Error Correction

Training material of NHK-CTI
Error Detection and

Error Correction
2007.7.24
NHK Communications Training Institute
Hideo Tsuji tsuji@nhk-cti.jp
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Contents Training material of NHK-CTI
Conception of error correction
Fundamental of error correction
Various error correction codes
Applications in broadcasting field
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Concept of error Training material of NHK-CTI
correction
3
Program production to transmission Training material of NHK-CTI
for broadcasting
Recording
Transmission
Editing
Studio
Location Reception
Field pick up
live
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Error correction on channel Training material of NHK-CTI
Digital Data reduction Convert to suitable signal for

data transmission
Noise
Information Source Channel
(Error)
(Video/audio/ coding Modulation
coding
data etc.
Channel
(Satellite,
Terrestrial)
Received Source Channel

Demodulation
information decoding decoding
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Example of error in digital signal Training material of NHK-CTI
Original
signal 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0
Small Threshold
noise level
0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0
Large Threshold
noise level
0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0
Advantage of digitalization
Only the distinction between 0 and 1, Strong against noise → The high quality
Error correction technology
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Error factor generated on the channel Training material of NHK-CTI
Random error
Irregularly and disorderly generated in the
transmission bit sequence
Caused by a thermal noise and a wave distortion.
Burst error
Concentrate partially and occur continuously
Caused by loss of synchronization, impulse noise and
persistent attenuation like fading, etc.
Quality
Evaluated by BER (Bit Error Rate)
Ex.10-3 , 10-6
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Error control method in communication system Training material of NHK-CTI
Reducing method of noise influence

Boost up power
Waste of energy
Cause probability of interference
Add redundancy to the transmission data according
to the rule and transmit
Roughly there are two methods to control error on
channel
ARQ (Automatic Repeat Request)
Issue the repeat request when the transmission error is detected on
the reception side.
FEC (Forward Error Correction)
Correct the error on the reception side while decoding
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ARQ & FEC Training material of NHK-CTI
ARQ (Automatic Repeat Request)

If a receiver detects an error, the receiver requests
retransmission to the transmitter
Difficulty in dealing with a lot of receivers
Used by the packet type communication including TCP/IP
FEC: Forward Error Correction
If a receiver detects an error, the receiver corrects using
redundant data
Used by broadcasting, mobile communication and storage
media (DVD/CD-ROM)
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Sequence of ARQ & FEC Training material of NHK-CTI
ARQ
TX data-1 data-2 data-2 data-3

ACK NAK ACK
RX data-1 data-2 data-2 data-3 Time
No error Error detect No error No error
FEC
TX data-1 data-2 data-3
RX data-1 data-2 data-3 Time

Error Error Error
correction correction correction
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Feature of ARQ & FEC Training material of NHK-CTI
ARQ FEC
Return circuit is not

High reliability
needed
Strong against unexpected
Advantage Easy control as the system
error
Simple decoder Small delay
Difficult to deal with a

Return circuit is needed
very long burst error
Disadvantage Sometime large delay Large redundancy
Necessary to repeat sending

Complex decoder
under the bad channel
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Error correction scheme Training material of NHK-CTI
Principle of error correction

Error correction can be performed adding
redundancy to the information transmitted
Encoder
Add redundancy (parity check bits) under some rule
Decoder
Detect and correct errors using parity check bits
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What is error detection and error Training material of NHK-CTI
correction?
Error may occur during transmission
impossible decoding the data
External Noise
Coding Decoding
A 0100 010? ?
Add redundant data before transmission to

detect/correct error when decoding
Error corrective coding Error Correction
A 0100 0100 010 010? 010 0100 A
Decoding
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Parity check Training material of NHK-CTI
Add a parity bit to information data according to

the following rule
if No. of “1” in the data is odd, add a parity bit “1”
if No. of “1” in the data is even, add a parity bit “0”
Able to detect 1 bit error
Information sequence Transmitted sequence Received sequence
10010001 10010001 1 100110011 !

00101110 00101110 0 101011000 ?
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Example of parity check code (ASCII) Training material of NHK-CTI
ASCII stands for American Standard Code for

Information Interchange
Comprised of 7 digits (0 to 127)d
Add 1 bit for parity check comprising 8 bits
Character “A” is expressed by (100 0001) assii
for even parity (0100 0001)
for odd parity (1100 0001)
Receiver side check the number of “1” every 8
bit
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ASCII code Training material of NHK-CTI
Character Binary Decimal Hexa-decimal

A 100 0001 65 41
B 100 0010 66 42
C 100 0011 67 43
D 100 0100 68 44
E 100 0101 69 45
F 100 0110 70 46
Character Binary Decimal Hexa-decimal

a 110 0001 97 61
b 110 0010 98 62
c 110 0011 99 63
d 110 0100 100 64
e 110 0101 101 65
f 110 0110 102 66
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Example of checksum (ISBN) Training material of NHK-CTI
ISBN (International Standard Book Number)

The last digit is a check digit
Calculation
(modulus 11 with weights 10-2)
4-87966-931-?
4x10+8x9+7x8+9x7+6x6+6x5+9x4+3x3+1x2
= 40 +72 +56 +63 +36 +30 +36 +9 +2
=344
344 ⁄ 11 = 31 … 3
11-3 = 8 check digit is 8
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Example of error detective code Training material of NHK-CTI
Is “0-440-21861-5” a correct ISBN code?

0x10+4x9+4x8+0x7+2x6+1x5+8x4+6x3+1x2
= 0 +36 +32 +0 +12 +5 +32 +18 +2
=137
137 ⁄ 11 = 12 … 5
11-5 = 6 calculated check digit is 6
this code is wrong!
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Example of errors (VTR) Training material of NHK-CTI
Expand a portion of image
Error
correction
Black and white spots are errors

(In case of pixel-wise coding )
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Example of errors (broadcasting) Training material of NHK-CTI
Expand a portion of image
Error
correction
Error is observed like a rectangular mass (block)
(In case of MPEG-2 TS Video coding)
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Example of errors Training material of NHK-CTI
Apart Spatially / Temporally
Original message Transmission/ Received message

Recoding
“This is a pen” “This is b pen”

≠
Error
1001101011 1011101011
In digital, 0→1,1→0
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Error detection (example of sentence) Training material of NHK-CTI
Error
Original Recognized
Received message
message message
“This is a pen” “This is a pbn” ?
No word
Error detect Can not correct
Candidate of pbn is pen, pan, pun,pin etc.

Impossible to correct, because there are several
candidates similar to pbn.
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Error correction (example of sentence) Training material of NHK-CTI
Error
Original Recognized
Received message
message message
“This is a pen” “This is b pen” “This is a pen”
Grammar error
Error detect Correct
We can correct the sentence, because if you know

the grammar.
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Error in digital transmission Training material of NHK-CTI
Error
Original Recognized
Received sequence
sequence sequence
1001101011 1011101011 ??
Can not detect error Can not correct
It is unknown whether this is right or not,

because we have no rule to check it.
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Example of creating codewords Training material of NHK-CTI
(digital transmission)
Rule: Add one bit to the original message, and

make the number of “1” even number.
Original Add
［Number of “1”］ Codeword ［number of “1”］
sequence bit
sequence
0101 ［2(even)］ 0 01010 ［2(even)］
+ =
1011 ［3(odd)］ 1 10111 ［4（even）］
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Error detection (digital transmission) Training material of NHK-CTI
Error
Original Codeword Received Recognized
sequence sequence sequence sequence
［number of “1”］
0101 01010 01110 ［3(odd)］ ?
1011 10111 10101 ［3(odd)］ ?
even number of “1” Error detect Can not correct
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Example of creating codewords Training material of NHK-CTI
(digital transmission)
Rule: Add the same two bits to the original
one bit
Original bit Add bits Codewords

sequence
0 + 00 000
=
1 11 111
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Error correction (digital transmission) Training material of NHK-CTI
Error
bit sequence sequence sequence
0 000 001 000 0

1 111 110 111 1
0 000 100 000 0
1 111 101 111 1
1 111 011 111 1
find the
Invalid
nearest
codeword
codeword
000 or 111 Error detect Correct
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Example of error correction Training material of NHK-CTI
X11 X12 X13 H1 1.Decide all H, as the sum of row will

be even number
X21 X22 X23 H2 2.Decide all V, as the sum of column
X31 X32 X33 H3 will be even number
3. Decide P, as the sum of H, V, and P
V1 V2 V3 P will be even number
0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 ← Odd number
1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
↑
Odd number
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Key point Training material of NHK-CTI
For error correction or detection,
Create codeword from information bits

(original message) under some rule.
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Is error correcting Training material of NHK-CTI
code almighty?
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Misscorrection (example of sentence) Training material of NHK-CTI
Error
Original Recognized
Received message
message message
“This is a pen” “This is a pbn” “This is a pun”
No word
Error detect Try to correct
Candidate of pbn is pen, pan, pun,pin etc.

