84 Chapter 5: Constructivism and Learning

yChapter 5: CONSTRUCTIVISM AND LEARNING

Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to: Define what is constructivism Trace the proponents of constructivism Discus the principles of learning derived from constructivism Compare the constructivist and traditional classroom

CHAPTER OVERVIEW What is Constructivism? 5.2 Constructivism Applied to Teaching 5.3 Social Constructivism 5.4 Zone of Proximal Development 5.5 Scaffolding Instruction 5.6 A Constructivist View of Learning 5.7 Constructivism in the Classroom 5.8 CASE STUDY Summary Key Terms References

Chapter 1 Introduction Chapter 2: Behavioural Learning Theories Chapter 3: Early Cognitive Theories Chapter 4: Information Processing Model Chapter 5: Constructivism and Learning Chapter 6: Metacognition Chapter 7: Thinking and Learning Chapter 8: Understanding Individual Differences Chapter 9: Emotion and Learning Chapter 10: Learning and Handling Text

In the Chapters 2, 3 and 4, we examined behavioural and cognitive theories of learning. In this chapter, we discuss another school of thought about learning called constructivism. Constructivism has its roots in 18th century philosophy. It provides an alternative view of explaining how humans learn. As the name suggests, it focuses on learners constructing knowledge based on their prior knowledge and experience. Reality is not in the object observed or the events experienced but reality is constructed by person. .

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5.1 WHAT IS CONSTRUCTIVISM? Constructivism is not a new concept and its roots can be traced to the work of 18 th century philosopher Giambattista Vico, who held that humans can only clearly understand what they have constructed themselves. He commented that one only knows something if one can explain it. Another philosopher Immanuel Kant further elaborated on this idea by asserting that human beings are not passive recipients of information. More recent advocates of constructivism include John Dewey, Jean Piaget, Jerome Bruner, von Glaserfeld and Vygotsky. Jerome Bruner (1960) He defines constructivism as a learning theory in which learning is seen as an active process in which learners construct new ideas of concepts based upon their current and past knowledge. Dewey (1916): Education depends on action. Knowledge and ideas emerged only from a situation in which learners had to draw them out of experiences that had meaning and importance to them. These situations had to occur in a social context, such as a classroom, where students joined in manipulating materials and, thus, creating a community of learners who build their knowledge together. Piaget (1930): The growth of human thought occurs through the construction of knowledge through assimilation and accommodation. Knowledge is not something that individuals gain from the outside rather it is something that they gain through their own active experiences, their own acting on the world physically or mentally to make sense of it. Von Glaserfeld (1984): He sees knowledge as being actively received through the senses or by way of communication and actively constructed by the subject. The subject interprets and constructs a reality based on his or her experiences and interaction with his or her environment. Vygotsky (1962): A person constructs knowledge through social interaction in the context of a culture. Culture and social interaction teaches a person both what to think and how to think. Cunningham and Duffy (1996) stated that learning is an active process of constructing rather than acquiring knowledge. Instruction should be directed towards supporting that construction of knowledge rather than communicating or transmitting knowledge.

The main principle of constructivism is that a person interprets events, objects and perspectives from his or her experiences, mental structures and beliefs. People construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world, through experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences. For example, when we encounter something new, we have to reconcile or settle it with our previous ideas and experiences, maybe changing what we believe, or maybe discarding the new information as irrelevant [Refer to the concepts of assimilation and accommodation

86 Chapter 5: Constructivism and Learning proposed by Piaget which we discussed in Chapter 3]. Thus, based on this principle, knowledge is constructed and not merely reproduced. The knowledge constructed is personal and individualistic. In other words, we as human actively construct knowledge and knowing is an adaptive process in which we make sense of the world on the basis of our experiences, goals, curiosities and beliefs (Wilson and Cole, 1991). Poison! Bites! Kills!

Snake Encounter!!! What is your initial reaction when you encounter a snake? For most people the initial reaction is fear and to run away, even though they have not seen a snake in real-life. For the slightly braver ones, they might come back with a stick or changkul to kill the snake. Why do we fear snakes? Why do we have the urge to kill the creature?

