might be categorised under the headings 'pathetic' or 'amusing'. The male of the species, despite a couple of million years of evolution, has yet to develop much subtle body language in this area. posturing - erect stance, chest out, shoulders back, stomach in. wide stance - legs apart (standing or sitting) - to increase size. cowboy stance - thumbs in belt loops, fingers pointing to genital area. hands in pockets - thumbs out and pointing to genitals. 'chest-thumping' - a metaphor describing various male antics designed to draw attention to themselves, often involving play-punching or wresting other males, laughing too loudly, head-tossing, acting the fool, etc. room scanning - males who are available and looking for females tend to scan the room, partly to look for available females, but also to indicate they are available themselves. dress - clothing: style, fit, cleanliness, etc - is all an extension of personality and is therefore part of body language. preening and grooming - adjusting clothes, ties, cuffs, sleeves, tugging at trouser crotch, running hands through or over hair, etc. smell - certain smells are attractive to females but it's a complex and highly personal area yet to be understood well. Answers on a postcard please. tattoos - here's an interesting one, commonly ignored in conventional body language flirting guides. Tattoos have dramatically altered in society's perceptions in the past generation. Previously considered indicative of lower class, lower intellect, sailors, soldiers, builders, etc., nowadays they are everywhere on everyone. Tattoos have been a significant part of human customs for thousands of years. They are decorative, and also (in evolutionary terms) suggested strength and machismo, since the process of obtaining them was painful and even life-threatening. Certain females are attracted by tattoos on men, especially extensive markings. It's a drastic step to improve one's love life, but worthy of note, because the subject is not as simple and negative as traditionally regarded. Tattoos are significant attention-grabbers, and given the variety of subjects featured, also provide interesting talking points. body piercings - again more complex than traditionally considered, piercings do attract attention and signify the wearer to be different. dancing - dancing, in a suitable place of course, has for thousands of years been an opportunity for males and females to display their physical and sexual potential. With the exception perhaps of pogo-ing and head-banging most dance styles replicate sexual

movements - lots of rhythmic hip and leg work, contorted facial expressions, sweating and occasional grunting, etc. For those blessed with a level of coordination dancing offers an effective way of attracting attention, especially in crowded competitive situations. For the less rhythmic, the lesson is to find a different environment.

stages of courtship
The initial stages of a (usually) male-female sexual relationship are commonly represented as quite a structured process, summarised below. Incidentally courtship traditionally refers to the early stages of a male-female relationship leading up to sex, babies, marriage and family life, (followed for many by mutual tolerance/indifference/loathing and acrimonious break-up). Flirting is a common modern term for the early stages of courtship, or the beginnings of extra-marital affairs, which is misleading since most flirting happens for fun and rarely progresses beyond non-sexual touching. If considering flirting/courtship body language in the context of dating and mating, it's useful to recall the selling and advertising model AIDA (Attention, Interest, Desire, Action), and especially that nothing happens without first attracting attention. Significantly, women are said generally make the first move - by signalling interest through establishing eye contact, and then confusingly for men, looking away. The process can disintegrate at any moment, often before it begins, because most men are too interested in themselves or the bloody football on the pub telly to notice the eye contact. Where the process reaches past the first stage, here broadly is how it is said by body language experts to unfold: 1. Eye contact (females typically lower or avert their eyes once firm contact is made). 2. Returned eye contact (by male). 3. Mutual smiling. 4. Preening, grooming, posturing (male and female). 5. Moving together as regards personal space (male typically walks to female). 6. Talking. 7. Attentive active listening (or simulation of this, sufficient mutually to retain sense of mutual interest). 8. Synchronizing/mirroring each other's body language.

9. Touching (more significantly by the female; subtle touching can happen earlier, and at this stage can become more intimate and daring). A generation ago this process took a little longer than it does today. Alcohol accelerates things even more. You'll see variations of the above sequence in body language books, and no doubt in real life too. Males tend to react to obvious signs of availability shown by females but miss many subtle signals. Females give lots of subtle signals, tend not to repeat them too often, and infer lack of interest in a male failing to respond. It's a wonder that anyone gets together at all. The fact that most people do confirms that courtship is more complex than we readily understand.

bowing and curtseying body language

Although now rare in Western society bowing and curtseying are interesting because they illustrate the status and relationship aspects of body language, which are so significant in one-to-one situations. Bowing - Bowing is mainly a male gesture. Bending the upper body downwards towards another person or group is a signal of appreciation or subservience. The bow was in olden times a standard way for men to greet or acknowledge another person of perceived or officially higher status. The bow is also a gesture of appreciation and thanks which survives in entertainment and performance. Male bowing traditionally varied from a modest nod of the head, to a very much more pronounced bend of the body from the hips. Depth of bend reflects depth of respect or appreciation. For added dramatic effect the feet may be moved tightly together. A very traditional Western bow involves a deeper bend combined with the (normally) right-leg pushing backwards or 'scraping' on the ground, hence the expression 'bowing and scraping'. The effect can be augmented by the bower's hand pressing horizontally on the stomach, and the other arm extended, or sweeping extravagantly in a circular motion, made all the more dramatic if combined with removing a hat. Such behaviour is rare outside of Christmas pantomimes these days, however interestingly even in modern times you will see men slightly nodding their heads in an involuntary 'semi-bow' when meeting a person and wishing to show respect or admiration. As such, the small nod or bow of a head can be a clue to perceived seniority in relationships. Bowing has long been more significant and complex in Eastern cultures, where the gesture carries a similar deferential meaning,

albeit it within more formal protocols and traditions. The fundamental body language of bowing is rooted in showing subservience by lowering one's gaze and body, literally putting the bower at a lower level than the other person. Bowing remains significant in Japanese culture. Curtsey/curtsy - The curtsey is the female equivalent of the male bow, and in their most extreme versions curtseying and bowing gestures are quite similar. A curtsey is a bend of the knees, combined with a slight bow of the head, and sometimes a lifting of the skirt or dress at each side, at knee-height, by both hands. This skirt-lift dates from olden times when this prevented a long skirt from touching wet or muddy ground. The female curtsey gesture survives in traditional situations such as meeting royalty, or ending a stage or dance performance, in which you might see an older more flamboyant and deeper curtsey entailing one knee bending sideways and the other leg bending behind. Curtseying has effectively now been replaced by handshaking, although as with male bowing it is possible sometimes to see small head bows by women when meeting and shaking hands with someone regarded as superior or important. Bowing and curtseying as conscious intentional gestures have effectively disappeared from Western behaviour, but importantly people's body language continues to give much smaller unconscious signals which can be linked to these old formal gestures and their meanings.

body language glossary

This is not an exhaustive collection of body language terminology - just a summary of the main and most interesting definitions. absorbed actions - actions stimulated through unconscious mirroring. active listening - listening very attentively and empathizing and reflecting back understanding through body language and usually words too. adaptors - small signals given when anxious or when behaving in a way that does not comfortably match the feelings, for example lip-biting or face-touching, which are selfcomforting signals. alerting/announcement gestures - indicating need to speak, for example raising a hand, or taking a breath and lifting the shoulders. american leg cross - the 'American' or 'Figure-4' leg cross entails the supporting leg being crossed just above the knee by the ankle or lower calf of the crossing leg. This makes a figure-4 shape, hence the name. The posture is called the American leg cross because of its supposed popularity in the US compared to the UK, notably among males.

anthropology - the study of humankind in all respects - especially culturally, socially and in evolutionary terms, and how these key aspects inter-relate. The word anthropology is from Greek anthropos meaning human being. Anthropology, like psychology and ethnology and ethology, is a science which over-arches the study of body language, and provides useful (and for serious students, essential) context for understanding the reasons and purposes of body language. Anthropology has been studied one way or another for thousands of years and became established under that name in the 1500s. The Human Genome project, which basically mapped the human genetic code (started 1990, completed in 2003, and ongoing) is probably the largest anthropological study ever performed. asymmetric/asymmetry - describing gestures or facial expressions, especially a smile, that are not symmetrical (equal on both sides), which tends to indicate incongruence or a mixed signal and not what it might initially seem to mean. auto-contact - describing self-touching gestures and actions. autonomic/automatic signals - effectively involuntary stress-induced physiological behaviours, such as crying, shaking, blushing, quickened pulse-rate, and in extreme cases retching, vomiting, fainting, etc. Involuntary in the sense that it is virtually impossible to control these signals because they are controlled by the very basic part of the brain responsible for our most basic bodily functions. Breathing rate is perhaps the exception, which while in many cases will speed as a physiological response to stress, can often be controlled and slowed or deepened given suitable conscious effort. back-channel signals - positive body language reactions to a speaker. baton signals - gestures which reinforce the rhythm of speech. barrier - describing signals in which the hands or arms or a table, or adjusting clothing, etc., form a defence or obstruction between two people, such a folded arms. buttress stance - weight bearing leg is straight, while the front leg is forward, usually with the foot pointing outwards from the body. Regarded as a signal of reluctance or readiness to depart. cluster - term for a group of body language signals, which more reliably indicate meaning or mood than a single signal. cognitive dissonance - conflicting understanding or feelings - cognition is understanding things through thought; dissonance is disharmony or conflict. This is a widely used term in psychology and the effect arises very commonly in relationships and communications. Conflicting body language signals can sometimes indicate this attitude or reaction in a person. compliance - submissive behaviour, hence compliance signals or signs, which indicate this.

courtship - an old term for (typically) male-female relations from initial meeting through to going-out relationship stage. Courtship in olden times (broadly since the middle ages up until the mid-late 1900s) referred to quite formal steps of increasing familiarity between male and female, through to intimacy, perhaps with a little touching of hands or kissing, and lots of going out for walks and visits to the cinema or theatre, etc. Sex might not rear its scary head for weeks, months or years; and sometimes, especially if the female was from an elite or religiously obsessed family, not until the wedding night. Nowadays 'courtship' is a much speedier affair and among modern young people can be started, fully consummated and effectively forgotten in a matter of minutes. denial - signals of denial effectively undo or contradict more conscious typically false or manufactured body language, thereby betraying true feeling or motive. displacement - a stress signal typically prompted by suppression of natural reaction due to fear or other inhibition, for example biting fingernails, picking at finger(s) or thumb. distraction - signalling prompted by stress, usually quite inappropriate to the needs of the situation, for example stretching and relaxing, or pausing to take a drink when an emergency arises. emotional intelligence - also known as EQ, Emotional Intelligence is based on 'feeling intelligence' (rather than IQ - Intelligence Quotient - based on logical intelligence), and the capability to understand and communicate with others very empathically, which requires awareness of emotional behaviour and ability to deal with people sensitively. See Emotional Intelligence. emphatic/emphasizing gestures - gestures which reinforce the meaning of spoken words, e.g., jabbing fingers, weighing hands. erogenous zone - any part of the human body particularly sensitive to touching and sexual arousal - the word erogenous first appeared in the late 1800s which suggests when the effect was first analysed and recorded in any serious sense. The word erogenous derives from Eros, the Greek god of love (Cupid is Roman), from which the word erotic also derives. Erogenous zones contain high concentration of nerve endings and are significant in flirting and sex. Aside from the obvious genital areas and bottoms and breasts, erogenous zones include necks, inner side of arms and wrists, armpits and lips. Incidentally the G in G-spot is named after Ernst Grafenberg (1881-1957) a German-born gynaecological doctor and scientist who as well as being an expert on the female orgasm, was first to invent and commercially market a IUD (intrauterine device or coil) for female birth control. ethnology - the study of different ethnic people and their differences and relationships. Ethnology is a branch of anthropology, concerned with ethnic effects, and where this involves behaviour it certainly relates to body language. The word ethnology is derived from Greek ethnos meaning nation. The establishment of the science and

word ethnology is credited to Slovakian/Austrian Adam Franz Kollar (1718-1783), a nobleman, professor and librarian who became a Court Councilor for the Habsburg Monarchy of the Kingdom of Hungary, as it once was. The modern study and awareness of ethnology is arguably hampered by sensitivities around racism. Ethnic differences between people obviously exist, and ironically where over-sensitivity to racism and equality obstructs debate, society's understanding of these issues remains clouded and confused. ethology - ethology is primarily the science of animal behaviour, but increasingly extends to human behaviour and social organization. The word ethology first appeared in English in the late 1800s, derived from the Greek word ethos meaning character or disposition. Ethology became properly established during the early 1900s. Austrian zoologist and 1973 Nobel Prizewinner Konrad Lorenz (1903-89) was a founding figure. Desmond Morris, author of The Naked Ape, is an ethologist. So is the evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins. Where ethology considers animal evolution and communications, it relates strongly to human body language. Charles Darwin's work pioneered much ethological thinking. eye flash - a sudden direct glance to attract attention or warn, usually followed by some other more specific signal. eyebrow flash - quickly raising and lowering both eyebrows - typically in greetings, recognition, acknowledgement, or surprise. An eyebrow flash can therefore also be a signal of positive interest. eye shrug - upwards eye-roll signalling frustration. face frame - framing the face with the hands to hold or attract listeners' attention. haptics - the study of human touch, from the Greek word haptikos, meaning able to touch. The word haptics in this sense entered the English language in the 1800s, which indicates when human touch began to be a serious area of study. hybrid expression - a term apparently originated by Charles Darwin, it refers to a facial expression which combines two seemingly different or opposing meanings, for example a smile with a head-turn away from the person the smile is meant for. Hybrid expressions provide further emphasis of the need to avoid reading single signals. Combinations of signals and context are necessary, especially to make sense of hybrid expressions which contain different meanings. illustrative gesture - gestures which shape or describe the physical dimensions of something by using the hands in the air. index finger - first finger of the hand - usually the most dominant and dexterous finger, hence used mostly in pointing gestures. kine - an obscure term describing a single body language signal (devised by body language expert Dr Ray Birdwhistell, c.1952, from the longer term kinesics).