Force to correct the nearest word
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Error detection (digital transmission) Training material of NHK-CTI

bit sequence sequence sequence
0 000 2 bits 101 Misscorrection 111 1

1 111 1 bit 110 111 1
0 000 1 bit 100 Correct 000 0
1 111 1 bit 101 properly 111 1
1 111 1 bit 011 111 1
find the nearest codeword
Invalid codeword
000 or 111 Error detect

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Undetected error (example of sentence) Training material of NHK-CTI
Error
Original Recognized
Received message
message message
“This is a pen” “This is a pun” “This is a pun”
The grammar is right
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Undetected error (digital transmission) Training material of NHK-CTI
Error
sequence sequence sequence sequence
［number of “1”］
0101 01010 11110 ［4(even)］ 1111
1011 10111 10100 ［2(even)］ 1010
Undetected error
even number of “1” number of “1” is even.

These are codewords.
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Number of correctable errors is finite.

If the number of errors exceeds the error
correction capability,
Misscorrection
Undetected error might occur
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Fundamental of Training material of NHK-CTI
error correction
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Example of codewords and Hamming distance Training material of NHK-CTI
Codewords by even parity

Add Codeword
Information ［Number of “1”］ bit ［number of “1”］
00 ［0(even)］ 0 000 ［0(even)］
01 ［1(odd)］ 1 011 ［2(even)］
+ ＝
10 ［1(odd)］ 1 101 ［2 (even) ］
11 ［2(even)］ 0 110 ［2 (even) ］
Hamming distance: dH
Number of different bits between the two corresponding
codewords.
Codeword 1 0 1
dH=2
Codeword 1 1 0 38
Example of codewords and Hamming distance Training material of NHK-CTI
Minimum Hamming distance

Minimum value of Hamming distance of all codewords.
Codewords
All the codewords are 2bit or more different.
000
011
Minimum Hamming distance =2
101
110
It doesn't become a codeword by one bit error.
One bit error can be detected.

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Geometrical allocation of codewords Training material of NHK-CTI
Z
(001) (011)
Codeword
000 011
101 110 (101) (111)
Codeword
Invalid codeword (000) (010) Y
dH:Hamming distance
(100) (110)
X dH=1
In case of 1 bad bit →Code of one Hamming distance =Invalid codeword
In case of 2 bad bit →Code of two Hamming distance =Another codeword
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Image of code space Training material of NHK-CTI
Code space (finite)
In case of Hamming code (7,4)

all number of word:128=(27),
codeword:16(=24),
Invalid codeword: 112=(128-16)
Invalid codeword Codeword
Minimum Hamming distance dmin:

Smallest Hamming distance between any pairs of code vectors in the code
Determine error detecting or error correcting capability
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Error detection and minimum Hamming distance Training material of NHK-CTI
Hamming code (7,4) minimum Hamming distance=3

0000 000 1000 101
0001 011 1001 110
0010 110 1010 011 Can not become codeword within
0011 101 1011 000 2bit errors
0100 111 1100 010
0101 100 1101 001
0110 001 1110 100
0111 010 1111 111 Possible 2bit error detection
Information, Parity
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Error detection and minimum Hamming distance Training material of NHK-CTI
Cn=(x1,x2,・・,xN）
C3 dmin≧s+1
s: Number of error detecting
capability
Error detection area

Possible to detect less than
s 1 or equal s bits
C1 C2
dmin Codeword
Invalid codeword
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Error correction and minimum Hamming distance Training material of NHK-CTI
Hamming code (7,4) minimum Hamming distance=3

0000 000 1000 101
0001 011 1001 110 The nearest codeword becomes
0010 110 1010 011 the codeword as an original
0011 101 1011 000 codeword in single bit error
0100 111 1100 010
0101 100 1101 001
0110 001 1110 100
0111 010 Possible single error correction
1111 111
Information, Parity
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Error correction and minimum Hamming distance Training material of NHK-CTI
Cn=(x1,x2,・・,xN）
C3 dmin≧2t+1
t: Number of error
correcting capability
Error correction area
Possible to correct less
than or equal t bits
t 1 t
Codeword
C1 C2
dmin Invalid codeword
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Various error Training material of NHK-CTI
correction codes
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Classification of error correction code Training material of NHK-CTI
Hamming code
BCH code
Random error
correction code Golay code
Difference-set cyclic code

Block code
Burst error Reed-Solomn code
correction code Fire code
Wyner-Ash code
Random error Punctured code /

correction code Viterbi decode
Sequential decode
Convolutional code
Burst error Hangelberger code
correction code Iwatare code
Turbo code/
Soft decision decode
Concatenated code
117 Product code 47
Type of error correction code

Block code Convolutional code
Information
Codeword
Coding is done independently from The information coded in the

other blocks past influences on the current
Information message is divided into coding
the constant length The error correction capability
Able to be a system based on the is higher than the block coding
algebra Viterbi decoding is used for
When t is assumed to be a capable decoding
number of error corrections, the block
code is often written as (n,k,t). 48
Block code & Convolutional code

Block codeword c(n,k) n
k n-k
Key word; code rate: k/n
Information bit Check bit
Function
Convolutinal coder
Key word; code rate:1/2, constraint length:7
D Delay ＋ Modulo-2 addition
Xoutput
＋
G1=171oct
Input D D D D D D
G2=133oct
＋
113 Youtput 49
Expression of polynomial Training material of NHK-CTI
The coefficient of n-
n-th power of x in polynomial
expression shows the corresponding bit position
in the sequence
Code comprising of n bit sequence c=(c1, c2, c3, ･････, cn)

is expressed by following polynomial
n-1 n-2
c(x) = c1x + c2 x + ⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅ + cn-1x + cn
Example c=(1,1,0,0,0,1)
5 4
c(x) = x + x + 1
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Operation for code processing Training material of NHK-CTI
Operation 0,1,,,,Xn（ n=0,1,2,3，….）

Calculation of 0 and 1
(Addition) 0+0=0, 0+1=1, 1+0=1,1+1=0

modulo2,Exclusive OR
(Multiplication) 0×0=0, 0×1=0, 1×0=0, 1×1=1
Operation including X
(Addition ) 0+X=X, 1+X=1+X, X+X=0
(Multiplication) 0×X=0, 1×X =X, X×X = X2
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Encoding single error detection Training material of NHK-CTI
Information bit sequence i = (i 1 , i 2 ,⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅, i k )

Codeword sequence c = (c 1 , c 2 ,⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅, c k , c k + 1 )
Redundant bit
c1 = i1
Coding c2 = i2
⋅
ck = ik
Parity check bit ck + 1 = c1 + c2 + ⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅ + ck
Parity check equation c 1 + c 2 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + c k + c k + 1 = 0
Parity check equation is necessary and sufficient
condition to be a codeword
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Hamming code Training material of NHK-CTI
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Hamming code (7,4) Training material of NHK-CTI
Information bit sequence i = (i 1 , i 2 , i 3 , i 4 )

Codeword sequence c = (c 1, c 2, c 3, c 4, c 5, c 6, c 7)
c1 = i1
Coding
c2 = i2
c3 = i3
c4 = i4
c5 = c 1 + c 2 + c3
Parity check bit c6 = c2 + c3 + c4
c7 = c1 + c2 + c4
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How to find parity check bits? Training material of NHK-CTI
C1 C2 C1+C3 C1+C2+C4
1011 C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7
C1 0 C1 C1
C2 C1＋C3 C１＋C4 C5
C2 0 C2 C2
C１＋C3 C1＋C2＋C4 C2＋C5 C6
C１＋C3 0 C１＋C3 C1＋C3
C1＋C2＋C4 C1＋C2＋C3＋C5 C1＋C3＋C6 C7
C1＋C2＋C4 0 C1＋C2＋C4 C1＋C2＋C4
C1＋C2＋C3＋C5 C2＋C3＋C4+C6 C1＋C2＋C4＋C7
The codeword is divisible by the generator bit sequence, therefore

C1＋C2＋C3＋C5 ＝0 C2＋C3＋C4+C6 ＝0 C1＋C2 ＋C4＋C7 ＝0
Therefore parity check bit becomes as follows
C5 ＝ C1＋C2＋C3 C6 ＝ C2＋C3＋C4 C7 ＝ C1＋C2 ＋C4
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Parity check equation Training material of NHK-CTI
Transform the parity check equation