We have constructed the concept of fear of snakes based on our prior knowledge of snakes. This prior knowledge could have been built from what we saw on TV, the movies or stories we have heard about snakes. The concept of fear is not in the snake but created by us based on our belief that snakes are evil and cold-blooded killers capable of dealing quick death in a single venomous strike. When we encounter new information, we relate it to our previous ideas and experiences. We are constantly doing something to the new information and what we already know and in the process create of our own knowledge. To do this, we always are asking questions, exploring and assessing what we know. According to the constructivist perspective, knowledge cannot be imposed or transferred intact from the mind of the knower to the mind of another (see Figure 5.2). If this be the case than learning and teaching cannot be synonymous. Even if we teach very well, students may not learn unless they have constructed their own knowledge. By reflecting on our experiences, we construct our own understanding of the world we live in. Each of us generates our own "rules" and "mental models," which we use to make sense of our

87 Chapter 5: Constructivism and Learning experiences. Learning, therefore, is simply the process of adjusting our mental models to accommodate new experiences.

Socrates said; I only wish that wisdom were the kind of thing one could share by sitting next to someone if it flowed, for instance, from the one that was full to the one that was empty, like the water in two cups finding its level through a piece of worsted (Symposium, 175d).

Figure 5.1 The Greek philosopher Socrates, talking with some of his students in Athens

5.1 ACTIVITY

Even if we teach very well, students may not learn unless they have constructed their own knowledge To what extent do you agree with the above statement? Comment on the statement by Socrates in Figure 5.1. 5.3 SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM Constructivism promotes social and communication skills by creating a classroom environment that emphasises collaboration and exchange of ideas. Students must learn how to articulate their ideas clearly as well as to collaborate on tasks effectively by sharing in group projects. Students must therefore exchange ideas and so must learn to "negotiate" with others and to evaluate their contributions in a socially acceptable manner. This is essential to success in the real world, since they

88 Chapter 5: Constructivism and Learning will always be exposed to a variety of experiences in which they will have to cooperate and navigate among the ideas of others. The Russian scholar, Lev Vygotsky contributed much towards our understanding of an important aspect of constructivism. His career was cut short by his death from tuberculosis in 1934 at the age of 38. His theory was made famous when his books Thought and Language (1962) and Mind in Society (1978) were translated into English. His ideas formed the basis for social constructivism which emphasised the importance of social interaction and culture in the construction of knowledge and learning. According to him knowledge and learning are constructed through humans interacting with one another. Knowledge is a human product that is socially and culturally constructed (Gredler, 1997).
Lev Vygotsky 1896-1934 Why is there a rainbow Because it just rained. But I only see a rainbow when it is sunny.

Youre right there must be sun.

1 So we need sun and rain for a rainbow!

Figure 5.2 Social Construction of Knowledge about Rainbows

[source: Beaumie Kim (2001). Social
3 constructivism. In M. Orey (Ed). Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching and technology. http://www.coe.uga.edu/epltt/SocialConstructivism. htm]

89 Chapter 5: Constructivism and Learning Learning is not simply the assimilation and accommodation of new knowledge but acquired by actual relationships between learners. Figure 5.2 shows a simple example of how knowledge about a rainbow is socially constructed from the interaction between two children. The two children share their personal meaning of a rainbow and through the process of negotiation shape their understanding of rainbows. Vygotsky believed strongly that language and culture play an important role in the intellectual development of humans. Language and culture are the frameworks through which humans experience, communicate and understand phenomena. For example, when you see the colours red, yellow or white in the environment, you do not merely see colours but more importantly the meaning associated with the colours. You may associate the colour white with clean, pure, reflects light and so forth which are determined by your culture. 5.4 ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT Based on his believe that learning is a collaborative process and influenced by culture, he distinguished two levels of development (see Figure 5.3). The level of Actual Development is the level of development that the learner has already reached. It is the level at which the learner is capable of solving problems independently. The level of Potential Development is the level of development that learners are not capable of doing at the moment but have the potential to do so. In between the actual and the potential level, Vygotsky proposed what is called the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). "Proximal" simply means "next". The three stages may be viewed as a check-list of what learners can do alone (Actual) what learners can do with help (ZPD) what learners cannot yet do (Potential)

dProximall
POTENTIAL DEVELOPMENT: ACTUAL DEVELOPMENT : The Learners present abilities Zone of proximal development (ZPD) moment Beyond the reach of learners at the present moment