kinesics - the technical term for body language. Kinesics is pronounced 'kineesicks' with stress on the 'ee'). The word kinesics was first used in English in this sense in the 1950s, from the Greek word kinesis, meaning motion. labial tractors - a wonderful term for the muscles around the mouth. The word labial in phonetics means closure or part closure of the mouth, and additionally refers to the resulting vowel sounds produced, like w, oo, etc. leakage - leakage signals are the small signs which are most difficult to control or mask, and which therefore offer clues even when someone is generally in good control of their outgoing body language signals. mask/masking - using body language, usually intentionally, to deceive others as to true feelings or motives. metronome/metronomic signals - these are any rhythmic tappings or movements which indicate a readiness or self-prompting to speak or take action- a termed devised by body language expert Judi James. micro-gestures - tiny body language 'leakage' signals, often unconsciously sent and interpreted, more likely to be seen and reacted to unconsciously rather than consciously, unless concentrating determinedly. mime/miming gestures - gestures used consciously to convey a specific message, such as extending the thumb and little finger by the ear to say "Phone me," or wiping imaginary sweat from the brow to express relief after a crisis subsides. mirroring - the synchronizing or matching of body language (and speech characteristics), usually between two people, which helps build feelings of trust and empathy. Mirroring works like this because similar signals produce unconscious feelings of affirmation. When a person's signals are mirrored the unconscious mind thinks, "This person is like me and agrees with the way I am. I like this person because we are similar, and he/she likes me too." See NLP (Neuro-Linguistic Programming), and Empathy. Pacing refers to the mirroring of someone's speed of movements. NLP/Neuro-linguistic programming - a branch of psychology developed in the 1960s which combines language, body movement and thought to optimise self-control and development, and relationships and communications with others. NLP research has fuelled much of the analytical aspects of modern popular body language, notably mirroring and eye movements. palm - inside surface of the hand - significant in body language because an open palm has for thousands of years indicated that no weapon is concealed, which survives as perhaps a genetically inherited signal of peace, cooperation, submissiveness, etc. phallus/phallic - phallus means penis, from the ancient Greek word phallos of the same meaning. Phallic refers to something which looks like or represents a penis, often called a phallic symbol. Phallic symbols are prevalent in psychology and aspects of

flirting or sexual body language. The female equivalent term is a yonic symbol, from yoni, Hindu for vulva and a symbolic circular stone representing divine procreation. Yoni was originally an old Sanskrit word, meaning source or womb. physiognomy - an obscure yet related concept to body language. Physiognomy refers to facial features and expressions which indicate the person's character or nature, or ethnic origin. The word physiognomy is derived from medieval Latin, and earlier Greek (phusiognominia), meaning (the art or capability of) judging a person's nature from his/her facial features and expressions. physiology - the branch of biology concerned with how living organisms function, notably parts of the human body. physiological signals - body language produced by the unconscious basic brain which controls bodily functions, which in body language can be signals such as sweating, blushing, breathlessness, yawning, weeping, feeling faint, nauseous, repulsion, etc. primary emotions - first identified by Charles Darwin, typically represented as happiness, sadness, disgust, anger, fear, surprise, and linked to universal facial expressions and recognition. proxemics - the technical term for the personal space aspect of body language. The word and much of the fundamental theory was devised by Edward Twitchell Hall, an American anthropologist in the late 1950s and early 1960s. The word is Hall's adaptation of the word proximity, meaning closeness or nearness. pseudo-infantile gestures - gestures of childlike vulnerability, often made to avert attack, attract sympathy, or to induce feelings of compassion, attention, etc. pupil - the round black centre of the eye which enlarges or contracts to let more or less light into the eye. The pupil generally enlarges (dilates) in the dark, and contracts in brightness. Enlarged pupils are also associated with desire and allure. Enlarged pupils are not a symptom of smoking drugs as commonly believed. This is probably a confusion arising from the fact that conditions are relatively dark when such judgements are made. rictus - a fixed grimace, usually resulting from shock or nervousness. From Latin word meaning 'open mouth'. scissor stance - standing leg cross. Various meanings very dependant on context and other signals. self-motivating gestures - gestures signalling attempting to increase mental workrate or activity, like tapping the head repeatedly or making circular motions with the hands, as if winding the body up. show - (noun) - a 'show' is term recently adopted by body language commentators referring to a body language signal. The term is slang really, not technical. For

terminology to become casually 'hip' in this way reflects the mainstream appeal of body language as a subject. steepling - forming the fingers into a a pointed roof shape, often signalling elevated thinking or arrogance. submission/submissive - describing body language which signals inferiority feelings towards another person. May be conscious and formal as in bowing, or unconscious as in slightly lowering the head and stance. synchronizing - a technical term equating to mirroring or matching of body language between two people. Synchronizing is technically more appropriate since it naturally includes audible signals (voice pace and pitch, etc), whereas the mirroring term normally makes people think of visual signals only. The principles of synchronized body language definitely include audible signals in addition to physical visual signs. See mirroring. tell - (noun) - a 'tell' - a slang term similar to 'a show' recently adopted by body language commentators which means a signal. tie signs/signals - signals between lovers or intimate couples which discreetly convey messages to each other and which are not usually intended for anyone else.

body language references sources and books

Some of the older books listed here have since been republished by different publishers. Willhelm Wundt, The Language of Gestures, 1921 Charles Darwin, The Expressions of the Emotions in Man and Animals, 1872, Murray Edward Twitchell Hall, The Silent Language, 1959, Doubleday E T Hall, Proxemics - A Study of Man's Spatial Relationship, 1963, International Universities Press E T Hall, The Hidden Dimension, 1966, Doubleday J S Bruner and R Taquiri, The Perception of People, 1954, Handbook of Social Psychology, Addison Wesley Robert Ardrey, The Territorial Imperative, 1966, Dell Desmond Morris, The Naked Ape, 1967, Cape Julius Fast, Body Language, 1971, Pan D Hartland and C Tosh, Guide to Body Language, 2001, Caxton

P Ekman, E R Sorenson and W V Friesen, Pan-Cultural Elements in Facial Displays of Emotion, Science Vol 164, No 3875, 4 Apr 1969 C Boyes, Need to Know Body Language, 2005, Harper Collins E Kuhnke, Body Language for Dummies, 2007, Wiley Judi James, The Body Language Bible, 2008, Random House Other significant and founding body language writers include: Tinbergen, N; Watchtel, P L; Schlefen, A E; Ortega Y Gasset, J; Carpenter, C R; Cherry, C; Dittman, Parloff & Boomer; Frank, L K; Goffman, E; Kinzell, A F; Mehrabian & Wiener; Nielsen, G; Lorenz, K; Mahl, G F. The author Roger E Axtell writes entertainingly and informatively about international body language and behaviours.

other audible signals

This section is not particularly scientific. It's more for interest and to make a general point: Body language and the spoken words themselves do not provide all the clues, there are others. Other audible signals (apart from the words themselves) also give lots of clues about feeling, mood, motive and personality. Words themselves convey their own meaning, which is another subject, not least when we think about vocabulary, grammar, word-choice, etc. But what about all the other noises and silences from people's mouths? Other audible signals which are not generally regarded as part of body language or non-verbal communications include for example:

pitch (the contant musical note of the voice) pace (speed or rate of talking) volume - from whispering to shouting volume variation (how volume changes in phrases or longer passages of speech) intonation and 'musicality' (how the pitch changes according to what is being said) timbre (quality or sound of the voice, and how this changes)

emphasis (of syllables, words or phrases) projection (where the voice is being projected to for example lots of projection, as if talking to a big group, or none, as if mumbling) pauses, silences and hesitation 'erm's and 'erh's gasps, tuts, and other intakes and exhalations of breath habits, such as "I think...," "You know...," "Like...," laughing and giggling (which can be interspersed within speech, or separate signals, such as nervous laughter)

and all sorts of other audible/vocal effects, including:

accents and dialects accent affectations ('received' or conditioned, false or exaggerated - permanent or temporary, for example social climbers, and ordinary people who have a 'telephone voice', or a voice for talking to authority figures) mistakes (spoonerisms, malapropisms, mispronunciation) drying up, being lost for words, stuttering (as distinct from a stammer) overtalking (feeling the need to fill a silence) interrupting holding back (someone has something to say but isn't saying it) coughs and grunts (some types of coughing suggest something other than a tickly throat) belching and burping whistling tongue clicking, teeth-sucking, raspberries, etc

Technically these signals are not body language or non-verbal communications, but all of these sounds (and silences) are quite different from the spoken words, and they can all convey more and/or different meaning compared to the spoken words themselves. All of this audible signalling happens for a purpose. We might not easily know what the purpose is, but being aware of it is the start of being able to understand it better, in others, and possibly also in ourselves. Commonly the more noticeable unnecessary signals are embellishments or defensiveness - a kind of showing-off or protection. Other aspects can be more subtle indicators of social background or aspiration, and thereby of relationship and attitude towards other people. These other audible signals represent a big and complex area which seems yet to have been researched and analysed to the extent that body language has. Also cultural differences are potentially influential, which hinders translation and specific interpretation. Despite this, initially simply being aware of these signals will begin to shape an appreciation of their significance, and in many cases their underlying meanings. Johari enthusiasts might enjoy seeking feedback and asking others about what their own signals mean, that is if you/they are aware of the behaviours. Certain principles of graphology (handwriting analysis) are helpful in understanding how people use words and language in a wider sense. The style and nature of our written and vocal expressions inevitably provide a reflection of our feelings and personality. I am grateful to Sandra McCarthy for her help in producing this guide to body language.

Mossad
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For the organization that coordinated pre-state Jewish immigration, see Mossad Le'aliyah Bet.