The necessary and sufficient condition to be
a codeword is “parity check equation =0”
Hamming (7,4) parity check equation
c1 + c2 + c3 + c5 =0
c2 + c3 + c4 + c6 = 0
c1 + c2 + c4 + c7 = 0
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Channel model Training material of NHK-CTI
Noise source Error pattern

e(0,0,1,0,0)
Transmitted sequence Received sequence
c(1,0,1,1,1) r=c+e
c(1,0,0,1,1)
Received sequence r = c + e
= (c1 + e1, c2 + e2, ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ , ck + 1 + ek + 1)
= (r1, r2, ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ , rk + 1)
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Syndrome of Hamming code (7,4) Training material of NHK-CTI
Syndrome s：
Syndrome (s) is the substitution of the element in
received sequence (r) for the parity check equation
s1 = r1 + r2 + r3 + r5
= c1 + e1 + c2 + e2 + c3 + e3 + c5 + e5
= e1 + e2 + e3 + e5
s2 = r2 + r3 + r4 + r6
= c2 + e2 + c3 + e3 + c4 + e4 + c6 + e6
= e2 + e3 + e4 + e6
s3 = r1 + r2 + r4 + r7
= c1 + e1 + c2 + e2 + c4 + e4 + c7 + e7
= e1 + e2 + e4 + e7
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Syndrome for single error Training material of NHK-CTI
Error pattern Syndrome
e1 e2 e3 e4 e5 e6 e7 s1 s2 s3
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Error patterns are substituted into the previous page syndrome S1, S2, S3,
then obtain Syndrome pattern
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Example of Hamming code (7,4)

Information code Parity code
p1 = a 1 ⊕ a 2 ⊕ a 3
a1 a2 a3 a4 p1 p2 p3 p2 = a2 ⊕ a3 ⊕ a4
p 3 = a1 ⊕ a 2 ⊕ a4
1 0 1 1 0 0 0
S1 S2 S3 Error position
Transmission code 1 0 1 a1
1 1 1 a2
Degradation Error
1 1 0 a3
through channel detect
0 1 1 a4
Reception code Syndrome 1 0 0 P1
a1 a2 a3 a4 p1 p2 p3 s1 s2 s3 0 1 0 P2
Error
0 0 1 P3 correct
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0
0 0 0 None
(0 1)
+
q1 = a1 ⊕ a 2 ⊕ a 3 +
q2 = a 2 ⊕ a3 ⊕ a4 Detection of bit error
+
q 3 = a1 ⊕ a 2 ⊕ a4 position by the
1 1 0 Syndrome value
q1 q2 q3
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Example of Hamming coder Training material of NHK-CTI
C4 c4
c3 c3
c2 c2
c1 c1
c7
c6
c5
61
Example of Hamming decoder Training material of NHK-CTI
c4 c4
c3 c3
c2 c2
c1 c1
c7
c6
c5
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Important point (CRC) Training material of NHK-CTI
As an example of the rule, if the information

polynomial is divided by some signal
(generator polynomial) and the remainder is
added to the information, information can be
divisible. CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check)
divisible → No error
indivisible → Error
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Example of CRC Training material of NHK-CTI
Principal
Information desired to transmit data is 5,678
As a rule, decide divisor as 98 beforehand
2 digits redundant data is added 5,678 567,800
Divide 567,800 by 98, remainder becomes 86
Add (98-86=12) to the 567,800
567,800+12=567,812 is divisible by 98
Transmitting information is 567,812
In receiver side, divide the received data by 98, if there is
no remainder, no error, it is true data, discard 2bit from
LSB,
...........otherwise erroneous data
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Coding and decoding by generator polynomial Training material of NHK-CTI
Encoding
Encode codeword polynomial c(x) which is divisible by
generator polynomial g(x)
n−k
c( x) = x i( x) + p( x) = q( x) g ( x)
Decoding
Divide received polynomial r(x) by g(x), which contains error
polynomial e(x),
s ( x ) = r ( x ) mod g ( x ) = { c ( x ) + e( x ) }mod g ( x )
= e(x) mod g(x)
From syndrome polynomial s(x), find the syndrome pattern and
correct the reception message and get the right codeword
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How to create CRC Training material of NHK-CTI
i(x): Information polynomial i (i1,12,,,,ik:kbits)

f(x): Shift i(x) to the left by (n-k) bits for CRC (n-
k)bits, f(x)=xn-ki(x)
If f(x) is divide by generator polynomial g(x), then
the quotient is q(x) and remainder is p(x), therefore
f(x) is expressed f(x)=q(x)g(x)+p(x)
Add both side p(x) to examine the codeword
polynomial c(x)=f(x)+p(x)
Left side f(x)+p(x)= xn-ki(x)+p(x)
Right side q(x)g(x)+p(x)+p(x)=q(x)g(x)
Therefore codeword polynomial c(x)=xn-ki(x)+p(x) is divisible by g(x)
Codeword c (i1,12,,,,ik,,p1p2,,,pn-k:nbits)
66
Example of CRC Training material of NHK-CTI
Information code i=(1,0,1,0)

Polynomial expression of information code
i(x)=x3+x
Shift i(x) by (n-k:3) bit to the left
f(x)=x3i(x)=x6+x4
Divide f(x) by generator polynomial g(x)=x3+x+1
Find the remainder p(x):CRC polynomial
f ( x) x6 + x4
= 3 = x3 + 1 remainder p(x)=x+1
g ( x) x + x + 1
Therefore c(x)=f(x)+p(x)=x6+x4+x+1
Convert to information code c=(1,0,1,0,0,1,1)
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CRC generation circuit Training material of NHK-CTI
1 x x2 Xn-1 Xn
g0 g1 g2 gn-1
Input: f(x) Output: q(x)

D0 D1 Dn
gi coefficient Di shift register modulo2
Generator polynomial g(x)=g0+g1x+g2x2+ +gn-1xn-1+xn

Input:f(x), Output:q(x), Remainder:R(x) D0,D1,D2,,,,Dn
124
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Review of polynomial Training material of NHK-CTI
The coefficient of n-th power of x in polynomial

expression shows the corresponding bit position of the
code sequence
Code sequence c ＝ (c1, c2, c3, ･････, cn) is expressed by
polynomial
c (x ) = c 1 x n -1 + c 2 x n - 2 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + c n -1 x + c n
Information sequence i ＝ (i1, i2, i3, ･････, ik) is expressed by
polynomial
i( x ) = i 1 x k -1 + i 2 x k - 2 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + i k -1 x + i k
Codeword
c( x ) = x n − k i( x )g( x ) + p( x ) p(x): remainder
Generator polynomial 69
Hamming code Training material of NHK-CTI
Capable of single error correction code

Code length n
ik-1 ・・・・ i1 i0 pm-1 ・ p1 p0
Information bit length: k Parity bit length: m
Code length n = 2r - 1（bit）

Information bit length k = n - m（bit）
Parity bit length m = rt （bit）
Minimum length dmin = 2t + 1 = 3 （bit） ( t = 1)
r：Integer of three or more

t：Number of error correcting capability
70
Hamming code (7,4) Training material of NHK-CTI
「Hamming code (7,4)」

Code length n = 7，information bit length k = 4，parity bit
length m = 3
Generator polynomial: X3+X+1
Information code Codeword
i3 i2 i1 i0 i3 i2 i1 i0 p2 p1 p0
i3 ii2 i1 i0 000
remainder p=（p2 p1 p0）
1011
Expression of generator polynomial

71
How to find parity check bit Training material of NHK-CTI
Information bit sequence (i3 i2 i1 i0)) is shifted to the left by

three bits, it becomes (i3 i2 i1 i0 000), then divide it by
generator polynomial, and find remainder
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1 (i3) (i2) (i1) (i0) (p2) (p1) (p0)
1 0 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1
Information bit
0 1 1
Parity check bit
Codewords is 1010011
72
Hamming codeword (7,4) Training material of NHK-CTI
Information bit Codeword

i3 i2 i1 i0 i3 i2 i1 i0 p2 p1 p0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1
0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0
1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
73
Error example in Hamming code (7,4) Training material of NHK-CTI
Information bit sequence (1010)→codeword sequence (1010011)

If error is generated to the first bit
Codeword (1010011) →(0010011)
Divide by generator polynomial: 0010011
(1011)→ remainder (101) - 1011
101
If error is generated to the second bit