Figure 5.3 Zone of Proximal Development

5.1 5.1 a) What is constructivism? a) What is constructivism? b) How constructivism different from behaviourism? b) How constructivism different from behaviourism?

90 Chapter 5: Constructivism and Learning The ZPD is not a permanent state a) What is social constructivism? but is the next b) Explain the zone of proximal development. How would you step towards apply it in teaching? learners being able to do something on their own. The key is to "stretch" learners to know their ZPD so that teachers and other adults can lead them towards realising their potential. He observed that when children were tested on tasks on their own, they rarely did as well as when they were working in collaboration with an adult. Hence, for him, the development of language and articulation of ideas was
SELF-CHECK 5.1

central to learning and development. 5.4 SCAFFOLDING INSTRUCTION

You would have observed that at any construction of a high rise building, a series of structures called scaffolding are erected. This is to which permit workers to carry out their work in high places. When the building is complete, the scaffolding is removed. Scaffolding instruction originated from Vygotskys ideas on learning. The term has become a useful metaphor to describe how teachers help students in learning. Generally, teachers would focus on the ZPD. Teaching or instruction that falls outside the zone (above or below a student's ZPD will not contribute to the intellectual development of students. Why? It would be pointless to focus on what learners can do or what learners cannot yet do. So, the most logical step would be for the teacher to mediate between learners actual Figure 5.4. Teacher scaffolding development and potential development; i.e. the ZPD. students by constantly The teacher should act as a scaffold, challenging them providing the support necessary for learners to proceed towards the next stage or level and independently complete the task (see Figure 5.4). To effectively scaffold a student, a teacher should stay one step ahead of the student, always challenging him or her to reach beyond his or her current ability level. The challenge for the teacher, then, is to find the optimal balance between supporting the student and pushing the student to act independently. The role of the teacher is not teaching students how to perform a task, but to refine their thinking through engagement and enhancing their performance. The teacher continually adjusts the level and amount of help in response to the learners level of performance. The purpose of scaffolding is to instil the skills necessary for

91 Chapter 5: Constructivism and Learning independent learning in the future. To effectively scaffold students within their ZPDs, a teacher could also model the behaviours needed. For example; The teacher could model a particular skill that students are weak in Students imitate the teachers behaviour in performing the skill Students practice the skill until it is mastered by all in the classroom.

Scaffolding Activities Motivating learners to be interested in the task Simplify the task to make it more manageable and achievable Keep students on task by focusing on the goals and the path to choose Indicate the differences between the learners work and the desired standard Reduce confusion, frustration and risk by providing clear instructions towards meeting expectations Model the skills required So, scaffolding instruction guides learners towards independent and selfregulated SELF-CHECK 5.1 competence of skills. Since the work that learners have to a) How do you scaffold instruction? perform are more structured and focused time b) What are some benefits of scaffolding instruction? on task is increased and c) Is scaffolding the same as giving tuition? Explain efficiency in completing the task is increased. Through the structure provided by scaffolding, students spend less time searching and more time on learning and discovering, resulting in quicker learning (McKenzie, 2000). Scaffolding instruction minimises the level of frustration among

learners, especially among academically weak learners who become frustrated very easily, then shut down and refuse to participate in further learning.