The Institute for Intelligence and Special Operations

"Where no counsel is, the people fall, but in the multitude of counselors there is safety." (ProverbsXI:14)

Seal of The Institute for Intelligence and Special Operations

Agency overview

Formed

December 13, 1949 as the Central Institute for Coordination

Headquarters

Tel Aviv, Israel

Employees

1,200 (est)

Agency executive

Tamir Pardo, Director

Parent agency

Office of the Prime Minister

Website

Official Website

Coordinates:

32.144495N 34.804344E

The Mossad (Hebrew: ,Arabic: ,) short for HaMossad leModi'in uleTafkidim Meyuchadim (Institute for Intelligence and Special Operations) (Hebrew: Arabic: al-Msd lil-Istibrt wal-Mahmm al-ah), is the national intelligence agency of Israel. The Mossad is responsible for intelligence collection and covert operations which are suspected to include targeted killings and paramilitary activities beyond Israel's borders, bringing Jews to Israel from countries where official Aliyah agencies are forbidden, and protecting Jewish communities worldwide. It is one of the main entities in the Israeli Intelligence Community, along with Aman(military intelligence) and Shin Bet (internal security), but its director reports directly to the Prime Minister.
Contents
[hide]

1 Organization

1.1 Executive offices

2 Directors 3 Alleged operations

3.1 Americas

3.1.1 Argentina 3.1.2 United States 3.1.3 Uruguay

3.2 Europe

3.2.1 Austria 3.2.2 Belgium 3.2.3 Bosnia and Herzegovina 3.2.4 Cyprus 3.2.5 France 3.2.6 Germany 3.2.7 Greece

3.2.8 Italy 3.2.9 Malta 3.2.10 Norway 3.2.11 United Kingdom 3.2.12 Switzerland 3.2.13 Soviet Union/Russia 3.2.14 Ukraine

3.3 Middle East

3.3.1 Egypt 3.3.2 Iran 3.3.3 Iraq 3.3.4 Jordan 3.3.5 Lebanon 3.3.6 Pakistan 3.3.7 Syria 3.3.8 United Arab Emirates

3.4 Africa

3.4.1 Morocco 3.4.2 Tunisia 3.4.3 Uganda 3.4.4 South Africa 3.4.5 Sudan 3.4.6 Zimbabwe

3.5 Oceania

3.5.1 New Zealand

4 Relations with other agencies 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links

[edit]Organization [edit]Executive

offices

The largest department of the Mossad is Collections, tasked with many aspects of conducting espionage overseas. Employees in the Collections Department operate under a variety of covers, including diplomatic and unofficial.[1] Their field intelligence officers, called katsas (Hebrew: acronym, meaning "Collections Officer"), are similar to case officers of the CIA. Thirty to forty operate at a time, mainly in Europe and the Middle East.[2] The Political Action and Liaison Department is responsible for working with allied foreign intelligence services, and nations that have no normal diplomatic relations with Israel.[1] Additionally, the Mossad has a Research Department, tasked with intelligence production, and a Technology Department concerned with the development of tools for Mossad activities.[3] Mossad was formed on December 13, 1949 as the "Central Institute for Coordination" at the recommendation of Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion to Reuven Shiloah. Ben Gurion wanted a central body to coordinate and improve cooperation between the existing security services the army's intelligence department (AMAN), the Internal Security Service ("Shin Bet") and the foreign office's "political department". In March 1951, it was reorganized and made a part of the prime minister's office, reporting directly to the prime minister. Mossad's former motto, be-tachblt ta`aseh lekh milchmh (Hebrew: ) is a quote from the Bible (Proverbs 24:6): "For by wise guidance you can wage your war" (NRSV). The motto was recently[when?] changed to another Proverbs passage: be-'yn tachblt yippol `m; -tesh`h be-rov y'ts (Hebrew: , , Proverbs 11:14). This is translated by NRSV as: "Where there is no guidance, a nation falls, but in an abundance of counselors there is safety."

[edit]Directors

Reuven Shiloah, 194952 Isser Harel, 195363 Meir Amit, 196368 Zvi Zamir, 196873 Yitzhak Hofi, 197382 Nahum Admoni, 198289 Shabtai Shavit, 198996 Danny Yatom, 199698 Efraim Halevy, 19982002 Meir Dagan, 20022011 Tamir Pardo, 2011present[4]

[edit]Alleged

operations

[edit]Americas

[edit]Argentina
In 1960, the Mossad discovered that the Nazi leader Adolf Eichmann was in Argentina. A team of five Mossad agents slipped into Argentina and through surveillance, confirmed that he had been living there under the name of Ricardo Klement. He was abducted on May 11, 1960 and taken to a hideout, where the agents put an SS cap on him and compared him to a photograph of Eichmann in SS uniform, confirming that it was Eichmann. He was subsequently smuggled to Israel aboard an El Al flight where he was tried and executed. Argentina protested what it considered as the violation of its sovereignty, and the United Nations Security Council noted that "repetition of acts such as [this] would involve a breach of the principles upon which international order is founded, creating an atmosphere of insecurity and distrust incompatible with the preservation of peace" while also acknowledging that "Eichmann should be brought to appropriate justice for the crimes of which he is accused" and that "this resolution should in no way be interpreted as condoning the odious crimes of which Eichmann is accused."[5][6] Mossad abandoned a second operation, intended to capture Josef Mengele.[7]

[edit]United States
During the 1990s, the Mossad discovered a Hezbollah agent operating within the United States in order to procure materials needed to manufacture IEDs and other weapons. In a joint operation with U.S. intelligence, the agent was kept under surveillance in hopes that he would betray more Hezbollah operatives, but was eventually arrested.[8] The Mossad informed the FBI and CIA in August 2001 that based on its intelligence as many as 200 terrorists were slipping into the United States and planning "a major assault on the United States." The Israeli intelligence agency cautioned the FBI that it had picked up indications of a "large-scale target" in the United States and that Americans would be "very vulnerable."[9] However, "It is not known whether U.S. authorities thought the warning to be credible, or whether it contained enough details to allow counter-terrorism teams to come up with a response,"[10] The Mossad has a history of credibility issues, before and after 9-11[11][12] [13][14] which continue to influence the perceptions of the reliability or veracity of information provided to U.S., and other intelligence agencies around the world. A month later, terrorists struck at the World Trade Center and the Pentagon.[15]

[edit]Uruguay
Mossad assassinated Latvian Nazi collaborator Herberts Cukurs in 1965.[16]

[edit]Europe [edit]Austria
The Mossad gathered information on Austrian politician Jrg Haider using a mole.[17]

[edit]Belgium

The Mossad is alleged to be responsible for the killing of Canadian engineer and ballistics expert Gerald Bull on March 22, 1990. He was shot multiple times in the head outside his Brussels apartment.[18] Bull was at the time working for Iraqon the Project Babylon supergun.[19] Others, including Bull's son, believe that the Mossad is taking credit for an act they did not commit to scare off others who may try to help enemy regimes. The alternative theory is that Bull was killed by the CIA. Iraq and Iran are also candidates for suspicion.[20]

[edit]Bosnia and Herzegovina

Assisted in air and overland evacuations of Bosnian Jews from war-torn Sarajevo to Israel in 1992 and 1993.[citation needed]

[edit]Cyprus
The killing of Hussein Al Bashir in Nicosia, Cyprus, in 1973.[21]

[edit]France
The alleged killing of Zuheir Mohsen in 1979.[22] The alleged killing of Atef Bseiso in Paris in 1992. French police believe that a team of assassins followed Atef Bseiso from Berlin, where that first team connected with another team to close in on him in front of a Left Bank hotel, where he received three head-shots at point blank range.[23] The killing of Yehia El-Mashad in 1980.[24] The killing of Dr. Mahmoud Hamshari with an exploding telephone in his Paris apartment in 1972.[21] The killing of Dr. Basil Al-Kubaissi in Paris in 1973.[21] The killing of Mohammad Boudia in Paris in 1973.[21] On April 5, 1979, Mossad agents are believed to have triggered an explosion which destroyed 60 percent of components being built in Toulouse for an Iraqi reactor. Although an environmental organization, Groupe des cologistes franais, unheard of before this incident, claimed credit for the blast,[2] most French officials discount the claim. The reactor itself was subsequently destroyed by an Israeli air strike in 1981.[2][25] The Mossad allegedly assisted Morocco's domestic security service in the disappearance of dissident politician Mehdi Ben Barka in 1965, in exchange for the safety of Moroccan Jews[citation needed].

[edit]Germany
Operation Plumbat (1968) was an operation by Lekem-Mossad to further Israel's nuclear program. The German freighter "Scheersberg A", disappeared on its way from Antwerp to Genoa along with its cargo of 200 tons of yellowcake, after supposedly being transferred to an Israeli ship.[26]

The sending of letter bombs during the Operation Wrath of God campaign. Some of these attacks were not fatal. Their purpose might not have been to kill the receiver. Some of the more famous examples of the Mossad letter bombs were those sent to Nazi war-criminal Alois Brunner.[27] The alleged targeted killing of Dr Wadie Haddad, using poisoned chocolate, in 1978. The PFLP-EO movement dissolved after his killing[citation needed]. The Mossad discovered that Hezbollah had recruited a German national named Steven Smyrek, and that he was travelling to Israel. In an operation conducted by the Mossad, the CIA, the German Internal Security agency Bundesamt fr Verfassungsschutz, and the Israeli Internal Security agency Shin Bet, Smyrek was kept under constant surveillance, and arrested as soon as he landed in Israel.[28]

[edit]Greece
The killing of Zaiad Muchasi by an explosion in his Athens hotel room in 1973.[21]

[edit]Italy
The Mossad abducted nuclear whistleblower Mordechai Vanunu in Rome and smuggled him to Israel in 1986 after American-Israeli Mossad agent Cheryl Bentov lured him from the United Kingdom.[29] The killing of Wael Zwaiter.[30][31]

[edit]Malta
The killing of Fathi Shiqaqi. Shiqaqi a leader of the Palestinian Islamic Jihad, was shot several times in the head in 1995 in front of the Diplomat Hotel in Sliema, Malta.[32]

[edit]Norway
Main article: Lillehammer affair On July 21, 1973, Ahmed Bouchiki, a Moroccan waiter in Lillehammer, Norway, was killed by Mossad agents while walking with his pregnant wife. He had been mistaken for Ali Hassan Salameh, one of the leaders of Black September, thePalestinian group responsible for the Munich massacre, who had been given shelter in Norway. The Mossad agents had used fake Canadian passports, which angered the Canadian government. Six Mossad agents were arrested, and the incident became known as the Lillehammer affair. Israel subsequently paid compensation to Bouchiki's family.[33][34][35]

[edit]United Kingdom
In 1986, Mossad used an undercover agent to lure nuclear whistleblower Mordechai Vanunu from the United Kingdom to Italy where he was abducted and transported to Israel where he was tried for treason because of his role in exposingIsrael's nuclear programme.[35]

Mossad assisted the UK Intelligence organisation MI5 following the 7/7 bombings in London. According to the 2007 edition of a book about the Mossad titled Gideons Spies, shortly after the 7/7 London underground bombings, MI5 gathered evidence that a senior al-Qaeda operative known only by the alias Mustafa travelled in and out of England shortly before the 7/7 bombings. For months, the real identity of Mustafa remained unknown, but in early October 2005, Mossad told MI5 that this person was, in fact, Azhari Husin, a bombmaking expert with Jemaah Islamiyah, the main al-Qaeda affiliate in Southeast Asia. Husin studied in Britain and reports claim that he met the main 7/7 bomber, Mohammad Sidique Khan, in late 2001 in a militant training camp in the Philippines (see Late 2001). Meir Dagan, the head of Mossad, apparently also told MI5 that Husin helped plan and recruit volunteers for the bombings. Mossad claimed that Husin may have been in London at the time of the bombings, and then fled to al-Qaedas principal haven in the tribal area of Pakistan, where he sometimes hid after bombings. Husin was killed in a shootout in Indonesia in November 2005. [36] Later official British government reports about the 7/7 bombings did not mention Husin.[37]

[edit]Switzerland
In February 1998, five Mossad agents were caught wiretapping the home of a Hezbollah agent in a Bern suburb. Four agents were freed, but the fifth was tried, found guilty, sentenced to one year in prison, and following his release was banned from entering Switzerland for five years.[38]

[edit]Soviet Union/Russia
The Mossad was involved in outreach to Refuseniks in the Soviet Union during the crackdown on Soviet Jews in the 50's, 60's, 70's, and 80's. Mossad helped establish contact with Refuseniks in the USSR, and helped them acquire Jewish religious items, banned by the Soviet government, in addition to passing communications into and out of the USSR.

[edit]Ukraine
In February 2011, a Palestinian engineer, Dirar Abu Seesi, was allegedly pulled off a train by Mossad agents enroute to the capital Kiev from Kharkov. He had been planning to apply for Ukrainian citizenship, and reappeared in an Israeli jail only 3 weeks after the incident.[39]

[edit]Middle [edit]Egypt

East

Provision of intelligence for the cutting of communications between Port Said and Cairo in 1956. Mossad spy Wolfgang Lotz, holding West German citizenship, infiltrated Egypt in 1957, and gathered intelligence on Egyptian missile sites, military installations, and industries. He also composed a list of German rocket scientists working for the Egyptian government, and sent some of them letter bombs. After the East German head of state made a state visit to Egypt, the Egyptian government detained thirty West

German citizens as a goodwill gesture. Lotz, assuming that he had been discovered, confessed to his cold war espionage activities.

Provision of intelligence on the Egyptian Air Force for Operation Focus, the opening airstrike of the Six-Day War.

Operation Bulmus 6 Intelligence assistance in the Commando Assault on Green Island, Egypt during the War of Attrition.[citation needed]

Operation Damocles - A campaign of assassination and intimidation against German rocket scientists employed by Egypt in building missiles.

