PROJECT IN CHEMISTRY I.

Cite the early ideas about the atom The atom is a basic unit of matter that consists of a dense central nucleus surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged electrons. The atomic nucleus contains a mix of positively charged protons and electrically neutral neutrons (except in the case of hydrogen-1, which is the only stable nuclide with no neutrons). The electrons of an atom are bound to the nucleus by the electromagnetic force. Likewise, a group of atoms can remain bound to each other, forming a molecule. An atom containing an equal number of protons and electrons is electrically neutral, otherwise it has a positive charge if there are fewer electrons (electron deficiency) or negative charge if there are more electrons (electron excess). A positively or negatively charged atom is known as an ion. An atom is classified according to the number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus: the number of protons determines the chemical element, and the number of neutrons determines the isotope of the element.[1] II.What are the postulates under Daltons Atomic Theory?
1. Elements are made of extremely small particles called atoms.

2. Atoms of a given element are identical in size, mass, and other properties; atoms of different elements differ in size, mass, and other properties. 3. Atoms cannot be subdivided, created, or destroyed. 4. Atoms of different elements combine in simple whole-number ratios to form chemical compounds. 5. In chemical reactions, atoms are combined, separated, or rearranged. Dalton proposed an additional "rule of greatest simplicity" that created controversy, since it could not be independently confirmed. III.What are the different sub atomic particles of atom?Describe each particle. NEUTRON - The neutron is a subatomic hadron particle which has the symbol n or n0 , no net electric charge and a mass slightly larger than that of a proton. With the exception of hydrogen, nuclei of atoms consist of protons and neutrons, which are therefore collectively referred to as nucleons. PROTON - The proton is a subatomic hadron particle with the symbol p or p+ and a positive electric charge of 1 elementary charge. One or more protons are present in the nucleus of each atom, along with neutrons. The proton is also stable by itself. Free protons are emitted directly in some rare types of radioactive decay, and result from the decay of free neutrons from other radioactivity. They soon pick up an electron and become neutral hydrogen, which may then react chemically. Free protons may exist in plasmas or in cosmic rays in vacuum. ELECTRON - The electron (symbol: e) is a subatomic particle with a negative elementary electric charge. It has no known components or substructure; in other words, it is generally thought to be an elementary particle.[2] An electron has a mass that is

approximately 1/1836 that of the proton.[8] The intrinsic angular momentum (spin) of the electron is a half-integer value in units of , which means that it is a fermion. The antiparticle of the electron is called the positron; it is identical to the electron except that it carries electrical and other charges of the opposite sign. When an electron collides with a positron, both particles may either scatter off each other or be totally annihilated, producing a pair (or more) of gamma ray photons. Electrons, which belong to the first generation of the lepton particle family,[9] participate in gravitational, electromagnetic and weak interactions. IV.What is an isotope? What is the difference between atomic mass and atomic weight? ISOTOPE - are variants of atoms of a particular chemical element, which have differing numbers of neutrons. Atoms of a particular element by definition must contain the same number of protons but may have a distinct number of neutrons which differs from atom to atom, without changing the designation of the atom as a particular element. The number of nucleons (protons and neutrons) in the nucleus, known as the mass number, is not the same for two isotopes of any element. For example, carbon-12, carbon-13 and carbon-14 are three isotopes of the element carbon with mass numbers 12, 13 and 14 respectively. The atomic number of carbon is 6 (every carbon atom has 6 protons); therefore the neutron numbers in these isotopes are 6, 7 and 8 respectively. ATOMIC WEIGHT: (symbol: Ar) is a dimensionless physical quantity, the ratio of the average mass of atoms of an element (from a given source) to 1/12 of the mass of an atom of carbon-12. The ATOMIC MASS is the average mass of an element in atomic mass units ("amu"). Though individual atoms always have an integer number of atomic mass units, the atomic mass on the periodic table is stated as a decimal number because it is an average of the various isotopes of an element.

V.Name some Isotopes used in medicine.(atleast 10) Molybdenum-99: Used as the 'parent' in a generator to produce technetium-99m, the most widely used isotope in nuclear medicine. Technetium-99m: Used in to image the skeleton and heart muscle in particular, but also for brain, thyroid, lungs (perfusion and ventilation), liver, spleen, kidney (structure and filtration rate), gall bladder, bone marrow, salivary and lachrymal glands, heart blood pool, infection and numerous specialized medical studies. Chromium-51: Used to label red blood cells and quantify gastro-intestinal protein loss. Cobalt-60: Used for external beam radiotherapy. Copper-64: Used to study genetic diseases affecting copper metabolism, such as Wilson and Menke's diseases.

Ytterbium-169: Used for cerebrospinal fluid studies in the brain. Iodine-125: Used to evaluate glomerular filtration rate of kidneys and to diagnose deep vein thrombosis in the leg. It is also widely used in radioimmunology assays and as an xray source for bone density measurements. Iodine-131: Widely used in functional imaging and therapeutic applications for the thyroid as in overactive and under active thyroid, carcinomas and their secondaries; also diagnosis of abnormal liver function, renal (kidney) blood flow and urinary tract obstruction. Iridium-192: Supplied in wire form for use as an internal radiotherapy source. Iron-59: Used in studies of iron metabolism in the spleen. Xenon-133, Xenon-127: Used for pulmonary (lung) ventilation studies.