Codeword (1010011) →(1110011) 1110011
- 1011
Divide by generator polynomial: 101011
(1011) → remainder (111) - 1011
111
74
Single bit error in Hamming code (7,4) Training material of NHK-CTI
Codeword Remainder divided by g(x) when one bit error occurs

i3 i2 i1 i0 p2 p１ p0 i3 error i2 error i1error i0error p2 error p1 error p0 error
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 101 111 110 011 100 010 001
0 0 0 1 0 1 1 101 111 110 011 100 010 001
0 1 1 0 1 1 0 101 111 110 011 100 010 001
0 0 1 1 1 0 1 101 111 110 011 100 010 001
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 101 111 110 011 100 010 001
0 1 0 1 1 0 0 101 111 110 011 100 010 001
0 1 1 0 0 0 1 101 111 110 011 100 010 001
0 1 1 1 0 1 0 101 111 110 011 100 010 001
1 0 0 0 1 0 1 101 111 110 011 100 010 001
101 111 110 011 100 010 001
1 0 0 1 1 1 0 101 111 110 011 100 010 001
1 0 1 0 0 1 1 101 111 110 011 100 010 001
1 0 1 1 0 0 0 101 111 110 011 100 010 001
1 1 0 0 0 1 0 101 111 110 011 100 010 001
1 1 0 1 0 0 1 101 111 110 011 100 010 001
1 1 1 0 1 0 0 101 111 110 011 100 010 001
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 101 111 110 011 100 010 001
75
Error correction by Hamming code Training material of NHK-CTI
Divide received word by generator polynomial
if divisible → No error
if indivisible → Error detected
An erroneous bit position is judged by the form of the

remainder
The error is corrected by reversing (0→1,1→0) the bit of
the erroneous bit position
Possible to correct single error

More than or equal to two bits error
→ misscorrection or undetection
76
Example of Hamming code Training material of NHK-CTI
Single error correction code (dmin=3)
Hamming (7,4)
Generator bit: 「1011」 x3+x+1 dmin=3
Hamming (15,11) Generator

Generator bit: 「10011」 x4+x+1 polynomial
Hamming (31,26)
Generator bit: 「100101」 x5+ x2 +1
77
Eb/No vs BER (Hamming code) Training material of NHK-CTI
10 0
10 -1
10 -2
Bit error rate
10 -3 No coding
H(63,57)
10 -4
H(7,4)
10 -5 2.4dB
0.4dB
(63,57) (7,4)
10 -6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Eb/No (dB) C/N(dB)
78
BER before vs after error correction Training material of NHK-CTI
(Hamming code)
0
Bit error rate after error correction
10
-1
10
-2
10
-3 (63,57)
10
-4
10 (7,4)
-5
10
-6
10 -3 -2 -1
10 10 10
Bit error rate before error correction
79
BCH code
(Bose Chaudhuri
Hochquenghem )
80
BCH code Training material of NHK-CTI
Capable of more than two or equal bits error correction code

The degree of freedom in encoding is high
Code length: n
ik-1 ・・・・ i1 i0 pm-1 ・ p1 p0
Information bit length: k Parity bit length: m

r
Code length n ≦ 2 -１（bit）
Information bit length k=n-m （bit）
Parity bit length m ≦rt （bit）
Minimum distance dmin≧2t + 1 （bit）
r: Integer of more than equal three
t: Number of error correction capability
81
BCH code (15,7) Training material of NHK-CTI
「BCH（15, 7）codeword」 (r=4,t=2)

Code length: n = 15, Information bit length: k = 7, Parity bit
length: m = 8
Generator polynomial：g(x)=g1(x)g3(x)=x8+x7+x6+x4+1
Information bits
i6 i5 i4 i3 i2 i1 i0
Codeword
i6 i5 i4 i3 i2 i1 i0 p7 p6 p5 p4 p3 p2 p1 p0
i6i5i4i3i2i1io00000000
Remainder: R＝p7p6p5p4p3p2p1p0
111010001
82
BCH code (15,7) Training material of NHK-CTI
Bit expression of Generator polynomial:111010001

Generator polynomial: g(x)=x8+x7+x6+x4+1
=(x4+x+1)(x4+x3+x2+x+1)
Where let g1(x), g3(x) be as follows;
g1(x)= x4+x+1
g3(x)=x4+x3+x2+x+1
g(x) becomes as follows;
g(x)=g1(x)g3(x)
「If codeword polynomial is divisible by generator polynomial
g(x) 」 means
「it is also divisible by polynomial g1(x) or g3(x) 」
83
Single bit error in BCH code (15,7) Training material of NHK-CTI
Position of Remainder of Remainder of

error g1(x) g3(x)
Bit error position i6 1001 1111
(single bit error) i5 1101 1000
i4 1111 0100
i3 1110 0010
g1(x)=x4+x+1 i2 0111 0001
i1 1010 1111
「10011」 i0 0101 1000
p7 1011 0100
g3(x)=x4+x3+x2+x+1 p6 1100 0010
p5 0110 0001
「11111」 p4 0011 1111
p3 1000 1000
Remainder divided by p2 0100 0100
p1 0010 0010
g1(x), g3(x) p0 0001 0001 84
2 bits error in BCH code (15,7) Training material of NHK-CTI
Position R of g1(x) R of g3(x) Position R of g1(x) R of g3(x) Position R of g1(x) R of g3(x)
i6, i5 0100 0111 i 4 , p3 0111 1100 i 0 , p6 1001 1010
i6, i4 0110 1011 i 4 , p3 1011 0000 i 0 , p5 0011 1001
i6, i3 0111 1101 i 4 , p1 1101 0110 i 0 , p4 0110 0111
i6, i2 1110 1110 i 4 , p0 1110 0101 i 0 , p3 1101 0000
i6, i1 0011 0000 i3, i2 1001 1011 i 0 , p2 0001 1100
i6, i0 1100 0111 i3, i1 0100 1101 i 0 , p1 0111 1010
i 6 , p7 0010 1011 i3, i0 1011 1010 i 0 , p0 0100 1001
i 6 , p6 0101 1100 i 3 , p7 0101 0101 p7, p6 0111 0110
i 6 , p5 1111 1110 i 3 , p6 0010 0000 p7, p5 1101 0101
i 6 , p4 1010 0000 i 3 , p5 1000 0011 p7, p4 1000 1011
i 6 , p3 0001 0111 i 3 , p4 1101 1101 p7, p3 0011 1100
i 6 , p2 1101 1011 i 3 , p3 0110 1010 p7, p2 1111 0000
i 6 , p1 1011 1101 i 3 , p2 1010 0110 p7, p1 1001 0110
i 6 , p0 1000 1110 i 3 , p1 1100 0000 p7, p0 1010 0101
i5, i4 0010 1100 i 3 , p0 1111 0011 p6, p5 1010 0011
i5, i3 0011 1010 i2, i1 1101 1110 p6, p4 1111 1101
i5, i2 1010 1001 i2, i0 0010 1001 p6, p3 0100 1010
i5, i1 0111 0111 i 2 , p7 1100 0101 p6, p2 1000 0110
i5, i0 1000 0000 i 2 , p6 1011 0011 p6 , p 1 1110 0000
i 5 , p7 0110 1100 i 2 , p5 0001 0000 p6, p0 1101 0011
i 5 , p6 0001 1010 i 2 , p4 0100 1110 p5, p4 0101 1110
i 5 , p5 1011 1001 i 2 , p3 1111 1001 p5, p3 1110 1001
i 5 , p4 1110 0111 i 2 , p2 0011 0001 p5, p2 0010 0101
i 5 , p3 0101 0000 i 2 , p1 0101 0101 p5, p1 0100 0011
i 5 , p2 1001 1100 i 2 , p0 0110 0000 p5, p0 0111 0000
i 5 , p1 1111 1010 i1, i0 1111 0111 p4, p3 1011 0111
i 5 , p0 1100 1001 i 1 , p7 0001 1011 p4, p2 0111 1011
i4, i3 0001 0110 i 1 , p6 0110 1101 p4, p1 0001 1101
i4, i2 1000 0101 i 1 , p5 1100 1110 p4, p0 0010 1110
i4, i1 0101 1011 i 1 , p4 1001 0000 p3, p2 1100 1100
i4, i0 1010 1100 i 1 , p3 0010 0111 p3, p1 1010 1010
i 4 , p7 0100 0000 i 1 , p2 1110 1011 p3, p0 1001 1001
i 4 , p6 0011 0110 i 1 , p1 1000 1101 p2, p1 0110 0110
i 4 , p5 1001 0101 i 1 , p0 1011 1110 p2, p0 0101 0101
i 4 , p4 1100 1011 i 0 , p7 1110 1100 p1, p0 0011 0011 85
Remainder and bit error position in BCH (15,7) Training material of NHK-CTI
Remainder of g3(x)
0000 1000 0100 1100 0010 1010 0110 1110 0001 1001 0101 1101 0011 1011 0111 1111
0000
1000 i5,i0 p3 p6,p2 i6,p0 i4,i2 i１,p１ i3,p5 p7,p4
0100 i4,p7 p2 p6,p3 i2,p4 i0,p0 i３,i１ p5,p1 i6,i5
1100 i3,p1 p3,p2 p6 i1,p5 i5,p0 i2,p7 i4,p4 i6,i0
Remai 0010 i3,p6 i5,i4 p1 p4,p0 i2,i0 p5,p2 i6,p7 i1,p3
nder of 1010 i6,p4 i4,i0 p3,p1 i3,p2 i5,i2 p7,p0 p6,p5 i0,p4 i1
g1(x) 0110 i2,p0 i5,p7 i3,p3 p2,p1 p5 i1,p6 i6,i4 i5,p4
1110 p6,p1 i0,p7 i3 i6,i2 p5,p3 i4,p0 i1,p2 i6,p3
0001 i2,p5 i0,p2 i5,p6 i4,i3 p0 p4,p1 i1,p7
1001 i1,p4 i5,p2 i0,p6 p7,p1 p3,p0 i4,p5 i3,i2 i6
0101 i5,p3 i0 i3,p7 p5,p4 p2,p0 i6,p6 i2,p1 i4,i1
1101 i0,p3 i5 i4,p1 p2,i1 p7,p5 i3,p4 p6,p0 i6,p2
0011 i6,i1 p7,p3 i5,i3 i4,p6 i0,p5 i2,p2 p1,p0 p4
1011 i4,p2 p7 i3,i0 i1,p0 i5,p5 i6,p1 i2,p6 p4,p3
0111 p5,p0 i4,p3 i0,p1 p7,p6 i2 i6,i3 p4,p2 i5,i1
1111 p7,p2 i4 i5,p1 i6,p5 i2,p3 p6,p4 i3,p0 i1,i0
Ex. single bit error: i3 ←→ remainder of g1(x) :1110, remainder of g3(x): 0010
Ex. 2 bits error :i5, i3← → remainder of g1(x) :0011, remainder of g3(x): 1010
86
Example of BCH code Training material of NHK-CTI
t bit error correction capability (dmin≧2t+1)

