2.

Segmental phonology-deals with the analysis of speech into segmental phonemes (sounds), which correspond fairly well to phonetic segments of the analyzed speech. E.g. Word /cat/ consist of 3 segments, c,a,t, in the spelling. 3. Suprasegmental phonology-deals with stress and intonation. Studies those aspects of speech that extend over more than one segment. 4. Phonetic system-a branch of linguistic. It is study of speech sounds. It studies oral language. It consists of: sounds, syllables, stress, intonation- all these parts form our pronunciation. 5. Articulatory aspect of speech sound-are connected with sound juncture and with the theories of syllable formation and division. Articulatory phonetic studies how the speech sounds are pronounced. This is what describes the actual sound in detail. 6. Acoustic aspect of speech sound-a syllable is characterized by force of utterance, or accent, pitch of voice. Sonority and length, that is by prosodic features. Acoustic phonetic deals with the physical properties of sound, what sound exactly are coming from the person speaking. 7. Functional aspects of speech sound-characteristic of syllable are connected with constitutive, recognitive and distinctive properties of syllable. The constitutive function- constitutes all morphemes words. (man, men) The distinctive function-a minimal pair (cold-gold) The recognitive function-helps au to recognize what is being said. Phonemic studies how the sounds are used. 8. Affricates are combination of plosive and fricative sounds. They begin like plosive, with a complete closure, but instead of a plossion, they have a very slow release, moving backwards to a place where a friction can be heard. Ts,dz 9. Diphthongs-vowels that change character during their pronunciation that is they begin at one vowel-position, and move towards another. 8 diphthongs. 10. Phonemic transcription-(is the visual system of symbolization of the sounds occurring in spoken human language. The most common type of phonetic transcription uses a phonetic alphabet).it is based on one symbol per phoneme. Each of symbols denotes a phoneme as whole i.e. as an abstraction and generalization. (Bed) 11. Allophonic transcription-(in which different symbols are used for a single phoneme when this phoneme occurs in different contexts.) it contains a lot of information about the exact quality of each sound. 12. Phoneme- (sound) is the smallest unit of speech that distinguishes meaning. Phonemes are not the physical segments themselves, but abstractions of them. An example of a phoneme would be the /t/ found in words like tip, stand, writer, and cat. A phoneme can include slightly different sounds or phones. For instance, the p sound in the English words pin and spin is pronounced differently. Phoneme has 3 aspects: 1. Material, real, objective 2. abstractional, generalized 3. Functional 13. Allophone-different realization of the same phoneme..Allophones are subdivided into principal and subsidiary. Principal allophones are not influenced by the neighboring sounds (cat, make). Most representative of a phoneme as whole, in the sense that it has the greatest number of articulatory feature among all the others variants of phoneme. (t Plosive, voiceless, occlusive, forelingual unit). Subsidiary allophones are subjected to assimilation or accommodation (triumph, fond, kettle). Combinatory they are influenced by neighboring sounds, the specific sounds they are joined together (/tu/ t- becomes rounded due to u-) Positional allophones that are found in traditionally position. (Field befored, l is always dark.) 14. Minimal pairs-is defined as pair of words with different meanings which are pronounced exactly the same way except for one sound that differs. Eg. Let-lit, pat-bat 15. Contrastive distribution-when phonemes are found in contrastive pairs. If two sounds are separate phonemes, then two sounds are contrastive. Pair of phones is contrastive if interchanging the two can change the meaning of a word. Eg. Sock-shock, where the two meanings are distinguished by the occurrence of /s/ or /sh/. 16. Complementary distribution-when the strict separation of places where particular realizations can occur is observed. Phones that are in complementary distribution are allophones of single phoneme. Eg. Spoof-poof. 17. Syllable- is a unit of organization for a sequence of speech sounds. It is typically made up of a syllable nucleus (most often a vowel) with optional initial and final margins (typically, consonants).A word that consists of a single syllable (cat) is called a monosyllable. Two syllables (monkey) -disyllable. Three syllables -trisyllable . More than three syllables (intelligence) - polysyllable. The parts of the syllable: peak-central part of the syllable, most commonly a vowel. Onset - segments preceding a peak. Coda- segments following a peak. Rhyme - a peak and coda taken together. Eg. Cat- /a/peak, /c/ onset, /t/ coda /at/ rhyme.