[edit]Iran
Prior to the Iranian Revolution of 197879, SAVAK (Organization of National Security and Information), the Iranian secret police and intelligence service was created under the guidance of United States and Israeli intelligence officers in 1957 to protect the regime of the shah by arresting, torturing, and executing the dissidents (especially Leftists). After security relations between the United States and Iran grew more distant in the early 1960s which led the CIA training team to leaveIran, Mossad became increasingly active in Iran, "training SAVAK personnel and carrying out a broad variety of joint operations with SAVAK."[40][41] The Mossad discovered Iran's covert nuclear program before it officially became known, and conducted espionage operations against nuclear facilities in the country. A US intelligence official told The Washington Post that Israel orchestrated the defection of Iranian general Ali Reza Askari on February 7, 2007.[42] This has been denied by Israeli spokesman Mark Regev. The Sunday Times reported that Askari had been a Mossad asset since 2003, and left only when his cover was about to be blown.[43] Le Figaro claimed that the Mossad was possibly behind a blast at the Iranian Revolutionary Guard's Imam Ali military base, on 12 October 2010. The explosion at the base killed 18 and injured 10 others. The base is believed to store long-range missiles, including the Shahab-3, and also has hangars. It is one of Iran's most secure military bases.[44] Iranian Intelligence Minister Heydar Moslehi has accused Mossad of assassination plots and killings of Iranian Physicists in 2010. Reports have noted that such information has not yet been evidently proven. Iranian state TV broadcast a stated confession from Majid Jamali-Fash, an Iranian man who claimed to have visited Israel to be trained by the Mossad.[45] The Mossad is believed to have assassinated Masoud Alimohammadi, Ardeshir Hosseinpour, Majid Shahriari, and Darioush Rezaeinejad, scientists involved in the Iranian nuclear program. It is also suspected of being behind the attempted assassination of Iranian nuclear scientist Fereydoon Abbasi.[46][47]

[edit]Iraq

Former Iraqi MiG-21, currently on display at the Israeli Air Force Museum in Hatzerim

Assistance in the defection and rescuing of the family of Munir Redfa, an Iraqi pilot who defected and flew his MiG-21 to Israel in 1966: "Operation Diamond". Redfa's entire family was also successfully smuggled from Iraq to Israel. Previously unknown information about the MiG-21 was subsequently shared with the United States. Operation Sphinx[2] Between 1978 and 1981, obtained highly sensitive information about Iraq's Osirak nuclear reactor by recruiting an Iraqi nuclear scientist in France. Operation Bramble Bush II In the 1990s, the Mossad began scouting locations in Iraq where Saddam Hussein could be ambushed by Sayeret Matkal commandos inserted into Iraq from Jordan. The mission was called off due to Operation Desert Fox and the ongoing Israeli-Arab peace process.

[edit]Jordan
In what is thought to have been a reprisal action for a Hamas suicide-bombing in Jerusalem on July 30, 1997 that killed 16 Israelis, Benjamin Netanyahu authorised an operation against Khaled Mashal, the Hamas representative in Jordan.[48] On September 25, 1997, Mashal was injected in the ear with a toxin (thought to have been a derivative of the synthetic opiate Fentanyl called Levofentanyl).[49][50] Jordanian authorities apprehended two Mossad agents posing as Canadian tourists and trapped a further six in the Israeli embassy. In exchange for their release, an Israeli physician had to fly to Amman and deliver an antidote for Mashal. The fallout from the failed killing eventually led to the release of Sheik Ahmed Yassin, the founder and spiritual leader of the Hamas movement, and scores of Hamas prisoners. Netanyahu flew into Amman on September 29 to apologize personally to King Hussein, but was met instead by the King's brother, Crown Prince Hassan.[49]

[edit]Lebanon
The provision of intelligence and operational assistance in the 1973 Operation Spring of Youth special forces raid on Beirut. The sending of letter bombs to PFLP member Bassam Abu Sharif. Sharif was severely wounded, but survived.[51]

The targeted killing of Ali Hassan Salameh, the leader of Black September, on January 22, 1979 in Beirut by a car bomb.[52][53] The killing of Ghassan Kanafani, also by a car bomb, in 1972.[54] Providing intelligence for the killing of Abbas al-Musawi, secretary general of Hezbollah, in Beirut in 1992.[21] Allegedly killed Jihad Ahmed Jibril, the leader of the military wing of the PFLP-GC, in Beirut in 2002.[55] Allegedly killed Ghaleb Awwali, a senior Hezbollah official, in Beirut in 2004.[56] Alllegedly killed Mahmoud al-Majzoub, a leader of Palestinian Islamic Jihad, in Sidon in 2006.[57] The Mossad was suspected of establishing a large spy network in Lebanon, recruited from Druze, Christian, and Sunni Muslim communities, and officials in the Lebanese government, to spy on Hezbollah and its Iranian Revolutionary Guardadvisors. Some have allegedly been active since the 1982 Lebanon War. In 2009, Lebanese Security Services supported by Hezbollah's intelligence unit, and working in collaboration with Syria, Iran, and possibly Russia, launched a major crackdown which resulted in the arrests of around 100 alleged spies "working for Israel".[58] Previously, in 2006, the Lebanese army uncovered a network that allegedly assassinated several Lebanese and Palestinian leaders on behalf of Israeli intelligence agency Mossad.[59]

[edit]Pakistan
In a September 2003 news article, it was alleged by Rediff News that General Pervez Musharaf, the thenPresident of Pakistan, decided to establish a clandestine relationship between Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) and Mossad via officers of the two services posted at their embassies in Washington, DC. In January 2009 it was alleged by Indian news agencies that Mossad officers lead a rescue mission to extract an Indian former member of parliament and an Israeli cultural attache who where arrested on the charges of producing methamphetamine.

[edit]Syria
Eli Cohen, a spy for the Mossad, infiltrated the highest echelons of the Syrian government, was a close friend of the Syrian President, and was considered for the post of Minister of Defense. He gave his Mossad handlers a complete plan of the Syrian defenses on the Golan Heights, the Syrian Armed Forces order of battle, and a complete list of the Syrian military's weapons inventory. He also ordered the planting of trees by every Syrian fortified position under the pretext of shading soldiers, but the trees actually served as targeting markers for the Israel Defense Forces. He was discovered by Syrian and Soviet intelligence, tried in secret, and executed in 1965.[60] His information played a crucial role during theSix Day War. The alleged killing of Izz El-Deen Sheikh Khalil, a senior member of the military wing of Hamas, in an automobile booby trap in September 2004 in Damascus.[61]

The alleged killing of Muhammad Suleiman, the alleged head of Syria's nuclear program, in 2008. Suleiman was killed by a sniper firing from a boat while on a beach in Tartus.[62] The alleged killing of Imad Mughniyah, a senior leader of Hezbollah complicit in the 1983 United States embassy bombing, with an exploding headrest in Damascus in 2008.[63]

[edit]United Arab Emirates

Main article: Assassination of Mahmoud al-Mabhouh The Mossad is suspected of killing Mahmoud al-Mabhouh, a senior Hamas military commander, in January 2010 at Dubai, United Arab Emirates. The team which carried out the killing is estimated, on the basis of CCTV and other evidence, to have consisted of at least 26 agents traveling on bogus passports. The operatives entered al-Mabhouh's hotel room, where Mabhouh was subjected to electric shocks and interrogated. The door to his room was reported to have been locked from the inside.[64][65][66][67][68] Although the UAE police and Hamas have declared Israel responsible for the killing, no direct evidence linking Mossad to the crime has been found. The agents' bogus passports included six British passports, cloned from those of real British nationals resident in Israel and suspected by Dubai, five Irish passports, apparently forged from those of living individuals,[69] forged Australian passports that raised fears of reprisal against innocent victims of identity theft,[70] a genuine German passport and a false French passport. Emirati police say they have fingerprint and DNA evidence of some of the attackers, as well as retinal scans of 11 suspects recorded at Dubai airport.[71][72] Dubai's police chief has said "I am now completely sure that it was Mossad," adding: "I have presented the (Dubai) prosecutor with a request for the arrest of (Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin) Netanyahu and the head of Mossad," for the murder.[73]

[edit]Africa [edit]Morocco
In September 1956, the Mossad established a secretive network in Morocco to smuggle Moroccan Jews to Israel after a ban on immigration to Israel was imposed.[74] In early 1991, two Mossad operatives infiltrated the Moroccan port of Casablanca and planted a tracking device on the freighter Al-Yarmouk, which was carrying a cargo of North Korean missiles bound for Syria. The ship was to be sunk by theIsraeli Air Force, but the mission was later called off by Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin.[75]

[edit]Tunisia
The 1988 killing of Khalil al-Wazir (Abu Jihad).[76] The alleged killing of Salah Khalaf in 1991.[77]

[edit]Uganda

For Operation Entebbe in 1976, Mossad provided intelligence regarding Entebbe International Airport[78] and extensively interviewed hostages who had been released.[79]

[edit]South Africa
After the Mossad discovered the presence of two Iranian agents in Johannesburg on a mission to procure advanced weapons systems from Denel, a Mossad agent was deployed, and met up with a local Jewish contact. Posing as South African intelligence, they abducted the Iranians, drove them to a warehouse, and beat and intimidated them before forcing them to leave the country.[80]

[edit]Sudan
After the 1994 AMIA bombing, the Mossad began gathering intelligence for a raid by Israeli Special Forces on the Iranian embassy in Khartoum as retaliation. The operation was called off due to fears that another attack against worldwide Jewish communities might take place as revenge. The Mossad also assisted in Operation Moses, the evacuation of Ethiopian Jews to Israel from a famine-ridden region of Sudan in 1984, also maintaining a relationship with the Ethiopian government.

[edit]Zimbabwe
The Mossad secretly evacuated Zimbabwean Jews out of the country due to fears of persecution by the Zimbabwean government, which was allied with the Palestine Liberation Organization and Libya.[when?] The Mossad infiltrated the Zimbabwean government's Central Intelligence Organization, in response to the supply of uranium from the Congo via Zimbabwe to North Korea, Syria, and Iran.[citation needed]

[edit]Oceania [edit]New Zealand

Further information: Israel-New Zealand relations In July 2004, New Zealand imposed diplomatic sanctions on Israel over an incident in which two Australian based Israelis, Uriel Kelman and Eli Cara, who were allegedly working for Mossad, attempted to fraudulently obtain New Zealand passports by claiming the identity of a severely disabled man. Israeli Foreign Minister Silvan Shalom later apologized to New Zealand for their actions. New Zealand cancelled several other passports believed to have been obtained by Israeli agents.[81] Both Kelman and Cara served half of their sixmonth sentences and, upon release, were deported to Israel. Two others, an Israeli, Ze'ev Barkan, and a New Zealander, David Reznick, are believed to have been the third and fourth men involved in the passport affair but they both managed to leave New Zealand before being apprehended.[82]

[edit]Relations

with other agencies

The Mossad has experienced a mixed relationship with Western intelligence agencies. A secret addendum was promised to Anwar Sadat by the CIA if he agreed to the terms of the Camp David Accords. The CIA would

supply Sadat with all of Israel's military secrets, as part of a covert intelligence liaison between Washington and Cairo. According to a former US army officer: We gave Sadat everything. Satellite photos, intercepts, the location of Israel's nuclear force, everything he wanted. As it turned out, the Israelis discovered that we had bribed Sadat, but Begin told everyone to keep their mouths shut. America was the only ally Israel had left. Still, betraying all of Israel's secrets was a pretty shitty thing for us to do.[83] Starting in 1979, the CIA started sharing intelligence provided by the Mossad with Saudi Arabia. The CIA was "pouring intelligence about Israel into the Saudi's military headquarters." The Saudis lacked the skills to interpret and analyze most of the Israeli intelligence, so the CIA would provide the expertise, and in exchange, the Saudis would share US supplied-information about Israel's weak points with other Arab nations.[84] In the aftermath of the Six Day War, the French government and military terminated all weapons support for Israel in a "fawning attempt to please Arab oil kingdoms." Despite the ban, the Mossad was able to convince French intelligence to force their French contractors to finish construction on Israel's nuclear weapons project. Prior to the ban, the Mossad uncovered Charles De Gaulle's role in recruiting Fascist fugitives as French agents to fight the Communists in the Balkans. The Mossad revealed that several prominent members of de Gaulle's administration had been Nazi collaborators, among them Andr Franois-Poncet.[85] The Israelis threatened to expose de Gaulle if he were to implement the weapons ban. No matter how furious French leaders became at Israel, their military intelligence continued to supervise the construction of the plutonium factory at Dimona.[86] During the Eisenhower administration, CIA director Allen Welsh Dulles was responsible for recruiting Nazi war criminals as intelligence agents and sponsored their immigration to the United States. United States Secretary of State John Foster Dulles and Allen Welsh Dulles actively betrayed British, French and Israeli military secrets to the Arab nations in order to gain the dominant role in the Middle East. In response to Eisenhower's policies, the Mossad temporarily abandoned intelligence sharing with the United States and switched allegiances to MI6 and French intelligence.[87]

[edit]See

also

Shin Bet, Israel's internal security service Aman - Israeli's military intelligence agency Israeli Special Forces Units Yamam - Israel's elite civilian SWAT Unit Duvdevan Unit - Israel's undercover strike unit Foreign relations of the Vatican The Spy Machine

List of Israeli assassinations Eli Cohen Special Activities Division

[edit]References
a b

1. 2.