BCH (7,4) :t=1
Generator bit :「1011」 dmin=3
g(x)=x3+x+1
BCH (15,7) :t=2
Generator bit：「111010001」 dmin=5
g(x)=x8+x7+x6+x4+1
dmin=7
BCH (31,16) : t=3
Generator bit：「1000111110101111」
g(x)=x15+x11+x10+x9+x8+x7+x5+x3+x2+x+1
87
Reed--Solomon code
Reed Training material of NHK-CTI
88
Reed--Solomon code
Symbol error correction code (in general byte)

The degree of freedom in encoding is high
Code length: n
ik-1 ・・・・ i1 i0 pm-1 ・ p1 p0
Information symbol length: k Parity symbol length: m

Code length n ≦ 2r - 1 （Symbol）
Information symbol length k = n - m （Symbol）
Parity symbol length m = 2t （Symbol）
Minimum distance dmin≧2t+1 （Symbol）
r：Number of bits comprising symbol
t： Number of symbol capable of error correction 89
Feature of roots of generator polynomial Training material of NHK-CTI
Let α be a primitive element in GF(24) which is constructed based

on the primitive polynomial ; g(x)
where g(x)=x3+x+1
α satisfies the following equation
α3+α+1=0 3
α =1+α
4 2
3
Field of 8 elements generated by x +x+1 α =α(1+α)==α+α
Polynomial 3-Tuple 5 2 2 3
Power form
form form
Symbol α =α(α+α )==α +α
0 0 000 0 　 =1+α+α2
0
α =1 1 100 4 6 2
1
α 010 2
α =α(1+α+α )
α =α 2 3
α2 2
α 001 1 =α+α +α
α3
1 +α 110 6 　=α+α2+(1+α)
4 2
α α +α 011 3 2
5 2
111 7
=1+α
α 1 +α +α
7 2 3
α6 2
1 + α 1 0 1 5 α =α(1+α )=α+α
7
α =α
0
1 100 1 　 =α+(1+α)=1
90
Addition of roots for generator polynomial Training material of NHK-CTI
Vector expression 000 100 010 001 110 011 111 101
2 3 4 5 6
3-Tuple Power 0 1 α α α α α α
000 0 0 1 α α2 α3 α4 α5 α6
3 6 5 4 2
100 1 1 0 α α α α α α
010 α α α3 0 α4 1 α2 α6 α5
001 α2 α2 α6 α4 0 α5 α α3 1
3 3 5 6 2 4
110 α α α 1 α 0 α α α
011 α4 α4 α5 α2 α α6 0 1 α3
5 5 4 6 3 2
111 α α α α α α 1 0 α
101 α6 α6 α2 α5 1 α4 α3 α 0
3-Tuple Power 0 1 α α2 α3 α4 α5 α6
000 0 000 100 010 001 110 011 111 101
100 1 100 000 110 101 010 111 011 001
010 α 010 110 000 011 100 001 101 111
2
001 α 001 101 011 000 111 010 110 100
110 α3 110 010 100 111 000 101 001 011
4
011 α 011 111 001 010 101 000 100 110
5
111 α 111 011 101 110 001 100 000 010
6
101 α 101 001 111 100 011 110 010 000
91
Multiplication of roots for generator polynomial Training material of NHK-CTI
3-Tuple Power 0 1 α α2 α3 α4 α5 α6
000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 3 4 5 6
100 1 0 1 α α α α α α
010 α 0 α α2 α3 α4 α5 α6 1
2 2 3 4 5 6
001 α 0 α α α α α 1 α
3 3 4 5 6 2
110 α 0 α α α α 1 α α
011 α4 0 α4 α5 α6 1 α α2 α3
5 5 6 2 3 4
111 α 0 α α 1 α α α α
6 6 2 3 4 5
101 α 0 α 1 α α α α α
2 3 4 5 6
3-Tuple Power 0 1 α α α α α α
000 0 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000
100 1 000 100 010 001 110 011 111 101
010 α 000 010 001 110 011 111 101 100
001 α2 000 001 110 011 111 101 100 010
110 α3 000 110 011 111 101 100 010 001
4
011 α 000 011 111 101 100 010 001 110
111 α5 000 111 101 100 010 001 110 011
101 α6 000 101 100 010 001 110 011 111
92
RS code (5,3) Training material of NHK-CTI
「RS code(5,3)」(r=3, 1symbol=3 bits)

Code length: n=5, information symbol length: k=3, Parity bit
symbol length: m=2
Information bits Codeword
A B C A B C P Q
α: a root of g(x)=x3+x+1=0
A+B+C+P+Q=0
2 3 4 5
Parity check equation
αA+α B+α C+α P+α Q=0
From above equations, P and Q are as follows:
P= α6A+α3B+α2C
Q=α2A+αB+α6C
93
Characteristics of error in RS code (5,3) Training material of NHK-CTI
Set syndrome S as follows;

S1=A+B+C+P+Q
S2=αA+α2B+α3C+α4P+α5Q Codeword
A B C P Q
No error
S1=0 and S2=0
One symbol error

If symbol A is error, and it becomes A+A’
S1=(A+A’)+B+C+P+Q=A’
S2=α(A+A’)+α2B+α3C+α4P+α5Q=αA’
∴S2＝αS1
If symbol B is error, and it becomes B+B’

S1=A+(B+B’)+C+P+Q=B’
S2=αA+α2(B+B’)+α3C+α4P+α5Q= α2B’
∴S2＝α2S1 94
Characteristics of error in RS code (5,3) Training material of NHK-CTI
One symbol error

If symbol C is error, and it becomes C+C’
S1=A+B+(C+C’)+P+Q=C’
S2=αA+α2B+α3(C+C’)+α4P+α5Q=α3C’
∴S2＝α3S1
Symbol A → S2＝αS1
Symbol B → S2＝α2S1
Symbol C → S2＝α3S1
Detection of error location → from above equations

and S1is error pattern
Error correction → Add S1 to the error detected symbol
Possible to correct one symbol