18. Phonotactics (in Greek phone = voice and tactic = course) is a branch of phonology that deals with restrictions in a language on the permissible combinations of phonemes. Phonotactics defines permissible syllable structure, consonant clusters, and vowel sequences by means of phonotactical constraints. 19. The Sonority Sequencing Principle is a phonotactic principle that aims to outline the structure of a syllable in terms of sonority. In any syllable, the center of the syllable, namely the syllable nucleus, or the vowel, constitutes a sonority peak that is preceded and/or followed by a sequence of segments--consonants--with progressively decreasing sonority values (i.e., the sonority has to fall toward both edges of the syllable).word "trust": 20. Constraints on syllable formation1) A syllable boundary (riba) is found wherever there is a word boundary that also coincides (sutampa) with the morphological boundary between elements in a compound. (nutshel-sudurt.zodziai). 2) Affricates cant be split. 3) When A and B and phonotactic constraints allow, consonants are syllabified with whichever of the 2 adjacent vowels which are more strongly stressed. Universal properties of syllables: 1) Syllables begin with a consonant (onset) 2) Syllables have 1 vowel (peak) 3) Syllables end with a vowel (nocoda) 4) Syllables have at most one consonant at an edge (* complex) 5) Syllables are composed of consonants and vowels (onset and coda) 21. Accent/stress-the singling out of one or more syllables in word, which is accompanied by the change of force of utterance, pitch of the voice qualitative characteristic of the sound, which is usually a vowel. The greater degree if prominence given to one or more syllables as compared with that of the other syllable or syllables in one and the same word. Types of accent: Dynamic or force stress (intensity of articulation) Musical of pitch, or tonic accent (different pitch level of different pitch direction) Quantitative accent (when we make longer the vowel) Qualitative (when we obscure a vowel phoneme) Degrees of stress: British-primary (the stronger degree of stress), secondary (is weaker degree of stress), weak Americ- primary, secondary, tertiary, weak 22. Rhythmic tendency-alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables. Eg.radical Retentive retention of the primary stress on the parent word. Eg.person,personal Semantic-the existence of certain categories of words the accentuation of which is the crucial determining factor. Eg.well known, sit down. 23. Recessive tendency results in placing stress on the initial syllable. There are 2 subtypes: Unrestricted recessive - falls on the first syllable. Restricted recessive - characterized by placing stress on the root of the word with a prefix that has no meaning. 24. Intonation- is the variation of pitch when speaking. Intonation is the rise and fall of the voice in speaking, especially as this affects the meaning of what is being said. Intonation components are stress, rhythm, pausation and tempo, tone and melody. Functions of intonation: The attitudinal-it enables us to express emotions and attitudes as we speak and this adds special meaning to the spoken language. The accentual it helps to mark out the word which is the most important in the tone unit. The grammatical it helps to make questions, statements The discourse- the regulation of conversational behavior. 25.The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is a system of phonetic notation based on the Latin alphabet, devised by the International Phonetic Association as a standardized representation of the sounds of spoken language. The IPA is used by linguists, speech pathologists and therapists, foreign language teachers and students, singers, actors, lexicographers, and translators. The IPA is designed to represent only those qualities of speech that are distinctive in spoken language: phonemes, intonation, and the separation of words and syllables.

2. SEGMENTAL PHONOLOGYDEALS WITH THE ANALYSIS OF SPEECH INTO SEGMENTAL PHONEMES (SOUNDS), WHICH CORRESPOND FAIRLY WELL TO PHONETIC SEGMENTS OF THE ANALYZED SPEECH. E.G. WORD /CAT/ CONSIST OF 3 SEGMENTS, C,A,T, IN THE SPELLING. 3. SUPRASEGME NTAL PHONOLOGYDEALS WITH STRESS AND INTONATION. STUDIES THOSE ASPECTS OF SPEECH THAT EXTEND OVER MORE THAN ONE SEGMENT. 4. PHONETIC SYSTEM-A BRANCH OF LINGUISTIC. IT IS STUDY OF SPEECH SOUNDS. IT STUDIES ORAL LANGUAGE. IT CONSISTS OF: SOUNDS, SYLLABLES, STRESS, INTONATIONALL THESE PARTS FORM OUR PRONUNCIATIO N. 5. ARTICULATOR Y ASPECT OF SPEECH SOUND-ARE CONNECTED WITH SOUND JUNCTURE AND WITH THE THEORIES OF SYLLABLE FORMATION