^ ^

Mossad profile, Globalsecurity.org. Retrieved October 28, 2006. Ostrovsky, Victor. By Way of Deception-The making and unmaking of a Mossad Officer. New York:

a b c d

St. Martin's Press, 1990. ISBN 0-9717595-0-2 3. 4. 5. ^ the Mossad profile, Federation of American Scientists. Retrieved October 28, 2006. ^ Israel's new head of Mossad ^ Argentina claimed that the "illicit and clandestine transfer of Eichmann from Argentine territory constitutes a flagrant violation of the Argentine State's right of sovereignty[.]" Bass, Gary J. (2004.) The Adolf Eichmann Case: Universal and National Jurisdiction. In Stephen Macedo (ed,) Universal Jurisdiction: National Courts and the Prosecution of Serious Crimes. (ch.4) Philadelphia: U.Penn. Press. In Eichmann's case, the most salient feature from the perspective of international law was the fact of Israeli law enforcement action in another state's territory without consent; the human element includes the dramatic circumstances of the capture by Mossad agents and the ensuing custody and transfer to Israel[.] Damrosch, Lori F. (2004.) Connecting the Threads in the Fabric of International Law. In Stephen Macedo (ed,)Universal Jurisdiction: National Courts and the Prosecution of Serious Crimes. (ch.5) Philadelphia: U.Penn. Press. The principle of territorial integrity (in Art. 2(4) UN Charter) At its most obvious level this means that the exercise of enforcement jurisdiction within the territory of another state will be a violation of territorial integrity
32

Note

32: E.g. after Adolf Eichmann [...] was abducted from Argentina by a group of Israelis, now known to be from the Israeli Secret Service (Mossad), the Argentine Government lodged a complaint with the UN Security Council [...] It is however unclear whether as a matter of international law the obligation to make reparation for a violation of territorial sovereignty such as that involved in the Eichmann case includes an obligation to return the offender. Higgins, Rosalyn and Maurice Floy. (1997).Terrorism and International Law. UK: Routledge. (p. 48) 6. 7. ^ Security Council Resolution 138, "Question Relating to the Case of Adolf Eichmann" ^ Posner, Gerald L.; John Ware. " How Nazi war criminal Josef Mengele cheated justice for 34 years". Chicago Tribune Magazine. May 18, 1986. 8. 9. ^ Ross, Michael The Volunteer, pp. 168171 ^ Officials Told of Major Assault Plans.

10. ^http://www.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/europe/03/23/uae.hamas.killing/index.html?iref=allsearch 11. ^ http://www.reuters.com/article/2010/02/17/us-uae-hamas-israel-factbox-idUSTRE61G2RQ20100217 12. ^ http://www.euronews.net/2010/03/24/a-short-history-of-mossad-scandals/

13. ^ http://articles.cnn.com/1997-12-06/world/9712_06_israel.mossad.deception_1_yehuda-gil-mossadofficial-charge-sheet?_s=PM:WORLD 14. ^ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004_Israel-New_Zealand_spy_scandal 15. ^ Officials Told of Major Assault Plans. 16. ^ Simon Wiesenthal Center 17. ^ Boyes, Roger (June 2, 2005). "Mossad spied on farright Austrian". The Times (London). 18. ^ "Murdered by the Mossad?" (asf). Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. February 12, 1991. Retrieved August 30, 2009. 19. ^ Frum, Barbara (April 5, 1990). "Who killed Gerald Bull? (Video) CBC". Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved July 15, 2009. 20. ^ Dr. Gerald Bull: Scientist, Weapons Maker, Dreamer at CBC.ca 21. ^
a b c d e f

Israeli Hits On Terrorists, Jewish Virtual Library, last updated December 18, 2007. Retrieved

December 24, 2007. 22. ^ Friedman, From Beirut to Jerusalem (HarperCollins Publishers, 1998, 2nd ed.), p. 118 23. ^ Striking Back: The 1972 Munich Olympics Massacre and Israel's Deadly Response, ISBN 0-8129-7463-8 24. ^ Ford, Peter S., Major, USAF, "Israel's Attack on Osiraq: A Model for Future Preventive Strikes?", INSS Occasional Paper 59, USAF Institute for National Security Studies, USAF Academy, Colorado, July 2005, p. 15 25. ^ "FRANCE PROTESTS TO ISRAEL ON RAID", The New York Times, June 10, 1981. Retrieved November 16, 2006. 26. ^ ISRAEL The Plumbat Operation (1968) retrieved 10/12/2008 27. ^ Henley, Jon. "French court strikes blow against fugitive Nazi", The Guardian, March 3, 2001. Retrieved October 27, 2006. 28. ^ Ross, Michael, The Volunteer, pp. 158159 29. ^ Martin, Susan Taylor. "The spy and the man she busted", St. Petersburg Times, March 21, 2004. Retrieved October 27, 2006. 30. ^ "Material for a Palestinians Life and Death", Ken Johnson, New York Times, Feb 12, 2009 31. ^ "An Eye for an Eye", Bob Simon, CBS News, November 21, 2001 32. ^ Military.com Resources 33. ^ Israelis to Compensate Family of Slain Waiter New York Times 34. ^ Fatal Error 35. ^
a b

[1]

[dead link]

36. ^ Thomas, 2007, pp. 520, 522

37. ^ "Israel Institute for Intelligence and Special Tasks (Mossad)". Historycommons.org. Retrieved October 23, 2010. 38. ^ "Swiss Courts Gives Israeli Spy Suspended Sentence". Jewishvirtuallibrary.org. July 10, 2000. Retrieved October 23, 2010. 39. ^ "UN confirms Mossad kidnaps Gazas chief power plant engineer, Dirar Abu Seesi, from Ukraine, suspects Ukrainian help". WikiLeaks Central. March 10, 2011. Retrieved March 11, 2011. 40. ^ CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY (CIA) IN PERSIA. In Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved July 3, 2008. 41. ^ SAVAK, Library of Congress Country Studies. Retrieved July 3, 2008. 42. ^ Linzer, Dafna. "Former Iranian Defense Official Talks to Western Intelligence", The Washington Post, March 8, 2007. Retrieved March 8, 2007. 43. ^ Mahnaimi, Uzi. "Defector spied on Iran for years", The Sunday Times, March 11, 2007. Retrieved March 11, 2007. 44. ^ 'Mossad behind Iranian military base blast' Ynet Published: 10.25.10 45. ^ 'Israeli Plot Against Nuclear Scientists' 46. ^ http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/0,1518,77899,00.html 47. ^ "Geopolitical Diary: Israeli Covert Operations in Iran". Stratfor. February 2, 2007. Retrieved February 4, 2007. (requires premium subscription) 48. ^ McGeough, Paul (2009) Kill Khalid - The Failed Mossad Assassination of Khalid Mishal and the Rise of Hamas. Quartet Books. ISBN 978 0 7043 7157 6. Pages 126,127. 49. ^
a b

[2] NY Times article: The Daring attack that blew up in Israels face

50. ^ McGeough, Paul (2009) Kill Khalid - The Failed Mossad Assassination of Khalid Mishal and the Rise of Hamas. Quartet Books. ISBN 978 0 7043 7157 6. Page 184. 51. ^ Guerin, Orla. "Arafat: On borrowed time", BBC News, June 29, 2002. Retrieved October 27, 2006. 52. ^ Life and Death of a Terrorist, New York Times, July 10, 1983. 53. ^ Shalev, Noam 'The hunt for Black September', BBC News Online, January 26, 2006. Retrieved March 14, 2006. 54. ^ Barbara Harlow (Winter Spring, 1986). "Return to Haifa: "Opening the Borders" in Palestinian Literature". Social Text No. 13/14: 323.JSTOR 466196. 55. ^ Blanford, Nicholas (June 15, 2006). "Lebanon exposes deadly Israeli spy ring". London: The Times UK. Retrieved August 14, 2006. 56. ^ "Beirut bomb kills Hezbollah man". BBC News. 19 July, 2004. Retrieved April 21, 2011. 57. ^ Mrque, Baseem (May 26, 2006). "Islamic Jihad Leader Killed in Lebanon". Washington: The Washington Post. Retrieved January 22, 2010.

58. ^ "Lebanon arrests another 2 over spying for Israel | Ya Libnan | World News Live from Lebanon". LB: Ya Libnan. Retrieved October 23, 2010. 59. ^ "Lebanon: Israeli spying cell busted". CH: China View. Retrieved April 21, 2011. 60. ^ Our Man in Damascus, 1969. 61. ^ Hamas member assassinated in Syria From News From Bangladesh, September 27, 2004 62. ^ Assassinations: the work of Mossad? From Times, February 16, 2010 63. ^ Mahnaimi, Uzi; Jaber, Hala; Swain, Jon (February 17, 2008). "Israel kills terror chief with headrest bomb". London: The Sunday Times. Retrieved February 16, 2008. 64. ^ Dubai Releases Video Of Alleged Assassins In Hamas Chief KillingHuffington Post Feb 16, 2010, attributed to Associated Press 65. ^ UAE: European team killed Mabhouh Jerusalem Post and Associated Press, Feb 15, 2010 66. ^ Katz, Yaakov (January 31, 2010). "Analysis: Another blow to the axis of evil". The Jerusalem Post. Retrieved January 31, 2010. 67. ^ Issacharoff, Avi (February 2, 2010). "Who killed Mahmoud al-Mabhouh? / Many wanted Hamas man dead". Haaretz. Retrieved February 2, 2010. 68. ^ Melman, Yossi (2010-02-11). "10 agents including 3 women, took part in Dubai Hamas assassination" Haaretz. Retrieved 2010-02-11. 69. ^ "Dubai suspects had five fake Irish passports". RTE News. February 18, 2010. Retrieved February 21, 2010. 70. ^ "Man in photo on Hamas leader hit squad passport not my son, says mum". The Australian. February 25, 2010. Retrieved Feb 25, 2010. 71. ^ 'U.K. police in Israel to probe passports used in Dubai hit' (Haaretz, Feb 27, 2010 72. ^ 'Interpol adds suspected Dubai assassins to most wanted list' HaaretzFeb 22, 2010) 73. ^ Israeli PM's arrest sought over murder News.com, Mar 3, 2010 74. ^ http://www.zionism-israel.com/Israel_espionage_timeline_1948.htm 75. ^ Ross, Michael: The Volunteer (2006) 76. ^ Aburish, Said K. (1998). From Defender to Dictator. New York: Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 203 210. ISBN 1-58234-049-8. 77. ^ Aburish, Said K. (1998). From Defender to Dictator. New York: Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 1-58234049-8. 78. ^ "Mossad took photos, Entebbe Operation was on its way.". Ynetnews. 2006. Retrieved 2009-07-06. 79. ^ "Israel marks 30th anniversary of Entebbe." Associated Press in USA Today. 5 July 2006. 80. ^ Ross, Michael, The Volunteer, pp. 251272 81. ^ Israeli government apologises to New Zealand Jun 26, 2005 NZ Herald: New Zealand National news

82. ^ Hallel, Amir, At home with the Mossad men, The New Zealand Herald 83. ^ Loftus, John; Mark Aarons (1997). The Secret War Against The Jews. Tel-Aviv: St. Martin's Griffin. pp. 346. ISBN 0312156480. 84. ^ Loftus, John; Mark Aarons (1997). The Secret War Against The Jews. Tel-Aviv: St. Martin's Griffin. pp. 347. ISBN 0312156480. 85. ^ Loftus, John; Mark Aarons (1997). The Secret War Against The Jews. Tel-Aviv: St. Martin's Griffin. pp. 288. ISBN 0312156480. 86. ^ Loftus, John; Mark Arrons (1997). The Secret War Against The Jews. Tel-Aviv: St. Martin's Griffin. pp. 289. ISBN 0312156480. 87. ^ Loftus, John; Mark Aarons (1997). The Secret War Against The Jews. Tel-Aviv: St. Martin's Griffin. pp. 219221. ISBN 0312156480.

[edit]Further

reading

Ben-Menashe, Ari. Profits of War: Inside the Secret U.S.-Israeli Arms Network. New York: Sheridan Square Press, 1992. ISBN 1-879823-01-2. OCLC 26586922.

Black, Ian and Benny Morris. Israel's Secret Wars: A History of Israel's Intelligence Services. New York: Grove Weidenfeld, 1991. ISBN 9780802132864. OCLC 249707944.