5.5 CONSTRUCTIVISM APPLIED TO TEACHING

92 Chapter 5: Constructivism and Learning Let us now examine how constructivism operates applies to teaching. As mentioned earlier, constructivism argues that learners construct knowledge individually and socially. Teaching in a non-constructivist setting, involves imparting a body of knowledge that has been predetermined by the curriculum. As teachers, we present this information to learners because we believe that is what they should know. We may engage them in activities and hands-on learning, with opportunities to experiment and manipulate objects. But, our main purpose is still to show learners how the facts, concepts and principles of a body of knowledge are organised and applied. In short, we merely present content and at no point do we encourage them to construct their own knowledge or understanding of the facts, concepts and principles presented.
In 1786, Francis Light opened Penang. The island was chosen because of its location and deep water harbour.

Penang has beautiful beaches

Figure 5.5 The Teacher presenting information and the learner constructing his own conception of the information In Figure 5.5, the teacher is talking about Francis Light and the opening of Penang. The learner is constructing his own meaning or conception of the information presented about Penang. Most probably, the teacher is not aware of the learners own construction of meaning. If we accept the constructivist theory of learning, teachers have to accept that there is no such thing as knowledge out there that is independent of the learner, but only knowledge learners construct for themselves as they learn. This may be very much different from what teachers usually do in the classroom. The constructivist position requires that teachers provide learners with the opportunity to interact with the information presented and allow them to construct their own meaning or interpretation of the information. However, the teacher cannot assume that all learners have the same background knowledge or experiences on which to build new knowledge. In such situations, the teacher has to design instruction in such a way as to make the missing connections for learners. In other 5.6 A CONSTRUCTIVIST VIEW OF LEARNING

93 Chapter 5: Constructivism and Learning Ernest (1999), Brooks and Brooks (1999) offer the following guiding principles of constructivism. They argue that when applied to the classroom, the concept of learning should be viewed differently (see Figure 5.6). Specifically, Learning should be viewed an active process in which learners receive information and constructs meaning out of the information received. The learner needs to do something, because learning involves the learners engaging with the world.

Learning is an active (mental or physical) People learn to learn as they learn Some principles of learning derived from constructivism Learning involves language Learning is a social activity Learning is contextual Learning needs knowledge Learning takes time Figure 5.6 A Constructivist View of Learning It should be understood that people learn to learn as they learn. In other words, we learn by constructing meaning which in turn influences further learning. For example, if we learn about climate of different countries, we are simultaneously learning the meaning of climate. Each meaning we construct makes us better able to give meaning to other information which can fit a similar pattern. Learning involves language. In other words, the language that we use influences our learning. Language and learning are inextricably intertwined. It is not surprising that many people talk to themselves as they learn. Learning is a social activity. Our learning is closely related with our connection with other human beings (our teachers, our peers, our family, etc). Much of present education is directed towards isolating the learner from social interaction. It is seen as a one-to-one relationship between the learner and the material to be learned. Learning is contextual. We do not learn facts and theories in isolation, but rather we learn in relationship to what we know, what we believe, our prejudices and our fears.

94 Chapter 5: Constructivism and Learning It should be understood that one needs knowledge to learn. It is not possible to absorb new knowledge without having some structure developed from previous knowledge to build on. Therefore, any effort to teach must be connected to the state of the learner. The learner is brought to interact with the information based on the learners previous knowledge. Learning needs time. It takes time to learn because we need to revisit ideas, ponder on them, try them out, play with them and use them. For example, an insight into an idea comes about after long periods of thinking and deliberating.

In short, learning is a search for meaning. Therefore, learning must start with the issues around which students are actively trying to construct meaning. Meaning requires understanding wholes as well as parts. And parts must be understood in the context of wholes. Therefore, the learning process focuses on primary concepts, not isolated facts. In order to teach well, we must understand the mental models that students use to perceive the world and the assumptions they make to support those models. The purpose of learning is for an individual to construct his or her own meaning, not just memorise the "right" answers and regurgitate someone else's meaning. Since education is inherently interdisciplinary, the only valuable way to measure learning is to make the assessment part of the learning process, ensuring it provides students with information on the quality of their learning. 5.7 WHAT HAPPENS IN THE CONSTRUCTIVIST CLASSROOM?