AND DIVISION. ARTICULATOR Y PHONETIC STUDIES HOW THE SPEECH SOUNDS ARE PRONOUNCED . THIS IS WHAT DESCRIBES THE ACTUAL SOUND IN DETAIL. 6. ACOUSTIC ASPECT OF SPEECH SOUND-A SYLLABLE IS CHARACTERIZ ED BY FORCE OF UTTERANCE, OR ACCENT, PITCH OF VOICE. SONORITY AND LENGTH, THAT IS BY PROSODIC FEATURES. ACOUSTIC PHONETIC DEALS WITH THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOUND, WHAT SOUND EXACTLY ARE COMING FROM THE PERSON SPEAKING. 7. FUNCTIONAL ASPECTS OF SPEECH SOUNDCHARACTERIS TIC OF SYLLABLE ARE CONNECTED WITH CONSTITUTIVE , RECOGNITIVE AND DISTINCTIVE PROPERTIES OF SYLLABLE. THE CONSTITUTIVE FUNCTIONCONSTITUTES ALL MORPHEMES

WORDS. (MAN, MEN) THE DISTINCTIVE FUNCTION-A MINIMAL PAIR (COLD-GOLD) THE RECOGNITIVE FUNCTIONHELPS AU TO RECOGNIZE WHAT IS BEING SAID. PHONEMIC STUDIES HOW THE SOUNDS ARE USED. 8. AFFRICATES ARE COMBINATION OF PLOSIVE AND FRICATIVE SOUNDS. THEY BEGIN LIKE PLOSIVE, WITH A COMPLETE CLOSURE, BUT INSTEAD OF A PLOSSION, THEY HAVE A VERY SLOW RELEASE, MOVING BACKWARDS TO A PLACE WHERE A FRICTION CAN BE HEARD. TS,DZ 9. DIPHTHONGS -VOWELS THAT CHANGE CHARACTER DURING THEIR PRONUNCIATI ON THAT IS THEY BEGIN AT ONE VOWELPOSITION, AND MOVE TOWARDS ANOTHER. 8 DIPHTHONGS. 10. PHONEMIC TRANSCRIPTI ON-(IS THE VISUAL SYSTEM OF

SYMBOLIZATIO N OF THE SOUNDS OCCURRING IN SPOKEN HUMAN LANGUAGE. THE MOST COMMON TYPE OF PHONETIC TRANSCRIPTIO N USES A PHONETIC ALPHABET).IT IS BASED ON ONE SYMBOL PER PHONEME. EACH OF SYMBOLS DENOTES A PHONEME AS WHOLE I.E. AS AN ABSTRACTION AND GENERALIZATI ON. (BED)

11. ALLOPHONIC TRANSCRIPTI ON-(IN WHICH DIFFERENT SYMBOLS ARE USED FOR A SINGLE PHONEME WHEN THIS PHONEME OCCURS IN DIFFERENT CONTEXTS.) IT CONTAINS A LOT OF INFORMATION ABOUT THE EXACT QUALITY OF EACH SOUND.

12. PHONEME(SOUND) IS THE SMALLEST UNIT OF SPEECH THAT DISTINGUISHES MEANING. PHONEMES ARE NOT THE PHYSICAL SEGMENTS THEMSELVES, BUT ABSTRACTIONS OF THEM. AN EXAMPLE OF A PHONEME WOULD BE THE /T/ FOUND IN WORDS LIKE TIP, STAND, WRITER, AND CAT. A PHONEME CAN INCLUDE SLIGHTLY DIFFERENT SOUNDS OR PHONES. FOR INSTANCE, THE P SOUND IN THE ENGLISH WORDS PIN AND SPIN IS PRONOUNCED DIFFERENTLY. PHONEME HAS 3 ASPECTS: 1. MATERIAL, REAL, OBJECTIVE 2. ABSTRACTIONA L, GENERALIZED 3. FUNCTIONAL 13. ALLOPHONEDIFFERENT REALIZATION OF THE SAME PHONEME..ALL OPHONES ARE SUBDIVIDED INTO PRINCIPAL AND SUBSIDIARY. PRINCIPAL ALLOPHONES ARE NOT INFLUENCED BY THE NEIGHBORING SOUNDS (CAT, MAKE). MOST REPRESENTATI

VE OF A PHONEME AS WHOLE, IN THE SENSE THAT IT HAS THE GREATEST NUMBER OF ARTICULATOR Y FEATURE AMONG ALL THE OTHERS VARIANTS OF PHONEME. (T PLOSIVE, VOICELESS, OCCLUSIVE, FORELINGUAL UNIT). SUBSIDIARY ALLOPHONE S ARE SUBJECTED TO ASSIMILATION OR ACCOMMODA TION (TRIUMPH, FOND, KETTLE). COMBINATOR Y THEY ARE INFLUENCED BY NEIGHBORING SOUNDS, THE SPECIFIC SOUNDS THEY ARE JOINED TOGETHER (/TU/ TBECOMES ROUNDED DUE TO U-) POSITIONAL ALLOPHONES THAT ARE FOUND IN TRADITIONALL Y POSITION. (FIELD BEFORED, L IS ALWAYS DARK.) 14. MINIMAL PAIRS-IS DEFINED AS PAIR OF WORDS WITH DIFFERENT MEANINGS WHICH ARE PRONOUNCED EXACTLY THE SAME WAY EXCEPT FOR ONE SOUND THAT