Central Intelligence Agency. Israel: Foreign Intelligence and Security Services: A Survey. Washington, D.C., 1979. (Included in Documents from the US Espionage Den. Tehran: Center for the Publication of the US Espionage Den's Documents, 1982.)

Jonas, George. Vengeance: The True Story of an Israeli Counter-Terrorist Team. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1984. ISBN 0-67-150611-0. OCLC 10507421.

Ostrovsky, Victor. By Way of Deception: The Making and Unmaking of a Mossad Officer. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1990. ISBN 0-9717595-0-2. OCLC 52617140.

Ostrovsky, Victor. The Other Side of Deception: A Rogue Agent Exposes the Mossad's Secret Agenda. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1994. ISBN 0060176350. OCLC 30972282.

Parsi, Rita. Treacherous Alliance: The Secret Dealings of Israel, Iran, and the United States. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007. ISBN 0-300-12057-5, ISBN 0300143117. OCLC 124164797.

Eric Frattini. Mossad, los verdugos del Kidon. Madrid: Atanor Ediciones, 2011. ISBN 978-84-938718-6-4

[edit]External

links

Stealing a Soviet MiG

By Doron Geller

From 1952-63, Isser Harel directed both the Shin Bet (the Israeli internal security service) and the Mossad (for foreign operations). In early 1963, he was replaced by a newcomer, Meir Amit. At first Amit was not accepted by Mossad operatives loyal to Harel, but after a shaky start, marked by some lack of cooperation and trust, he asserted his leadership over the organization. Even those who had fiercely opposed his entry as the new head of the Mossad in place of Harel grew to respect, admire, and like him. Meir Amit turned out to be a great operations chief. Under him and Military Intelligence (Aman) chief Aharon Yariv in the 1960's, Israeli intelligence turned out some of its most amazing successes. One of these successes had a decisive impact on the outcome of the Six Day War in June 1967 - the stealing of a Soviet MiG-21. Soon after assuming leadership of the Mossad on March 25, 1963, Meir Amit consulted a great number of military men in order to spell out Mossad objectives, and ask what they felt would be the Mossad's most valuable contribution to Israeli security. General Mordecai (Motti) Hod, commander of the Israeli Air Force in 1963, (and for the following few years), told him to bring a Soviet-made MiG-21 to Israel. It is difficult to determine if Motti Hod really believed such a feat could be pulled off. Ezer Weizmann, who took over command of the Israeli Air force from Hod, told Amit the same thing shortly before the Six-Day War. If it could be done, the Israelis would then have access to the secrets of the most advanced fighter planes the Arab states possessed at the time - and according to the Russians, the most advanced strike aircraft in the world. The Russians began introducing the MiG-21 into the Middle East in 1961. By 1963, when Amit took over the Mossad, it was an essential part of the Egyptian, Syrian and Iraqi Air Forces arsenals. The Russians introduced the aircraft under maximum secrecy and security. The Russians "had made it a condition of supplying the aircraft that they should be responsible for security, crew training and maintenance." Few in the West knew much about the MiG-21 - but feared its capabilities. The Russians, of course, were aware of the risks they were taking by stationing MiG's outside of their own borders in the service of foreign armies. Security was thus extremely tight - and the Russians were often responsible for it. This in turn bred resentment among certain elements of the their Arab beneficiaries, who were sometimes angered by the greater authority the Russians exerted at their own Syrian,

Egyptian or Iraqi air bases than they did themselves. Still, appointment to an MiG-21 squadron "was the highest honor that could be granted to a pilot. These were not the kind of men who could be bribed or would talk loosely in public. As a result, neither Mossad nor Military Intelligence had made any progress at all." They had tried a few times before. Through the services of an Egyptian-born Armenian by the name of Jean Thomas, the Israelis had tried to pay an Egyptian Air Force pilot 1 million dollars to defect to Israel with his MiG-21 in the early 1960's. The pilot refused, Jean Thomas and a number of accomplices were caught, and Thomas and two of his accomplices were hanged in December 1962. Another attempt to convince two Iraqi pilots to defect to Israel didn't work either. But the third attempt did. "The Israeli military command had always placed a premium on complete familiarity with every weapon their enemies might use against them in combat. One of the first to emphasize this was General Dan Tolkowsky, the commander who built up the Air Force in the early fifties. He said again and again that 'It is a basic principle of warfare that to know the weapons the enemy has is already to beat him.'" Tolkowsky constantly pressed for this kind of information. So, as we saw, would his successors Mordecai Hod and Ezer Weizmann as commanders of the Israeli Air Force. The Israeli efforts to accumulate information on potential enemy plans and equipment is of course vital for her national defense. But it has, and undoubtedly continues to be, vital for barter with the United States as well. In Israel, the United States has an ally who has often provided Intelligence far more in-depth than their own, especially about soviet penetration of the Middle East in the 1960's and 1970's. In return, the Americans have often been willing to provide Israel with the latest military equipment which under other circumstances they might not have been willing to provide. It is true that as early as the 1956 Suez War, the Israelis found an abandoned Russian plane abandoned by its Egyptian pilot, as the Egyptians hastily fled before the rapidly advancing Israeli Army. This was a major coup. But its effects soon wore off as the Russians introduced the more advanced, and unknown, MiG-21 into the Syrian, Egyptian and Iraqi Air Forces. Israeli Intelligence went through its options; "bribery, intercepting a plane at its unloading point in an Arab country, planting an agent at an airbase" But the Mossad came to the conclusion that it would be best to try and persuade an Arab pilot to defect to Israel.

In the event, the Israelis got a free tip-off from an unexpected source without initiating a thing; an Iraqi Jew by the name of Joseph indicated that if Israel wanted an MiG-21, he could probably arrange it. This was a strange development. Most Iraqi Jews had been flown to Israel in a massive airlift in the early 1950's. Perhaps 1000 or even less remained of a community which prior to the early 1950's numbered well over 100,000 Jews. Joseph had grown up as a poor Jew and had been indentured to an Iraqi Maronite Christian family at the age of ten. Although he never attended school or learned to read and write, he, like the biblical Joseph, rose to prominence in this non-Jewish family's household. No decision was taken without him being consulted. He was present at all family meetings, and his was often the last word on any family decision. He had risen to be a central figure in the family's affairs whom they all looked up to, admired, respected, and loved. When he was almost 60, however, during a quarrel with the real head of the household, Joseph was told that without the family he would have had nothing. Although the Christian Maronite soon apologized, Joseph didn't forget it. He decided then and there to explore his "otherness" - his Jewish identity. This was something he had hardly given thought to before. He began to learn about Judaism and Israel. Although he maintained his loyalty to his adopted family, he also felt equally loyal to his newfound concern for Israel. Late in 1964 he contacted Israeli officials in Tehran (until 1979 Israel had a good relationship with Persian, non-Arab Iran) and Europe. He had something important to tell them. Israel, as a Jewish state in the Middle East, has always cultivated non-Arab nations on the periphery of the Middle Eastern world - such as the Turks and until 1979, Iran. Israel also actively cultivated minorities within Arab-Moslem nations. Israel has made discreet intelligence contacts over the years with the Druze sect (primarily in Syria and Lebanon), the Kurds in Iraq and elsewhere and the Maronite Christians and other Christian sects throughout the Middle East. In the early 1980's Israel tried to form a full-fledged alliance with the large but minority Christian Maronites in Lebanon. In early 1964 Israel soon had contact - through Joseph - with a Maronite Christian pilot in the Iraqi Air Force. The family felt disaffected with their lot. The father felt frustrated by the increasing pressures the Iraqi government was imposing on him and other Maronite Christians. Some of his friends had even been imprisoned and he was finding it difficult to manage his business. He mentioned to Joseph that he would like to leave the country. After Joseph first contacted the Israelis, there were many in Israel who preferred to drop the issue as unrealistic. But not Meir Amit. Even when Joseph began demanding

more money and many in Israel pegged him as a con-man, Amit pursued it. He had an ally in Yitzhak Rabin, Chief of Staff of the Israeli Armed Forces on the eve (and during) the Six Day War. They contacted a top agent in Baghdad, an American woman, and either on Israeli orders or on her own initiative (sources conflict) she decided to draw out Munir Redfa - a Christian Iraqi air force pilot and a member of Joseph's adopted family. The American woman was a Mossad agent (it is not clear if she was Jewish) who was not only lively and intelligent but beautiful as well. She mixed in easily in high social circles wherever she went. According to one source, she initiated the contact with Munir Redfa at a party, where the two immediately hit it off. He told her he was a patriotic Iraqi, but he "found himself in violent disagreement with the current war being waged by his government against the minority Kurdish tribesmen in northern Iraq." In the 1960's as in the 1990's, the Kurds tried to maintain their independence in the Arab (and Turkish) world that did not wish to give it to them. As a minority Christian, Munir Redfa was greatly troubled by the fact that he, as a deputy commander of a MiG-21 squadron, was one of those who was asked to lead bombing missions against the almost defenseless Kurds. According to Dennis Eisenberg, Uri Dan, and Eli Landau, Redfa "even confessed a 'sneaking admiration' for the Israelis, who were 'so few against so many Moslems.'" There were other things bothering him as well. He had been passed over as commander of his squadron, he was stationed far from his home in Baghdad, and "was allowed to fly only with small fuel tanks, because he was a Christian." The American woman listened. She continued to see him and their intimacy, despite his marriage and several children, grew. She exploited the connection to suggest a holiday in Europe in July 1966. He agreed. After a few days there, she "suggested that Munir fly to Israel with her. She had friends there who might be of service to him." She pulled out a brand new passport and tickets. He then knew that this had to have been planned from the start, and she hadn't been attracted to him for who he was. But he also knew that she was making an offer that could be of great benefit to him. Not only would he be through with the bombing missions he so disagreed with - the Israelis would be paying him1 million dollars. It was as attractive as it was dangerous. Munir wanted to see that not only his wife and children would be taken safely out of Iraq, but his parents and the rest of his extended family as well. Joseph would see to that. Joseph was concerned that of each family member knew that they were going to leave, it was inevitable, due to human nature, that someone would mention the fact to the wrong person, and the whole plan would go awry. Therefore many of the family members were never even told they were going to leave Iraq. As for Munir Redfa

himself, not only did the Israelis agree to pay him very well and grant full protection to his family, but they told him that they would provide him "with Israeli citizenship, a home, and a job for life." Munir Redfa's mind was made up. Mordecai Hod, the commander of the Israeli Air Force, met him and went over the escape plan with him. He would fly a zig-zag route to Israel to avoid Iraqi and Jordanian radar. IAF commander Hod told him: "'You know how dangerous this is going to be. The flight is 900 kilometers. If your own colleagues guess what you're up to they may send planes to blow you out of the skies. If they don't succeed, the Jordanians may try. Your only hope is to remain calm and follow this route. They do not know it, we do.'" Hod continued; "If you lose your nerve you are a dead man. Once you have left your ordinary flight path there is no turning back." Redfa seemed aware of this and responded simply; "'I will bring you the plane.'" For the remainder of his stay in Israel Munir Redfa and his Israeli handlers went over his planned escape again and again. "He was amazed to see that they knew almost as much about the goings-on at his airbase as he did. They knew the names of all the personnel, both Russian and Iraqi, and the layout of the entire base. They knew minutely the routine of training flights: long flights on certain days, short on others." He would have to pick a day when he would be permitted to go on a long-range flight. Redfa and the American woman went back to Europe and from there to Iraq. Soon members of Redfa's family began leaving the country; one as a tourist, another for medical treatment Munir Redfa set his date for August 16, 1966. The Israeli Air Force would be expecting him on one of a number of given days in August. He carried on his business as usual as best he could with co-workers he would never see again. He asked the ground crew to fill his tanks to capacity, something the Russian advisors generally had to sign for. But the Iraqis disliked the Russian advisers, who seemed to hold them in contempt. This worked to Redfa's benefit. As a star pilot, they were to happy to obey his orders, rather than those of the Russians. He took off. After heading out towards Baghdad, he veered off in the direction of Israel. The ground crew radar picked up a blip on the screen heading west and they frantically radioed him to turn around. He didn't. They warned him they would shoot him down. He turned the radio off.