95
Example of RS code (5,3) encoding Training material of NHK-CTI
Let A,B,C set as follows; (1 symbol is 3 bits)

A=100, B=010, C=001
A=1, B=α, C=α2
P=α6A+α3B+α2C Q=α2A+αB+α6C
=α6・1+α3・α+α2・α2 =α2・1+α・α+α6・α2
=α6+α4+α4 =α2+α2+α8
=α6 =α8
=101 =α
=010
A B C P Q
100 010 001 101 010
96
Error correction example of RS code (5,3) Training material of NHK-CTI
If symbol A is error
A=100 → 011 (3 bits error)
S1=A+B+C+P+Q S2＝αA＋α2B＋α3C＋α4P＋α5Q
＝α4＋α＋α2＋α6＋α ＝α・α4＋α2・α＋α3・α2 ＋α4・α6 ＋α5・α
＝α2＋α4＋α6 ＝α5＋α3＋α5 ＋α10＋α5
＝α＋α6 ＝α3＋α3＋α6
＝ α5 ＝α6
＝111 ＝αS１
S2 =αS1, ;error location is symbol A

A= 011+S1=011+111=100
97
Examples of RS code Training material of NHK-CTI
t symbol error correction code (dmin=2t+1)
Suitable for burst error correction
RS(32,30) code, etc. :t=1

RS(64,60) code, etc. :t=2
RS(128,120) code, etc. :t=4
RS(204,188) code, etc. :t=8
RS(207,187) code, etc. :t=10
98
Convolutional codeTraining material of NHK-CTI
99
Trellis diagram of convolutional code Training material of NHK-CTI
:1bit delay 10
＋ c1 ＋：Adder 11/0 01/0
11010
a1 a2 a3 00/0 00 10/0 00/1 11 10/1
Input Output c1c2
a1 a2 a3
＋ c2 c1=a1+a2 +a3 11/1 01/1
01
c2=a1 +a3
State (a3 a2) c1c2/a1
State A:(0 0) 00/0
00/1
11/0
State B:(0 1) 11/1
10/0
State C:(1 0) 10/1
01/0
State D:(1 1) 01/1
133 100
Principal of Viterbi decoding Training material of NHK-CTI
Examine cheaper route, whenever the railroad joins

Select the route which a fare is cheaper
Examine the cheaper route one after another, finally
find the cheapest route
130/440 180/620
Kasumigaseki 160 Shinjyuku 150/310 Simokitazawa
Uehara Seijyou
Seijyo
150/310
160/470
Harajyuku
160 120/430
160/320 210/520
Omotesandou
150/310
160/320 Shibuya
101
Error correction by Viterbi decoding Training material of NHK-CTI
Information message 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0
Transmitted message 00 11 10 00 01 01 11 00
Received message 10 11 11 00 01 01 11 00
1 (1) 2 (3) (5)
State A:(0 0)
1 (1) (2)
0 (1)
(3)
State B:(0 1)
1 (2) (4)
(2)
State C:(1 0)
(3)
1 (2) (2)
State D:(1 1) (3)
1 (2) c1c2/a1
00/0 10/0
00/1 10/1
Blanch metric Path metric 11/0 01/0
11/1 01/1
145 102
Block code
Hamming code
Single error correction
BCH code
t bit error correction
Reed solomon code
t symbol error correction
Convolutional coding +Viterbi decode
103
Application in Training material of NHK-CTI
broadcasting field
104
Applications of error correcting code Training material of NHK-CTI
Usage Device Type of error Feature Ex. 0f Code
Digital Random & Convolutional

Transmission Receiver Low error rate
broadcasting Burst + RS
Semiconductor Hight speed
Random Hamming
memory & low error rate
Conputor Magnetic memory,
Data Optical memory (Random) CRC
Low error rate
(HDD,Tape,CD-ROM) Burst RS product
Record
Magnetic memory,
Relatively high
Video Optical memory (Random)
error rate than RS product
Audio (VTR,CD,DVD) Burst
data
RS: Reed Solomon
105
Applications for broadcasting VTR Training material of NHK-CTI
VTR Width of tape Error correction code

Video
System (inch) Inner code Outer code
D1 SD Component 3/4 RS (64,60) RS (32,30)
D2 SD Composite 3/4 RS (93,85) RS (68,64)
D3 SD Composite 1/2 RS (95,87) RS (136,128)
D5 SD,HD Component 1/2 RS (95,87) RS (128,120)
β CAM SD Component 1/2 RS (178,164) RS (106,96)
D6 HD Component 3/4 RS (227,211) RS (254,240)
HD1 HD Component 1 RS (110,104) RS (65,60)
106
Applications for broadcasting Training material of NHK-CTI
Error correction code

Broadcasting
Inner code Outer code
Digital Terrestrial Television Broadcasting Convolutional code
RS (204,188)
DVB-T, ISDB-T (r=1/2,2/3,3/4,5/6,7/8)
Trellis code (r=2/3)
ATSC RS (207,187)
Convolutional code(1/2)
Digital Satellite Television Broadcasting Trellis code (r=2/3)
Convolutional code RS (204,188)
ISDB-S
(r=1/2,2/3,3/4,5/6,7/8)
Digital Communication Satellite Convolutional code

RS (204,188)
Television Broadcasting (r=1/2,2/3,3/4,5/6,7/8)
107
Application of error correction technique Training material of NHK-CTI
Magnetic tape (RS code)

Magnetic disk (RS code)
Compact disk (RS code)
Digital audio tape (RS code)
Mobile phone (RS & Convolutional coding)
Satellite communication (RS & Convolutional
coding)
Satellite broadcasting (RS & Convolutional coding)
Teletext
Teletext broadcasting (Cyclic code )
Digital broadcasting (RS & Convolutional coding)
Intercontinental optical communications (RS code)
108
Finally Training material of NHK-CTI
The error correction is indispensable

for digital technique.
Importance of the error correction

technology is increasing further because
of high compression of source coding.
109
Informative reference
110
Reed--Solomon generator
Connect for first (k) Bytes

Open for last (N-k) Bytes
Gate
α=174 α=165 α=121 α=121 α=181 α=152
X1 X2 X3 X19 X20
N-k=20 Parity Bytes

Mod(256) add two field elements (Bytes)
Mod(256) multiply a field element with a fixed element α B
N=207 Encoded Data
X Source one element (Byte)
k=187 Data Bytes A
Primitive Field Generator Polynomial (Galois):P(X) Connect A for first (k) Bytes
P(X)=X8+X4+X3+X2+1 Open B for last (N-k) Bytes
Code Generator Polynomial: G(X)
G(X)=X20+152X19+185X18+240X17+5X16+111X15+99X14+6X13+220X12+112X11+150X10+69X9+36X8+187X7+22X6
+228X5+198X4+121X3+121X2+165X1+174
111
Punctured code Training material of NHK-CTI
Convolutional X Convolutional code r=1/1

B0 coder
P1
Punctured
P0
Y
Improvement of coding rate
r=6/8=3/4
P1=X1,Y2,Y3
X P0=Y1,X3,Y4
171octal
+ X:X1,X2,X3,X4
Y:Y1,Y2,Y3,Y4
B0 ● D ● D ● D ● D D ● D ●
r=4/6=2/3
P1=X1,Y2
+ P0=Y1,X3
133octal
Y X:X1,X2,X3
D : 1bit delay + :Exclusive OR Y:Y1,Y2,Y3
112
Linear code and cyclic code Training material of NHK-CTI
Linear code Cyclic code

Block code
None linear code None cyclic code
Linear code
If C1 and C2 is two arbitrary codewords, added (C1+C2 ) is also codeword
Cyclic code
If message (n-bits in length) is expressed by polynomial, cyclic code is the all
codewords (code polynomial) that are divisible by generator polynomial G(X)
If Cn=(x1,x2,x3,・・,xN） is codeword,
each element shifted Cm=(x2,x3,・・ xN,x1）is also codeword
113
Example Training material of NHK-CTI
Linear code
Hamming code (7,4) 0001 011 (C1)
0000 000 1000 101
+ 0010 110 (C2)
0001 011 1001 110
0010 110 1010 011
0011 101 (C1+C2=C3)
0011 101 1011 000
0100 111
0101 100
1100 010
1101 001
Cyclic code
0110 001 1110 100
0111 010 1111 111 0111 010 (C7)
1bit shift to left
1110 100 (C7→C14)
114
Coding rate Training material of NHK-CTI
Number of bits for information (k)

Coding rate =
Number of bits for codeword (n)
Block code : (n,k)

coding rate r=k/n
Capability of error
low
correction
Code B
high
Example : (6,4) code
1011 01
coding rate: 2/3 Code A
high low
Coding rate
115
Appendix Training material of NHK-CTI
Concatenated code
116
Example of concatenated code Training material of NHK-CTI
MPEG-2 Source Coding &