DIFFERS. EG. LET-LIT, PATBAT 15. CONTRASTIV E DISTRIBUTIO N-WHEN PHONEMES ARE FOUND IN CONTRASTIVE PAIRS. IF TWO SOUNDS ARE SEPARATE PHONEMES, THEN TWO SOUNDS ARE CONTRASTIVE. PAIR OF PHONES IS CONTRASTIVE IF INTERCHANGI NG THE TWO CAN CHANGE THE MEANING OF A WORD. EG. SOCKSHOCK, WHERE THE TWO MEANINGS ARE DISTINGUISHE D BY THE OCCURRENCE OF /S/ OR /SH/. 16. COMPLEMEN TARY DISTRIBUTIO N-WHEN THE STRICT SEPARATION OF PLACES WHERE PARTICULAR REALIZATIONS CAN OCCUR IS OBSERVED. PHONES THAT ARE IN COMPLEMENT ARY DISTRIBUTION ARE ALLOPHONES OF SINGLE PHONEME. EG. SPOOF-POOF 17. SYLLABLE- IS A UNIT OF ORGANIZATIO N FOR A SEQUENCE OF SPEECH SOUNDS. IT IS

TYPICALLY MADE UP OF A SYLLABLE NUCLEUS (MOST OFTEN A VOWEL) WITH OPTIONAL INITIAL AND FINAL MARGINS (TYPICALLY, CONSONANTS). A WORD THAT CONSISTS OF A SINGLE SYLLABLE (CAT) IS CALLED A MONOSYLLAB LE. TWO SYLLABLES (MONKEY) -DISYLLABLE. THREE SYLLABLES -TRISYLLABLE . MORE THAN THREE SYLLABLES (INTELLIGENCE )POLYSYLLABL E. THE PARTS OF THE SYLLABLE: PEAK-CENTRAL PART OF THE SYLLABLE, MOST COMMONLY A VOWEL. ONSET - SEGMENTS PRECEDING A PEAK. CODASEGMENTS FOLLOWING A PEAK. RHYME A PEAK AND CODA TAKEN TOGETHER. EG. CAT/A/PEAK, /C/ ONSET, /T/ CODA /AT/ RHYME. 18. PHONOTACTI CS (IN GREEK PHONE = VOICE AND TACTIC = COURSE) IS A BRANCH OF PHONOLOGY THAT DEALS WITH

RESTRICTIONS IN A LANGUAGE ON THE PERMISSIBLE COMBINATIONS OF PHONEMES. PHONOTACTICS DEFINES PERMISSIBLE SYLLABLE STRUCTURE, CONSONANT CLUSTERS, AND VOWEL SEQUENCES BY MEANS OF PHONOTACTICA L CONSTRAINTS. 19. THE SONORITY SEQUENCING PRINCIPLE IS A PHONOTACTIC PRINCIPLE THAT AIMS TO OUTLINE THE STRUCTURE OF A SYLLABLE IN TERMS OF SONORITY. IN ANY SYLLABLE, THE CENTER OF THE SYLLABLE, NAMELY THE SYLLABLE NUCLEUS, OR THE VOWEL, CONSTITUTES A SONORITY PEAK THAT IS PRECEDED AND/OR FOLLOWED BY A SEQUENCE OF SEGMENTS-CONSONANTS-WITH PROGRESSIVEL Y DECREASING SONORITY VALUES (I.E., THE SONORITY HAS TO FALL TOWARD BOTH EDGES OF THE SYLLABLE).WOR D "TRUST": 20. CONSTRAINTS ON SYLLABLE FORMATION1) A SYLLABLE BOUNDARY (RIBA) IS FOUND

WHEREVER THERE IS A WORD BOUNDARY THAT ALSO COINCIDES (SUTAMPA) WITH THE MORPHOLOGI CAL BOUNDARY BETWEEN ELEMENTS IN A COMPOUND. (NUTSHELSUDURT.ZODZ IAI). 2) AFFRICATES CANT BE SPLIT. 3) WHEN A AND B AND PHONOTACTIC CONSTRAINTS ALLOW, CONSONANTS ARE SYLLABIFIED WITH WHICHEVER OF THE 2 ADJACENT VOWELS WHICH ARE MORE STRONGLY STRESSED. UNIVERSAL PROPERTIES OF SYLLABLES: 1) SYLLABLES BEGIN WITH A CONSONANT (ONSET) 2) SYLLABLES HAVE 1 VOWEL (PEAK) 3) SYLLABLES END WITH A VOWEL (NOCODA) 4) SYLLABLES HAVE AT MOST ONE CONSONANT AT AN EDGE (* COMPLEX) 5) SYLLABLES ARE COMPOSED OF CONSONANTS AND VOWELS (ONSET AND CODA)