Hundreds of miles away Israeli radar picked up the blip on the screen. They sent up a squad of IAF Mirages to escort him. He went through his prearranged signals and they flew alongside him to a base deep in the Negev Desert. That day, "Mossad agents hired two large vans and picked up the remaining members of the pilot's family, who had left Baghdad ostensibly to have a picnic. They were driven to the Iranian border and guided across by anti-Iraqi Kurdish guerrillas. Safely in Iran, a helicopter collected them and flew them to an airfield, from where an airplane took them to Israel." Newspapers all over the world carried the sensational story of an Iraqi pilot who had defected with his MiG-21 to Israel. "Like all news stories, it stayed in the papers a few days (with constantly shrinking headlines) and was soon forgotten by most people...Among those who did not forget were military leaders of the United States, France, Britain and other powers. They pressed the Israelis for a glimpse of the aircraft, the first to fall into the hands of a nation friendly to their interests..." The Russians were furious. Their air power secrets were seriously compromised. They threatened the Israelis ferociously and demanded the plane back. The Israelis, of course, did not return the plane. They did not, however, turn it over to the United States for the time being in order to temper Russian rage. Moreover, it diminished the KGB's - and of course the Iraqis' - prestige. Redfa was not an unbalanced cadet, as they may have preferred to believe, but "one of the country's best pilots, and he had been very thoroughly screened by Soviet and Iraqi security before rising to his position as an elite air force pilot - even if he did, as a Christian, face certain drawbacks. The Israelis did not divulge their part in Munir Redfa's defection for quite some time. It took years for the Russians to put together how the theft of the MiG had been arranged. They assumed from the start that the Mossad was behind it. In this they were correct. A few months later the IAF did loan the MiG to the United States for testing. It was an essential and very important part of American strategic capabilities. They US Air Force used the MiG in simulated dogfights with the intention of gaining as much insight into the Soviet plane's capability that they could. For the Israelis the benefit of possession of the plane was even more immediate. In an April 7, 1967 dogfight with the Syrians, the IAF shot down six Syrian MiG's to no Israeli planes. In the June 1967 War, the Israeli Air Force commanded overwhelming

air superiority over the Syrian and Egyptian MiG's. Not a little had to do with the fact that an MiG had been flown to Israel less than a year earlier with the connivance of Israeli Intelligence. Munir Redfa came to Israel with his family and was given a new job and a new life. The American woman saw him perhaps once more after he arrived, but she was committed to her work in the Mossad, which was where her ultimate loyalty lay. The Iraqi Jew Joseph did not come to Israel, preferring to remain a Zionist from afar in his native Iraq. Presumably, he lived satisfied with what he had done both for the family he loved and the country on which he bestowed his new-found concern and affections. Bibliography 1). Ian Black and Benny Morris - Israel's Secret Wars: A History of Israel's Intelligence Services 2). Dennis Eisenberg, Uri Dan, Dennis Eisenenberg - The Mossad-Inside Stories: Israel's Secret Intelligence Service 3). Dan Raviv and Yossi Melman - Every Spy a Prince: The Complete History of Israel's Intelligence Community 4). Stewart Steven - The Spymasters of Israel

Hezbollah (Party of God)

Hezbollah is a radical Shia Muslim organization fighting against Israel and western imperialism in Lebanon. The group does not recognize the legitimacy of the State of Israel. Hezbollah refers to itself with multiple titles including the Organization of the Oppressed on Earth and the Revolutionary Justice Organization. Its main goal is the establishment of an Islamic government across the Arab world that will liberate Jerusalem and the entire area of the present-day State of Israel. History: 1982-2000

Hezbollahs origins and ideology stem from the Iranian Revolution. The revolution called for a religious Muslim government that would represent the oppressed and downtrodden. According to Hezbollah, the United States was to blame for many of the countrys problems. Israel was seen as an extension of the United States and a foreign power in Lebanon. The organization itself started in 1982 as part of the Iranian governments Revolutionary Guard Corps. Led by religious clerics, the organization wanted to adopt an Iranian doctrine as a solution to Lebanese political malaise. This doctrine included the use of terror as a means of attainting political objectives. Toward the end of 1982, Iran sent fighters to assist in the establishment of a revolutionary Islamic movement in Lebanon. Irans hope was that the new members would participate in the Jihad, or Holy War, against Israel. These forces, which were located in the area of Baalbek in the northern Beqaa valley, brought Iranian-Islamic influence to the area and constituted the core of the Hezbollah organization in Lebanon. As the organizational infrastructure developed, Hezbollah, with Iranian and Syrian assistance, began to establish an extensive military network in the Baalbek area. Its militias have since spread into the Shiite neighborhoods in southern and western Beirut as well as into southern Lebanon. Thousands of Hezbollah activists and members are located in the Beqaa valley, Beirut and southern Lebanon. These areas also offer a base for the recruitment of additional activists and fighters among the local Shiite populations. After Israels war in Lebanon, the organization gained strength as it fought against the presence of French and American peacekeepers who remained in Lebanon after Israeli forces withdrew from Beirut. In 1985, the IDF withdrew from Lebanon, with the exception of a security zone created to protect Israels northern border. For the next five years Israeli troops worked with the South Lebanese Army to defend the border. Meanwhile, Hezbollah stockpiled weapons and and recruited many new members, all with the goal of driving the Israelis out of Lebanon. To gain support from the local population in South Lebanon, Hezbollah donated money, equipment, and medical supplies. Following Israels unilateral withdrawal from southern Lebanon in 2000, Hezbollah continued to mount terrorist operations against Israel. It accused Israel of continuing to hold Shabaa Farm lands (which Israel and the UN agree are not part of Lebanon) and refusing to release Lebanese prisoners in Israeli jails.

In response, Hezbollah, with the help of a UN peacekeeping force, kidnapped three IDF soldiers. A prisoner swap was not agreed upon until 2004, four years after the kidnapping. In 2000, the U.S. State Department added Hezbollah to its list of terrorist organizations. History: 2000-2005 The Al-Aqsa intifada in Israel created additional opportunities for Hezbollah to perform acts of violence. The organization funded the Palestinian Authority (PA) and collaborated with other terrorist organizations, including Hamas, to systematize attacks on Israel. It stepped up its recruitment in order to more efficiently infiltrate Israels international borders. It also continues to smuggle arms and advanced weapons into Lebanon and the PA. In 2002, the IDF intercepted a PA owned ship, the Karine-A, carrying 50 tons of weapons, including anti-tank missiles, Katyusha rockets, and long range mortar bombs. Many of the weapons were made in Iran. A senior Hezbollah member was responsible for loading the weapons onto the ship. Iran continues to financially support Hezbollah. Policies Hezbollah has consistently tried to paint itself as a moderate national liberation organization aimed at introducing the Islam that is confident in achieving justice, as well as introducing the Islam that protects all human rights. It tries to portray an image as a group who would rather not commit acts of terror, but must for the benefit of the Arab world. After expressing written statements against terrorist attacks, the Secretary General of Hezbollah, Hassan Nasrallah, communicated to a Lebanese audience at a memorial for a Hezbollah suicide bomber that we must continue the path of resistance and the path of the First and Second Intifada. Politics Hezbollah is an active participant in Lebanese politics. In 1992, it participated in elections for the first time, winning 12 out of 128 seats in parliament. It won 10 seats in 1996, and 8 in 2000. In the general election of 2005, it won 23 seats nationwide. An alliance between Amal and Hezbollah won all 23 seats in Southern Lebanon.

Operations Hezbollahs main tactic is the use of suicide bombers. Hezbollah uses these human weapons to create mental and physical suffering for the Israelis and to force the Israelis to retreat out of Islamic land. Shia Islam international bases are used to buy and sell weapons for organized attacks. Asia is a key target for Hezbollah, and Hezbollah has been pulling Malaysians and Indonesians into the organzation to expand operations and terrorist attacks around the world. Hezbollah extended its operations across the globe throughout the 1980s, kidnapping individuals in a attempt to gain political leverage. Hezbollah operates a satellite television station from Lebanon, Al-Manar TV (the Lighthouse) as well as a radio station, al-Nour (the light). Qubth Ut Alla (The Fist of God) is the monthly magazine of Hezbollahs paramilitary wing. They are widely viewed by West Bank and Gazan Palestinians as well as some Lebanese. Leadership The spiritual father of the movement in Lebanon is Sheikh Muhammed Hussein Fadlallah who acts as chief Mujtahid (arbiter of Islamic law) of the Shiite community in Lebanon. The current Secretary General of Hezbollah is Hassan Nasrallah. At the start of the 1980s he was responsible for the Beqaa area on behalf of the AMAL movement. He left the organization in 1982 and affiliated with Hezbollah, taking with him many of his followers. Following the death of Abbas Musawi, Nasrallah was unanimously elected to be his successor. Ideology The organization views an Islamic republic, modeled after Iran, to be the ideal form of a state. Lebanon remains a religiously and ideologically heterogeneous society. According to their published political platform in 2003, Hezbollah claims to favor the introduction of an Islamic government in Lebanon by peaceful democratic means. According to the United States Department of State and reports submitted to Defense Technical Information Center, the organization is seeking to create an fundamentalist Iranian-style Islamic republic and removal of all non-Islamic influences.

Hezbollah supports the destruction of the state of Israel and co-operates with other militant Islamic organizations such as Hamas in order to promote this goal. Hamas actually maintains its own embassy in Tehran. In 1992, Iran, Hezbollah, and Hamas signed an official agreement of cooperation. As recently as 2002, it has been known that Iran was directly involved in numerous attempts to launch rockets into Israel through members of Hamas and Islamic Jihad who were trained by Hezbollah in Iranian camps. A relationship has also developed between Hezbollah and Al-Qaida, according to a former Al-Qaida member who was captured and convicted of bombing U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania. Ali Muhammad said that Hezbollah provided explosives training for Al-Qaida, and that he personally arranged a meeting between Hezbollahs chief and Osama bin Laden in Sudan. In 2002, leaders of Hezbollah, AlQaida, and Hamas met formally in Lebanon to discuss future joint terrorist attacks against America, Britain, and Israel. Support Syria backs Hezbollah morally and has also supplied it with money and arms. In return, Hezbollah protects Syrias political and military interests in Lebanon. Hezbollah also receives financial aid, training, weapons, and explosives from Iran. Iran also contributes political, diplomatic, and organizational aid. According to Irans official budget, Iran gave $500 million in support of radical Islamic organizations around the world in the 1990s. Of that money, Hezbollah was reported to receive at least $250 million. It is also suspected that Hezbollah has received financial and military aid from Russia in the past. Russia did not denounce Hezbollah as a terrorist organization until approximately twelve years after its establishment. Hezbollah has a number of illicit fund-raising rings operating in the United States. In 2003, the Drug Enforcement Administration discovered the existence of an organized drug smuggling operation that was funneling money to Hezbollah from Chicago and Detroit. In Charlotte, North Carolina, the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms investigated a multi-million dollar cigaretter smuggling ring that gave over $2 million to Hezbollah over a period of 8 years. The money received from the Charlotte operation allowed Hezbollah to purchase advanced military technology and global positioning systems. In March 2003, the leader of the cigarette smuggling ring, Mohamed Hammoud, received a 155-year sentence for racketeering and providing material support for Hezbollah.