A constructivist classroom is different from non-constructivist classroom. Generally the teacher in the constructivist classroom guides learning, scaffolds instruction, help learners in the zone of proximal development and develops the metacognitive ability of learners [We will discuss metacognition in Chapter 6]. Jacqueline G. Brooks and Martin G. Brooks (1993) offer the following suggestions as to how constructivism is to be applied in the classroom. According to them, in the constructivist classroom: The ideas and opinions of students are respected Students are encouraged to express their opinions, give ideas and comments (see Figure 5.7). This encourages independent thinking among students who take responsibility for their own thinking.
Opinion Idea

Commen t

Questio n

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Figure 5.7 Ideas and Opinions of Students are Respected Teacher asks questions. The questions framed encourage students to reflect on their thoughts and attain their own intellectual identity. Sufficient wait time is given for students to respond to questions. Students engage in dialogue with the teacher. o Encourage students to engage in dialogue, both with you and one another. Classrooms discourage dialogue and teachers often monopolise the talking and teaching becomes a lecture. o Draw students our especially those who are shy or inarticulate. Students discuss in groups Through group discussions, students change or reinforce their ideas. If they have the chance to present what they think and hear others' ideas, students can build a personal knowledge base that they understand. Only when they feel comfortable enough to express their ideas will meaningful classroom dialogue occur. Prompt inquiry by engaging in tasks requiring higher-level thinking o The questions asked go beyond simple factual response. o Students are encouraged to make connections, summarise information, analyse, predict and defend their ideas. o Students generate and test their hypotheses by manipulating raw data, primary sources and physical materials. For example, community resources provide opportunities for students to collect and classify primary material. o Students are viewed as thinkers with emerging theories about the world.
Opinions and ideas of Opinions and ideas of students are accepted students are accepted

Students enjoy their Students enjoy their work and want to learn work and want to learn

Students become Students become interested in what is being interested in what is being studied studied

Students take Students take ownership of what is ownership of what is being studied being studied

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Figure 5.8 The Benefits of Student Involvement in Learning What are the benefits of constructivism? Advocates of constructivism argue that when the SELF-CHECK 5.2 opinions and ideas of students are A a) How is constructivist teaching different from traditional accepted, they will teaching? become more involved and interested in what is being studied b) What problems do you foresee in applying constructivist (see Figure 5.8). When students become involved and interested, they will take ownership in what is principles being studied and enjoy their work and want to learn. Constructivist in the classroom? teaching fosters critical and creates active and motivated learners (Zemelman, Daniels and Hyde, 1993). Constructivist teaching creates learners who are autonomous, inquisitive thinkers

who question, investigate and reason.

In its strict sense, CONSTRUCTIVISM: Curriculum Constructivism calls for the elimination of a standardised curriculum. Instead, it promotes using curricula customized to the students' prior knowledge. Also, it emphasizes hands-on problem solving. Instruction Under the theory of constructivism, educators focus on making connections between facts and fostering new understanding in students. Instructors tailor their teaching strategies to student responses and encourage students to analyse, interpret, and predict information. Teachers also rely heavily on openended questions and promote extensive dialogue among students. Assessment Constructivism calls for the elimination of grades and standardized testing. Instead, assessment becomes part of the learning process so that students play a larger role in judging their own progress.

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5.2 ACTIVITY

Comment on the implication of constructivism on the curriculum, instruction and assessment of your subject area as stated above.

5.8 CASE STUDY: Teaching Science from a Constructivist Perspective

Non-Constructivist Science Teaching Teaching of science tends to resemble a one-person show with a captive audience. Lessons are usually driven by teacher-talk and depend heavily textbooks and notes for the structure of the course. There is the idea that there is a fixed world of knowledge that the student must know. Information is divided into parts which are built into a whole concept. Teachers serve as pipeline and seek to transfer their thought and meanings to the passive student. There is little room for student-initiated questions, independent thought or interaction between students. Cook book experiments are common where students follow closely the instructions on what hypotheses to test and method of carrying out experiments. The goal of the learner is to regurgitate the accepted explanation or methodology presented by the teacher. Constructivist Science Teaching: The teacher organises information around problems, questions and issues in order to engage the interest of students. eg. do a demonstration, show a short film, present data. Next, present some information or data that does not fit with their existing understanding. Students break up into small groups to formulate their own hypotheses and experiments. They plan their own investigation and activities to resolve the