21. ACCENT/STR ESS-THE SINGLING OUT OF ONE OR MORE SYLLABLES IN WORD, WHICH IS ACCOMPANIED BY THE CHANGE OF FORCE OF UTTERANCE, PITCH OF THE VOICE QUALITATIVE CHARACTERIS TIC OF THE SOUND, WHICH IS USUALLY A VOWEL. THE GREATER DEGREE IF PROMINENCE GIVEN TO ONE OR MORE SYLLABLES AS COMPARED WITH THAT OF THE OTHER SYLLABLE OR SYLLABLES IN ONE AND THE SAME WORD. TYPES OF ACCENT: DYNAMIC OR FORCE STRESS (INTENSITY OF ARTICULATION ) MUSICAL OF PITCH, OR TONIC ACCENT (DIFFERENT PITCH LEVEL OF DIFFERENT PITCH DIRECTION) QUANTITATIV E ACCENT (WHEN WE MAKE LONGER THE VOWEL) QUALITATIVE (WHEN WE OBSCURE A VOWEL PHONEME) DEGREES OF STRESS:

BRITISHPRIMARY (THE STRONGER DEGREE OF STRESS), SECONDARY (IS WEAKER DEGREE OF STRESS), WEAK. AMERICPRIMARY, SECONDARY, TERTIARY, WEAK

22. RHYTHMIC TENDENCYALTERNATION OF STRESSED AND UNSTRESSED SYLLABLES. EG.RADICAL RETENTIVE RETENTION OF THE PRIMARY STRESS ON THE PARENT WORD. EG.PERSON,PE RSONAL SEMANTICTHE EXISTENCE OF CERTAIN CATEGORIES OF WORDS THE ACCENTUATIO N OF WHICH IS THE CRUCIAL DETERMINING FACTOR. EG.WELL KNOWN, SIT DOWN. 23. RECESSIVE TENDENCY RESULTS IN PLACING STRESS ON THE INITIAL SYLLABLE.

THERE ARE 2 SUBTYPES: UNRESTRICTE D RECESSIVE FALLS ON THE FIRST SYLLABLE. RESTRICTED RECESSIVE CHARACTERIZE D BY PLACING STRESS ON THE ROOT OF THE WORD WITH A PREFIX THAT HAS NO MEANING. 24. INTONATIONIS THE VARIATION OF PITCH WHEN SPEAKING. INTONATION IS THE RISE AND FALL OF THE VOICE IN SPEAKING, ESPECIALLY AS THIS AFFECTS THE MEANING OF WHAT IS BEING SAID. INTONATION COMPONENTS

ARE STRESS, RHYTHM, PAUSATION AND TEMPO, TONE AND MELODY. FUNCTIONS OF INTONATION: THE ATTITUDINA L-IT ENABLES US TO EXPRESS EMOTIONS AND ATTITUDES AS WE SPEAK AND THIS ADDS SPECIAL MEANING TO THE SPOKEN LANGUAGE. THE ACCENTUAL IT HELPS TO MARK OUT THE WORD WHICH IS THE MOST IMPORTANT IN THE TONE UNIT. THE GRAMMATIC AL IT HELPS TO MAKE

QUESTIONS, STATEMENTS THE DISCOURSETHE REGULATION OF CONVERSATIO NAL BEHAVIOR. 25.THE INTERNATIO NAL PHONETIC ALPHABET (IPA) IS A SYSTEM OF PHONETIC NOTATION BASED ON THE LATIN ALPHABET, DEVISED BY THE INTERNATIONA L PHONETIC ASSOCIATION AS A STANDARDIZE D REPRESENTATI ON OF THE SOUNDS OF SPOKEN LANGUAGE.

THE IPA IS USED BY LINGUISTS, SPEECH PATHOLOGISTS AND THERAPISTS, FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHERS AND STUDENTS, SINGERS, ACTORS, LEXICOGRAPHE RS, AND TRANSLATORS. THE IPA IS DESIGNED TO REPRESENT ONLY THOSE QUALITIES OF SPEECH THAT ARE DISTINCTIVE IN SPOKEN LANGUAGE: PHONEMES, INTONATION, AND THE SEPARATION OF WORDS AND SYLLABLES.