Activities Hezbollah is believed to have kidnapped and tortured to death U.S. Army colonel William R. Higgins and the CIA Station Chief in Beirut, William Buckley, and to have kidnapped around 30 other Westerners between 1982 and 1992. Hezbollah was suspected of involvement in numerous anti-US and anti-Israeli terrorist attacks. The organization was responsible for the suicide truck bombings of the U.S. Embassy and U.S. Marine barracks in Beirut in October 1983, in which 241 American servicemen were killed (220 Marines, 18 Navy personnel and 3 Army soldiers) and the U.S. Embassy annex in Beirut in September 1984. The bombing at the Marine barracks in Beirut was the deadliest single-day death toll for the United States Marine Corps since the Battle of Iwo Jima (2,500 in one day) of World War II and the deadliest single-day death toll for the United States military since the 243 killed on 31st January 1968 the first day of the Tet offensive in the Vietnam war. The attack remains the deadliest single attack on Americans overseas since World War II. Three members of Hezbollah, Imad Mughniyah, Hasan Izz-al-Din, and Ali Atwa, are on the FBIs list of 22 Most Wanted Terrorists for the hijacking in 1985 of TWA Flight 847 during which a U.S. Navy diver was murdered. Elements of the group were responsible for the kidnapping and detention of Americans and other westerners in Lebanon in the 1980s. In 1992 and 1994, Hezbollah is claimed to have carried out the Israeli Embassy Bombing and the AMIA Bombing in Buenos Aires, Argentina. Eight days after the AMIA Bombing the Israeli Embassy in London was car bombed by two Palestinians linked to Hezbollah. In January 2000, Hezbollah assassinated the commander of the South Lebanon Army Western Brigade, Colonel Aql Hashem, at his home in the security zone. Hashem had been responsible for day to day operations of the South Lebanon army. On June 16, 2004, two Palestinian girls aged 14 and 15 were arrested by the IDF for plotting a suicide bombing. According to IDF statement, the two minors were guided by Hezbollah. On June 23, 2004, another allegedly Hezbollah-funded suicide bombing attack was foiled by the Israeli security forces. In February 2005, the Palestinian Authority accused Hezbollah of attempting to derail the truce signed with Israel. Palestinian officials and former militants described how Hezbollah promised an increase in funding for any cell able to carry out a terrorist attack

More recently, Hezbollah operatives have been seen in the Caribbean, Central America, and South America. There are parts of the Caribbean where weve seen some, certainly some travel, said Henry Crumpton, the State Departments counterterrorism coordinator said. There are parts of Central America where weve seen some operatives, where weve seen transactions financial transactions in the Caribbean. In the southern part of the Caribbean, next to Venezuela, in Colombia, weve seen some activity there. Sources: Hezbollah Homepage The International Policy Institute for Counterterrorism; Schweitzer, Yoram. Hezbollah: A Transnational Terrrorist Organization. International Counterterrorism Organization. September 1, 2002. Hezbollah, Wikipedia 1983 Beirut Barracks Bombing, Wikipedia Yehudit Barsky, Terrorism Briefing: Hezbollah, The American Jewish Committee, May 2003 JTA, (October 28, 2005)

Hezbollah (Party of God)

Hezbollah is a radical Shia Muslim organization fighting against Israel and western imperialism in Lebanon. The group does not recognize the legitimacy of the State of Israel. Hezbollah refers to itself with multiple titles including the Organization of the Oppressed on Earth and the Revolutionary Justice Organization. Its main goal is the establishment of an Islamic government across the Arab world that will liberate Jerusalem and the entire area of the present-day State of Israel. History: 1982-2000 Hezbollahs origins and ideology stem from the Iranian Revolution. The revolution called for a religious Muslim government that would represent the oppressed and downtrodden. According to Hezbollah, the United States was to blame for many of the countrys problems. Israel was seen as an extension of the United States and a foreign power in Lebanon. The organization itself started in 1982 as part of the Iranian governments Revolutionary Guard Corps. Led by religious clerics, the organization wanted to adopt an Iranian doctrine as a solution to Lebanese political malaise. This doctrine included the use of terror as a means of attainting political objectives. Toward the end of 1982, Iran sent fighters to assist in the establishment of a revolutionary Islamic movement in Lebanon. Irans hope was that the new members would participate in the Jihad, or Holy War, against Israel. These forces, which were located in the area of Baalbek in the northern Beqaa valley, brought Iranian-Islamic influence to the area and constituted the core of the Hezbollah organization in Lebanon. As the organizational infrastructure developed, Hezbollah, with Iranian and Syrian assistance, began to establish an extensive military network in the Baalbek area. Its militias have since spread into the Shiite neighborhoods in southern and western Beirut as well as into southern Lebanon. Thousands of Hezbollah activists and members are located in the Beqaa valley, Beirut and southern Lebanon. These areas also offer a base for the recruitment of additional activists and fighters among the local Shiite populations. After Israels war in Lebanon, the organization gained strength as it fought against the presence of French and American peacekeepers who remained in Lebanon after Israeli forces withdrew from Beirut. In 1985, the IDF withdrew from Lebanon, with the

exception of a security zone created to protect Israels northern border. For the next five years Israeli troops worked with the South Lebanese Army to defend the border. Meanwhile, Hezbollah stockpiled weapons and and recruited many new members, all with the goal of driving the Israelis out of Lebanon. To gain support from the local population in South Lebanon, Hezbollah donated money, equipment, and medical supplies. Following Israels unilateral withdrawal from southern Lebanon in 2000, Hezbollah continued to mount terrorist operations against Israel. It accused Israel of continuing to hold Shabaa Farm lands (which Israel and the UN agree are not part of Lebanon) and refusing to release Lebanese prisoners in Israeli jails. In response, Hezbollah, with the help of a UN peacekeeping force, kidnapped three IDF soldiers. A prisoner swap was not agreed upon until 2004, four years after the kidnapping. In 2000, the U.S. State Department added Hezbollah to its list of terrorist organizations. History: 2000-2005 The Al-Aqsa intifada in Israel created additional opportunities for Hezbollah to perform acts of violence. The organization funded the Palestinian Authority (PA) and collaborated with other terrorist organizations, including Hamas, to systematize attacks on Israel. It stepped up its recruitment in order to more efficiently infiltrate Israels international borders. It also continues to smuggle arms and advanced weapons into Lebanon and the PA. In 2002, the IDF intercepted a PA owned ship, the Karine-A, carrying 50 tons of weapons, including anti-tank missiles, Katyusha rockets, and long range mortar bombs. Many of the weapons were made in Iran. A senior Hezbollah member was responsible for loading the weapons onto the ship. Iran continues to financially support Hezbollah. Policies Hezbollah has consistently tried to paint itself as a moderate national liberation organization aimed at introducing the Islam that is confident in achieving justice, as well as introducing the Islam that protects all human rights. It tries to portray an

image as a group who would rather not commit acts of terror, but must for the benefit of the Arab world. After expressing written statements against terrorist attacks, the Secretary General of Hezbollah, Hassan Nasrallah, communicated to a Lebanese audience at a memorial for a Hezbollah suicide bomber that we must continue the path of resistance and the path of the First and Second Intifada. Politics Hezbollah is an active participant in Lebanese politics. In 1992, it participated in elections for the first time, winning 12 out of 128 seats in parliament. It won 10 seats in 1996, and 8 in 2000. In the general election of 2005, it won 23 seats nationwide. An alliance between Amal and Hezbollah won all 23 seats in Southern Lebanon. Operations Hezbollahs main tactic is the use of suicide bombers. Hezbollah uses these human weapons to create mental and physical suffering for the Israelis and to force the Israelis to retreat out of Islamic land. Shia Islam international bases are used to buy and sell weapons for organized attacks. Asia is a key target for Hezbollah, and Hezbollah has been pulling Malaysians and Indonesians into the organzation to expand operations and terrorist attacks around the world. Hezbollah extended its operations across the globe throughout the 1980s, kidnapping individuals in a attempt to gain political leverage. Hezbollah operates a satellite television station from Lebanon, Al-Manar TV (the Lighthouse) as well as a radio station, al-Nour (the light). Qubth Ut Alla (The Fist of God) is the monthly magazine of Hezbollahs paramilitary wing. They are widely viewed by West Bank and Gazan Palestinians as well as some Lebanese. Leadership The spiritual father of the movement in Lebanon is Sheikh Muhammed Hussein Fadlallah who acts as chief Mujtahid (arbiter of Islamic law) of the Shiite community in Lebanon. The current Secretary General of Hezbollah is Hassan Nasrallah. At the start of the 1980s he was responsible for the Beqaa area on behalf of the AMAL movement. He

left the organization in 1982 and affiliated with Hezbollah, taking with him many of his followers. Following the death of Abbas Musawi, Nasrallah was unanimously elected to be his successor. Ideology The organization views an Islamic republic, modeled after Iran, to be the ideal form of a state. Lebanon remains a religiously and ideologically heterogeneous society. According to their published political platform in 2003, Hezbollah claims to favor the introduction of an Islamic government in Lebanon by peaceful democratic means. According to the United States Department of State and reports submitted to Defense Technical Information Center, the organization is seeking to create an fundamentalist Iranian-style Islamic republic and removal of all non-Islamic influences. Hezbollah supports the destruction of the state of Israel and co-operates with other militant Islamic organizations such as Hamas in order to promote this goal. Hamas actually maintains its own embassy in Tehran. In 1992, Iran, Hezbollah, and Hamas signed an official agreement of cooperation. As recently as 2002, it has been known that Iran was directly involved in numerous attempts to launch rockets into Israel through members of Hamas and Islamic Jihad who were trained by Hezbollah in Iranian camps. A relationship has also developed between Hezbollah and Al-Qaida, according to a former Al-Qaida member who was captured and convicted of bombing U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania. Ali Muhammad said that Hezbollah provided explosives training for Al-Qaida, and that he personally arranged a meeting between Hezbollahs chief and Osama bin Laden in Sudan. In 2002, leaders of Hezbollah, AlQaida, and Hamas met formally in Lebanon to discuss future joint terrorist attacks against America, Britain, and Israel. Support Syria backs Hezbollah morally and has also supplied it with money and arms. In return, Hezbollah protects Syrias political and military interests in Lebanon. Hezbollah also receives financial aid, training, weapons, and explosives from Iran. Iran also contributes political, diplomatic, and organizational aid. According to Irans official budget, Iran gave $500 million in support of radical Islamic organizations around the world in the 1990s. Of that money, Hezbollah was reported to receive at least $250 million.

It is also suspected that Hezbollah has received financial and military aid from Russia in the past. Russia did not denounce Hezbollah as a terrorist organization until approximately twelve years after its establishment. Hezbollah has a number of illicit fund-raising rings operating in the United States. In 2003, the Drug Enforcement Administration discovered the existence of an organized drug smuggling operation that was funneling money to Hezbollah from Chicago and Detroit. In Charlotte, North Carolina, the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms investigated a multi-million dollar cigaretter smuggling ring that gave over $2 million to Hezbollah over a period of 8 years. The money received from the Charlotte operation allowed Hezbollah to purchase advanced military technology and global positioning systems. In March 2003, the leader of the cigarette smuggling ring, Mohamed Hammoud, received a 155-year sentence for racketeering and providing material support for Hezbollah. Activities Hezbollah is believed to have kidnapped and tortured to death U.S. Army colonel William R. Higgins and the CIA Station Chief in Beirut, William Buckley, and to have kidnapped around 30 other Westerners between 1982 and 1992. Hezbollah was suspected of involvement in numerous anti-US and anti-Israeli terrorist attacks. The organization was responsible for the suicide truck bombings of the U.S. Embassy and U.S. Marine barracks in Beirut in October 1983, in which 241 American servicemen were killed (220 Marines, 18 Navy personnel and 3 Army soldiers) and the U.S. Embassy annex in Beirut in September 1984. The bombing at the Marine barracks in Beirut was the deadliest single-day death toll for the United States Marine Corps since the Battle of Iwo Jima (2,500 in one day) of World War II and the deadliest single-day death toll for the United States military since the 243 killed on 31st January 1968 the first day of the Tet offensive in the Vietnam war. The attack remains the deadliest single attack on Americans overseas since World War II. Three members of Hezbollah, Imad Mughniyah, Hasan Izz-al-Din, and Ali Atwa, are on the FBIs list of 22 Most Wanted Terrorists for the hijacking in 1985 of TWA Flight 847 during which a U.S. Navy diver was murdered. Elements of the group were responsible for the kidnapping and detention of Americans and other westerners in Lebanon in the 1980s. In 1992 and 1994, Hezbollah is claimed to have carried out the Israeli Embassy Bombing and the AMIA Bombing in Buenos Aires, Argentina. Eight days after the AMIA Bombing the Israeli Embassy in London was car bombed by two Palestinians linked to Hezbollah.

In January 2000, Hezbollah assassinated the commander of the South Lebanon Army Western Brigade, Colonel Aql Hashem, at his home in the security zone. Hashem had been responsible for day to day operations of the South Lebanon army. On June 16, 2004, two Palestinian girls aged 14 and 15 were arrested by the IDF for plotting a suicide bombing. According to IDF statement, the two minors were guided by Hezbollah. On June 23, 2004, another allegedly Hezbollah-funded suicide bombing attack was foiled by the Israeli security forces. In February 2005, the Palestinian Authority accused Hezbollah of attempting to derail the truce signed with Israel. Palestinian officials and former militants described how Hezbollah promised an increase in funding for any cell able to carry out a terrorist attack More recently, Hezbollah operatives have been seen in the Caribbean, Central America, and South America. There are parts of the Caribbean where weve seen some, certainly some travel, said Henry Crumpton, the State Departments counterterrorism coordinator said. There are parts of Central America where weve seen some operatives, where weve seen transactions financial transactions in the Caribbean. In the southern part of the Caribbean, next to Venezuela, in Colombia, weve seen some activity there. Sources: Hezbollah Homepage The International Policy Institute for Counterterrorism; Schweitzer, Yoram. Hezbollah: A Transnational Terrrorist Organization. International Counterterrorism Organization. September 1, 2002. Hezbollah, Wikipedia 1983 Beirut Barracks Bombing, Wikipedia Yehudit Barsky, Terrorism Briefing: Hezbollah, The American Jewish Committee, May 2003 JTA, (October 28, 2005)