We have all been in a classroom where the teacher asks question and students hands fly up excitedly because they feel they know the answer. The teacher then looks around the room and chooses as student 98 She and Learning Chapter 5: Constructivismanswers, and the teacher says, No. The teacher then calls on another student who answers and the discrepancy between but not quite. The teacher then proceeds to all teacher says, Closethe new information presented and their previous learning and third student on a understanding. who answers and then the teacher replies, Yes, is the right answer! is teacher from group to group asking probing that The role of the teacherThe to move has conveyed many messages questions that the classroom in this to an understanding of the concept by conducting aid students in coming manner. The student now knows or principle being studies. The teacher is a resource and facilitator. that there is one answer to the teachers questions and that they have to find that one right experimentation, the small groups share their ideas After sufficient time for answer. Another thing is that students now knowconclusions put themselvesthe risk if The idea is their hand, a consensus and that they with the rest of at class. they raise to come to unless they are certain that they have and principles emerge from the discussions and about what they learned. Concepts the right answer.

they suggest how the concepts and skills may be applied to new situations. a) Is this an example of a constructivist classroom? b) If this was a constructivist classroom, how would it be different?

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SUMMARY

Constructivism is not a new concept and its roots can be traced to the work of 18th century philosopher Giambattista Vico. Knowledge is not something that individuals gain from the outside rather it is something that they gain through their own active experiences. Constructivism promotes social and communication skills by creating a classroom environment that emphasises collaboration and exchange of ideas. Social constructivism: A person constructs knowledge through social interaction in the context of a culture. Learning is a search for meaning. In order to teach well, we must understand the mental models that students use to perceive the world and the assumptions they make to support those models. The constructivist position requires that teachers provide learners with the opportunity to interact with the information presented and allow them to construct their own meaning or interpretation of the information. Learning should be viewed an active process in which learners receive information and constructs meaning out of the information received. Benefits of constructivism: When students become involved and interested, they will take ownership in what is being studied and enjoy their work and want to learn.

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KEY TERMS Constructivism Zone of proximal development Constructivist principles of learning Construction of knowledge Social constructivism Scaffolding instruction Search for meaning

REFERNCES: Bransford, J., Brown, A., Cocking, R. (2000). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Bruner, J. (1990). Acts of meaning. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press Brooks, J.G. and M.G. Brooks (1993) In Search Of Understanding: The Case For Constructivist Classrooms. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1993. Ernest, P. (1991) Philosophy of Mathematics Education, London: Falmer. Glasersfeld, E. von (1983) Learning as a Constructive Activity, in Proceedings of PME-NA, Vol.1, 41-69.

101 Chapter 5: Constructivism and Learning Kearsley, G. (1994, 1999). Explorations in learning & instruction: The theory into practice database. Washington, DC: George Washington University. Retrieved May 1999, from http://www.gwu.edu/~tip/ McKenzie, W. (2000). Are you a techno-constructivist?. Retrieved April 21, 2008, from Education Word Website: http://www.education-world.com/a_tech/tech005.shtml Piaget, J. (1972). The psychology of the child. New York: Basic Books. Vygotsky, L.S. (1962). Thought and Language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind in Society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press Wertsch, J.V. (1985). Cultural, Communication, and Cognition: Vygotskian Perspectives. Cambridge University Press. Wilson, B. G., & Cole, P. (1991). A review of cognitive teaching models. Educational Technology Reseach & Development, 39 (4), 47-63. Winn, W. (1993). A constructivist critique of the assumptions of instructional design. In T. M. Duffy, J. Lowyck, & D. H. Jonassen (Eds.), Designing environments for constructive learning (pp. 189-212). Berlin: SpringerVerlag. Zemelman, S., Daniels, H. and Hyde, A. (1993). Best Practice: New Standards for Teaching and Learning in America's Schools. Portsmouth: Heinemann.