Multiplexing
1
Encoder Mux
Adaptation Outer Outer Inner
Energy coder interleaver coder
Encoder n
Dispersal
Encoder 1 Mux
Adaptation Outer Outer Inner
Energy coder interleaver coder
Encoder n Dispersal
To Antenna
Frame Guard
Inner Interval D/A Front
Mapper OFDM
interleaver Adaptation Insertion End
LPF
Pilots &
TPS
Signals
Terrestrial Channel Adapter
DVB-T functional block diagram

117
Concept of interleave Training material of NHK-CTI
118
Interleaving Training material of NHK-CTI
Interleaving is a way to rearrange data in order to

increase performance to cope with burst error.
Direction of write
Direction of read
Conceptional diagram of interleaving

119
Example of concatenated code (Turbo code) Training material of NHK-CTI
Deinterleaver
RSC Additive
White
Gaussian Interleaver DEC2
DEC1
Interleaver Noise
Channel
(AWGN)
Deinterleaver
RSC
Turbo encoder Turbo decoder
RSC: Recursive systematic convolutional encoder

DEC: Soft-in / soft-out decoder
120
Example of concatenated code (Product code) Training material of NHK-CTI
The random & burst error is effectively corrected

n1
k1
Parity of C1
n2 k2 Information
C1:(n１,k1) code
Parity of C2
C2(n2,k2) code
121
Example of product code by RS code Training material of NHK-CTI
Error
B11 B12 B13 B14 B15 P11 P12 (1) Can not correct
B21 B22 B13 B24 B25 P21 P22 (2) B21 correct
B31 B32 B33 B34 B35 P31 P32

Bii Information
B41 B42 B43 B44 B45 P41 P42 symbol
Q11 Q12 Q13 Q14 Q15 P51 P52 Pik Qnj Parity symbol
Q21 Q22 Q23 Q24 Q25 P61 P62

(5) B13 correct
(3) B11 correct (6) B14 correct
(4) B12 correct
122
Cyclic coder
123
Cyclic code by shift register (1) Training material of NHK-CTI
1 1 0 1 0 1 0
Output: q(x) 0 0 0 x6 +x5 +x3 +x

0 0 Input: f(x)
x3 +x +1
+x3+x2+x+1 Output: q(x)

Cyclic code: x3+x+1 x6+x5 +x3 +x
x6 +x4+x3
(x6+x5+x3+x)+x+1= x6+x5+x3+1
x5+x4
x5 +x3+x2
x4+x3+x2+x
x4 +x2+x
x3
x3 +x+1
x+1
Remainder: R(x)
124
1 0 1 0 1 0
0 0 1 x5 +x3 +x
0 0
x3 +x +1
125
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 +x3 +x
0 0
x3 +x +1
126
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 +x3 +x
1 1
x3 +x +1
127
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 +x
1 1
x3 +x +1
1 x3
1011 1101010 x3+x+1 x6+x5 +x3 +x
1011 x6 +x4+x3
1100 x5+x4
128
11 1 0
1 1 1 +x
1 1
x3 +x +1
11 +x3+x2
1011 1101010 x3+x+1 x6+x5 +x3 +x
1011 x6 +x4+x3
1100 x5+x4
1011 x5 +x3+x2
1111 x4+x3+x2+x
129
111 0
1 0 0
1 1
x3 +x +1
111 +x3+x2+x
1011 1101010 x3+x+1 x6+x5 +x3 +x
1011 x6 +x4+x3
1100 x5+x4
1011 x5 +x3+x2
1111 x4+x3+x2+x
1011 x4 +x2+x
1000 x3
130
1111
Output: q(x)
0 1 1
x3 +x +1
Remainder (contents of resisters) : R(x)
1111 +x3+x2+x+1 Output: q(x)
1011 1101010 x3+x+1 x6+x5 +x3 +x
1011 x6 +x4+x3
1100 x5+x4
1011 x5 +x3+x2
1111 x4+x3+x2+x
1011 x4 +x2+x
1000 x3
1011 x3 +x+1
011 x+1
Remainder: R(x)
131
Convolutional Training material of NHK-CTI
coder & decoder
132
Trellis diagram
:1bit delay 10
＋ c1 ＋：Adder 11/0 01/0
11010
a1 a2 a3 00/0 00 10/0 00/1 11 10/1
Input Output c1c2
a1 a2 a3
＋ c2 c1=a1+a2 +a3 11/1 01/1
01
c2=a1 +a3
State A:(0 0) 00/0
00/1
11/0
State B:(0 1) 11/1
10/0
State C:(1 0) 10/1
01/0
State D:(1 1) 01/1
133
Trellis diagram (1)

:1bit delay 10
＋ c1 ＋：Adder 11/0 01/0
11010
0 0 00/0 00 10/0 00/1 11 10/1
Input Output c1c2
a1 a2 a3
＋ c2 c1=a1+a2 +a3
11/1 01/1
01
c2=a1 +a3
00/0
State A:(0 0)
00/1
11/0
State B:(0 1) 11/1
10/0
State C:(1 0) 10/1
01/0
01/1
State D:(1 1)
134
Trellis diagram (2)

:1bit delay 10
＋ 0 ＋：Adder 11/0 01/0
1101
0 0 0 00/0 00 10/0 00/1 11 10/1
Input Output c1c2
a1 a2 a3
＋ 0 c1=a1+a2 +a3 0
11/1 01/1
01
0
c2=a1 +a3
State (a3 a2) 0 c1c2/a1
00
00/0
State A:(0 0)
00/1
11/0
State B:(0 1) 11/1
10/0
State C:(1 0) 10/1
01/0
01/1
State D:(1 1)
135
Trellis diagram (3)

:1bit delay 10
＋ c1 ＋：Adder 11/0 01/0
110
1 0 0 00/0 00 10/0 00/1 11 10/1
Input Output c1c2
a1 a2 a3
＋
c2 c1=a1+a2 +a3
11/1 01/1
01
c2=a1 +a3
State (a3 a2) 0 c1c2/a1
00
00/0
State A:(0 0)
00/1
11/0
State B:(0 1) 11/1
10/0
State C:(1 0) 10/1
01/0
01/1
State D:(1 1)
136
Trellis diagram (4)

:1bit delay 10
＋ 1 ＋：Adder 11/0 01/0
110
1 0 0 00/0 00 10/0 00/1 11 10/1
Input Output c1c2
a1 a2 a3
＋ 1 c1=a1+a2 +a3 1
11/1 01/1
01
c2=a1 +a3 1
State (a3 a2) 0 1 c1c2/a1
00 11
State A:(0 0) 00/0
00/1
11/0
State B:(0 1) 11/1
10/0
State C:(1 0) 10/1
01/0
State D:(1 1) 01/1
137
Trellis diagram (5)

:1bit delay 10
＋ c1 ＋：Adder 11/0 01/0
11
0 1 0 00/0 00 10/0 00/1 11 10/1
Input Output c1c2
a1 a2 a3
＋ c2 c1=a1+a2 +a3 11/1 01/1
01
c2=a1 +a3
State (a3 a2) 0 1 c1c2/a1
00 11
State A:(0 0) 00/0
00/1
11/0
State B:(0 1) 11/1
10/0
State C:(1 0) 10/1
01/0
State D:(1 1) 01/1
138
Trellis diagram (6)

:1bit delay 10
＋ 1 ＋：Adder 11/0 01/0
11
0 1 0 00/0 00 10/0 00/1 11 10/1
Input Output c1c2
a1 a2 a3
＋ 0 c1=a1+a2 +a3 1
11/1 01/1
01
c2=a1 +a3 0
State (a3 a2) 0 1 0 c1c2/a1
00 11 10
State A:(0 0) 00/0
00/1
11/0
State B:(0 1) 11/1
10/0
State C:(1 0) 10/1
01/0
State D:(1 1) 01/1
139
Trellis diagram (7)

:1bit delay 10
＋ c1 ＋：Adder 11/0 01/0
1
1 0 1 00/0 00 10/0 00/1 11 10/1
Input Output c1c2
a1 a2 a3
c2 11/1 01/1
＋ c1=a1+a2 +a3 01
c2=a1 +a3
State (a3 a2) 0 1 0 c1c2/a1
00 11 10
State A:(0 0) 00/0
00/1
11/0
State B:(0 1) 11/1
10/0
State C:(1 0) 10/1
01/0
State D:(1 1) 01/1
140
Trellis diagram (8)