VI.Discuss the following important historical events: a.THE DISCOVERY OF X-RAY - In late 1895, a German physicist, W. C. Roentgen was working with a cathode ray tube in his laboratory. He was working with tubes similar to our fluorescent light bulbs. He evacuated the tube of all air, filled it with a special gas, and passed a high electric voltage through it. When he did this, the tube would produce a fluorescent glow. Roentgen shielded the tube with heavy black paper, and found that a green colored fluorescent light could be seen coming from a screen setting a few feet away from the tube. He realized that he had produced a previously unknown "invisible light," or ray, that was being emitted from the tube; a ray that was capable of passing through the heavy paper covering the tube. Through additional experiments, he also found that the new ray would pass through most substances casting shadows of solid objects on pieces of film. He named the new ray X-ray, because in mathematics "X" is used to indicated the unknown quantity. In his discovery Roentgen found that the X-ray would pass through the tissue of humans leaving the bones and metals visible. One of Roentgens first experiments late in 1895 was a film of his wife Bertha's hand with a ring on her finger (shown below on right). The news of Roentgens discovery spread quickly throughout the world. Scientists everywhere could duplicate his experiment because the cathode tube was very well known during this period. In early 1896, X-rays were being utilized clinically in the United States for such things as bone fractures and gun shot wounds. b.RADIOACTIVE DECAY - Radioactive decay is the process by which an atomic nucleus of an unstable atom loses energy by emitting ionizing particles (ionizing radiation). The emission is spontaneous, in that the atom decays without any interaction with another particle from outside the atom. Usually, radioactive decay happens due to a process confined to the nucleus of the unstable atom, but, on occasion (as with the different processes of electron capture and internal conversion), an inner electron of the radioactive atom is also necessary to the process.

c.DETECTING RADIATION - Although many radioactive materials are silver-colored, metallic solids in their pure state, they can vary in color and exist in different physical states, including liquids and gases. They are also physically indistinguishable from other (nonradioactive) metals. In addition, ionizing radiation is not detectable by one's senses. It cannot be seen, heard, smelled, tasted, or felt. For these reasons, simple visual inspection is insufficient to identify radioactive materials, and radiation sources can be virtually impossible to recognize without special markings. To address these problems, scientists have developed the following four major types of instruments to detect and identify radioactive materials and ionizing radiation: Personal Radiation Detector (PRD) Handheld Survey Meter Radiation Isotope Identification Device (RIID) Radiation Portal Monitor (RPM) d.HALF LIFE OF ISOTOPES - Half-life, abbreviated t, is the period of time it takes for the amount of a substance undergoing decay to decrease by half. The name was originally used to describe a characteristic of unstable atoms (radioactive decay), but it may apply to any quantity which follows a set-rate decay. The original term, dating to 1907, was "half-life period", which was later shortened to "half-life" in the early 1950s.[1] Half-lives are very often used to describe quantities undergoing exponential decayfor example, radioactive decaywhere the half-life is constant over the whole life of the decay, and is acharacteristic unit (a natural unit of scale) for the exponential decay equation. However, a half-life can also be defined for non-exponential decay processes, although in these cases the half-life varies throughout the decay process. For a general introduction and description of exponential decay, see the article exponential decay. For a general introduction and description of non-exponential decay, see the article rate law. Corresponding to sediments in environmental processes, if the half-life is greater than the residence time, then the radioactive nuclide will have enough time to significantly alter the concentration.

VII.Discuss the Alpha Gold Foil experiment by Ernest Rutherford Ernest Rutherford, a New Zealander, designed an experiment to study how alpha particles, with a 2+ charge, interact with a piece of very thin gold foil. Rutherford bombarded a very thin peice of gold foil with a stream of postively charged particles known as the alpha particles. he found that most of the alpha particles passed sraight through the foil. This shows that most of the atom is empty space. However, a few of the alpha particles bounced back and some of the alpha particles were defected. This means that the center of the atom, or nucleus, is positively charged because it repelled the Alpha particles, the charrge of which is positive. A direct collision repels an alpha particle backward. This shows that the center of the atom of gold is a tiny core heavier than an

alpha particle. Tutherford concluded that an atom was made of a very dense, positively charged nucleus surrounded primarily by empty space in which the electrons could be found. The radius of the nucleus is extremly small , about 1/100 000 that of the atom itself. The volme of the atom is essentially the space that the electrons occupy. Now we know that the electrons move about the nucleus, not in a fixed location. VIII.Discuss Neils Bohr idea about the atom Niels Bohr proposed the Bohr Model of the Atom in 1915. Because the Bohr Model is a modification of the earlier Rutherford Model, some people call Bohr's Model the Rutherford-Bohr Model. The modern model of the atom is based on quantum mechanics. The Bohr Model contains some errors, but it is important because it describes most of the accepted features of atomic theory without all of the high-level math of the modern version. Unlike earlier models, the Bohr Model explains the Rydberg formula for the spectral emission lines of atomic hydrogen. The Bohr Model is a planetary model in which the negatively-charged electrons orbit a small, positively-charged nucleus similar to the planets orbiting the Sun (except that the orbits are not planar). The gravitational force of the solar system is mathematically akin to the Coulomb (electrical) force between the positively-charged nucleus and the negatively-charged electrons. IX.Make a 20 multiple questions about your research ( topics discussed from I to VII ) underline the correct answer