:1bit delay 10
＋ 0 ＋：Adder 11/0 01/0
1
1 0 1 00/0 00 10/0 00/1 11 10/1
Input Output c1c2
a1 a2 a3
＋ 0 c1=a1+a2 +a3 0
11/1 01/1
01
c2=a1 +a3 0
State (a3 a2) 0 1 0 1 c1c2/a1
00 11 01 00
State A:(0 0) 00/0
00/1
11/0
State B:(0 1) 11/1
10/0
State C:(1 0) 10/1
01/0
State D:(1 1) 01/1
141
Trellis diagram (9)

:1bit delay 10
＋ c1 ＋：Adder 11/0 01/0
1 1 0 00/0 00 10/0 00/1 11 10/1

Input Output c1c2
a1 a2 a3
11/1 01/1
＋ c2 c1=a1+a2 +a3 01
c2=a1 +a3
State (a3 a2) 0 1 0 1 c1c2/a1
00 11 01 00
State A:(0 0) 00/0
00/1
11/0
State B:(0 1) 11/1
10/0
State C:(1 0) 10/1
01/0
State D:(1 1) 01/1
142
Trellis diagram (10)

:1bit delay 10
＋ 0 ＋：Adder 11/0 01/0
1 1 0 00/0 00 10/0 00/1 11 10/1

Input Output c1c2
a1 a2 a3
＋ 1 c1=a1+a2 +a3 0
11/1 01/1
01
c2=a1 +a3 1
State (a3 a2) 0 1 0 1 1 c1c2/a1
00 11 01 00 01
State A:(0 0) 00/0
00/1
11/0
State B:(0 1) 11/1
10/0
State C:(1 0) 10/1
01/0
State D:(1 1) 01/1
143
Trellis diagram (11)

:1bit delay 10
＋ c1 ＋：Adder 11/0 01/0
1 1 00/0 00 10/0 00/1 11 10/1

Input Output c1c2
a1 a2 a3
c2 11/1 01/1
＋ c1=a1+a2 +a3 01
c2=a1 +a3
State (a3 a2) 0 1 0 1 1 c1c2/a1
00 11 01 00 01
State A:(0 0) 00/0
00/1
11/0
State B:(0 1) 11/1
10/0
State C:(1 0) 10/1
01/0
State D:(1 1) 01/1
144
Error correction by Viterbi decoding

1 (1) 2 (3) (5)
State A:(0 0)
1 (2)
(1) 0 (1) (3)
State B:(0 1)
1 (2) (4)
(2)
State C:(1 0)
(3)
1 (2) (2)
State D:(1 1)
(3)
1 (2) c1c2/a1
00/0 10/0
00/1 10/1
Blanch metric Path metric 11/0 01/0
11/1 01/1 145

(1) (3) (2)
State A:(0 0) (2) (4)
(1) (1) (4)
(3)
State B:(0 1) (2)
(2) (2) (4)
State C:(1 0)
(3)
(2)
(2) (4)
State D:(1 1) (3)
c1c2/a1 00/0 10/0

00/1 10/1
11/0 01/0
11/1 01/1
146

(1) (3) (2) (3)
State A:(0 0)
(2) (4)
(1) (1) (3)
(3)
State B:(0 1) (2)
(2) (4)
(2)
(4)
State C:(1 0)
(3)
(2) (3)
(2)
State D:(1 1) (3) (5)
c1c2/a1 00/0 10/0

00/1 10/1
11/0 01/0
11/1 01/1 147

(1) (2) (3) (4)
State A:(0 0)
(2) (4)
(1) (1) (3) (4)
State B:(0 1) (2)
(2) (4)
(2) (5)
State C:(1 0)
(3) (3) (2)
(2)
(2) (3)
State D:(1 1) (3) (4)
c1c2/a1 00/0 10/0

00/1 10/1
11/0 01/0
11/1 01/1 148

(1) (2) (6)
State A:(0 0)
(2) (4) (2)
(1) (1) (3) (4)
State B:(0 1) (2)
(2) (4) (4)
(2)
(5)
State C:(1 0)
(3) (2) (4)
(2)
(2) (3) (5)
State D:(1 1) (3) (4)
c1c2/a1 00/0 10/0

00/1 10/1
11/0 01/0
11/1 01/1 149

(1) (2) (2)
State A:(0 0) (6)
(2) (2)
(1) (1) (3) (4)
State B:(0 1) (2)
(2) (4)
(2) (4)
(5)
State C:(1 0)
(2) (4) (5)
(2) (3) (5)
State D:(1 1)
(4) (5)
c1c2/a1 00/0 10/0

00/1 10/1
11/0 01/0
11/1 01/1 150

(1) (2) (2)
State A:(0 0)
(2) (2) (6)
(1) (1) (3) (4)
State B:(0 1) (2)
(2) (4)
(2) (5)
State C:(1 0)
(2) (4)
(2) (3) (5)
State D:(1 1)
(4)
c1c2/a1 00/0 10/0

00/1 10/1
11/0 01/0
11/1 01/1 151

Error
Corrected message 00 11 10 00 01 01 11 00
(1) (2)
State A:(0 0)
(2)
(1)
State B:(0 1) (2)

(2)
State C:(1 0)
(2)
(2)
State D:(1 1)
152
Concept of error correction
153
Relationship between error correction, detection and
minimum Hamming distance
Corrected area C3 Cn=(x1,x2,・・,xn）
dmin≧2t*+s*+1
Possible to correct less and equal t*bits
Possible to detect less and equal than
(t*+s*) bits
t* s* 1 t*
C1 C2 Codeword
dmin
Invalid codeword
Detected area 154

Example error correction and detection
t* t* t*=2、s*=0
dmin=5 C1 C2 Possible to correct and detect less and
dmin equal than 2bits errors
Error
corrected
area t*=1、s*=2
t* s* t*
Possible to correct 1bit error and detect
C1 C2 less and equal than 3bits errors
dmin
Error
detected
area
t*=0、s*=4
s* Impossible to correct.
C1 C2 Possible to detect less and equal than
dmin 4bits errors
155

Error Correction

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Error Correction

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Training material of NHK-CTI

Error Detection and

Contents Training material of NHK-CTI

Conception of error correction

Fundamental of error correction

Various error correction codes

Applications in broadcasting field

Concept of error Training material of NHK-CTI

Program production to transmission Training material of NHK-CTI

Error correction on channel Training material of NHK-CTI

Digital Data reduction Convert to suitable signal for

Received Source Channel

Example of error in digital signal Training material of NHK-CTI

Error factor generated on the channel Training material of NHK-CTI

Error control method in communication system Training material of NHK-CTI

Reducing method of noise influence

ARQ & FEC Training material of NHK-CTI

ARQ (Automatic Repeat Request)

Sequence of ARQ & FEC Training material of NHK-CTI

TX data-1 data-2 data-2 data-3

RX data-1 data-2 data-2 data-3 Time

No error Error detect No error No error

RX data-1 data-2 data-3 Time

Feature of ARQ & FEC Training material of NHK-CTI

Return circuit is not

Simple decoder Small delay

Difficult to deal with a

Disadvantage Sometime large delay Large redundancy

Necessary to repeat sending

Error correction scheme Training material of NHK-CTI

Principle of error correction

What is error detection and error Training material of NHK-CTI

Add redundant data before transmission to

Parity check Training material of NHK-CTI

Add a parity bit to information data according to

Information sequence Transmitted sequence Received sequence

10010001 10010001 1 100110011 !

Example of parity check code (ASCII) Training material of NHK-CTI

ASCII stands for American Standard Code for

ASCII code Training material of NHK-CTI

Character Binary Decimal Hexa-decimal

Character Binary Decimal Hexa-decimal

Example of checksum (ISBN) Training material of NHK-CTI

ISBN (International Standard Book Number)

Example of error detective code Training material of NHK-CTI

Is “0-440-21861-5” a correct ISBN code?

Example of errors (VTR) Training material of NHK-CTI

Expand a portion of image

Black and white spots are errors

Example of errors (broadcasting) Training material of NHK-CTI

Expand a portion of image

Error is observed like a rectangular mass (block)

(In case of MPEG-2 TS Video coding)

Example of errors Training material of NHK-CTI

Apart Spatially / Temporally

Original message Transmission/ Received message

“This is a pen” “This is b pen”

Error detection (example of sentence) Training material of NHK-CTI

Error detect Can not correct

Candidate of pbn is pen, pan, pun,pin etc.

Error correction (example of sentence) Training material of NHK-CTI

Error detect Correct

We can correct the sentence, because if you know

Error in digital transmission Training material of NHK-CTI