LMPHY122

LMPHY-122 PHYSICS LAB-II
PHYSICS LAB
MANUAL

Course Code: PHY122
Course Title: PHYSICS LAB-II

The principle of science, the definition, almost, is the following: The test of all
knowledge is experiment. Experiment is the sole judge of scientific truth. But what is
the source of knowledge? Where do the laws that are to be tested come from?
Experiment, itself, helps to produce these laws, in the sense that it gives us hints. But
also needed is imagination to create from these hints the great generalizations-to guess
at the wonderful, simple, but very strange patterns beneath them all. And then to
experiment to check again whether we have made the right guess.

Richard Feynman


SR.
NO.
DESCRIPTION
1 An introduction to units, errors ,different types of graphs and measurement of length, mass
and time
2 To study the induced e.m.f as the function of velocity of magnet.

3 To study the variation of magnetic field with the distance along the axis of circular coil
carrying current by plotting a graph.
4 To find the frequency of ac main by using electric vibrator.

5 To plot a graph between current and frequency in series and parallel LCR circuit and find
resonant frequency, quality factor and band width.

6 To study the voltage regulation and ripple factor of (a) Half Wave Rectifier (b) Full Wave
Rectifier (c) Bridge rectifier and trace it input and output . Also study the L-type and -type
filter circuit.

7 To find the coefficient of self inductance of a coil by Andersons method using a head phone.

8 To determine Hall Voltage and Hall Coefficient using Hall Effect.

9 To study the characteristics of PNP and NPN transistor (CE and CB).

10 To trace the Lissajous figures using CRO. Also find the phase shift.
11 To find the wavelength of He-Ne laser by using Michelson interferometer.
12 To study the output characteristics of FET/MOSFET
13 To measure the capacitance of plate capacitor by charge measurement/ as a function of
area of plates/determine the dielectric constant of different materials
14 To draw the forward and reverse characteristics of P-N junction diode and draw load line.

TEXTBOOK:
1. LMPHY122.doc

OTHER READINGS:
2. Arora C.L., B.Sc. Practical Physics Chand S. & Company, New Delhi,
Twentieth edition, 2007


Experiment 1
Title: Simple measurements and graphical analysis
Equipment to used: Vernier callipers, screw gauge and multimeter

Material Required: Linear-linear and semi-log graph paper
Learning objective: (1) Students learn the use of Vernier caliper, screw gauge and
multimeter
(ii) Students learn to plot linear-linear and semi-log graphs
Introduction: The precision of length measurements may be increased by using a device
that uses a sliding vernier scale. Two such instruments (identify in the picture above) that
are based on a vernier scale which you will use in the laboratory to measure lengths of
objects are the vernier callipers and the micrometer screw gauge. These instruments
have a main scale (in millimetres) and a sliding or rotating vernier scale.
A multimeter is an electronic measuring instrument that combines several measurement
functions in one unit. A typical multimeter may include features such as the ability to
measure (AC/DC) voltage & current, resistance and testing of a diode.
Zero error occurs when the measuring instrument registered a reading when there
should be none.
Least count of a measuring instrument is the smallest quantity that can be measured
accurately using that instrument. The degree of accuracy of a measurement can be
concluded from the least count of the instrument
Procedure:
Part A (Measurement)
1. To find the density of the given material
You are given a rectangular block and you have to find the density of material of which
the rectangular block is made of. We know density(d) =[mass(m kg)/volume (V m
3
)].
To find the volume of the rectangular block measure its length, width and height by
vernierc caliper.
Take at least five readings of each dimension. Also remember to check and note in
your report sheet the zero error and least count of the vernier caliper you are
using. Even if zero error is zero entry should be recorded in your report sheet.
Next measure the mass of the rectangular block using a balance; take at least five
readings. Also note zero error and least count of the balance you use for finding the
mass.
Tabulate the data, calculate the density along with the possible error.
Error in density(od)
d=m/V or od/d= (om/m)+ (oV/V) (derive this expression)
Estimate (om) and (oV) to estimate the error (od) in the density you have found out in
your experiment.

2. To find the resistivity of a given metal wire
You will need screw gauge and a multimeter for this experiment.
Resistivity ()=
Resistance(R ohms) [ area of cross-section of the wire (A m
2
)/ length of the wire(l m)]
Derive the units of
Take a piece of a metal wire of almost uniform cross-section; measure (at leat five times)
its cross section by screw gauge and length (at least five times) by vernier caliper.
Measure the resistance of the above piece of wire using a multimeter( at leat five times)
Tabulate the data and calculate along with possible errors.
Error in
= R A/l so that o/= oR/R + oA/A + ol/l
How do you estimate oA?
Part B (graphical analysis)
Linear graph paper
Let us consider the case of time period T of a simple pendulum which is written as
T = (2t) (L/g)
1/2
----------(1)
L is the length of the pendulum while g is acceleration due to gravity. Eq. (1) can be
rewritten as
T
2
= (4t
2
/g) L---------(2)
Eq. (2) is an equation of straight line with slope = (4t2/g) and intercept = 0
One can find the value of g from the graph of T
2
with L.
In one of the experiments on simple pendulum a student came up with the following data
Table 1
S. No Time for 10 oscillations
(s)
Effective length of the pendulum
(m)
1 16 0.6
2 18 0.8
3 20 1.0
4 22 1,2
5 24 1,4
6 25 1.6
7 27 1.8
8 28 2.0

Find the value of g by plotting the above data i.e T
2
Vs L; T is the time period of the
pendulum for its effective length L.
How to plot the graph
Step 1. From Eq. 2 we have to plot T
2
vs L (L should in meter)
Prepare the Table with following headings (prepare directly in your Lab Report Sheet)
Sample Table
S.No. L
(m)
T
(s)
T
2

1. 0.6 1.6 2.56~2.6


Step 2. Choose a linear graph sheet which is linearly (normally in mm) graduated on
both X as well Y- axis
Step 3. Choose Y-axis for T
2
and X-axis for L
Step 4. Max T2 is 1 and min is 0.25; choose your scale so that you can mark 0.25 clearly.
Similarly choose scale for L on X-axis.
Step 5. Mark the points on the graph with a sharp pencil
Step 6. Draw a straight line through the points so that maximum number of points are
very close to the line (Best fit we will not discuss presently)
Step 7. Find the slope from the graph and calculate g
Exercise
In the above experiment the error (oT) in time period T is (0.1s) while the length L has
error (oL) equal to 0.01m. Calculate the error in g
Semi-log graph paper
Radioactive decay is given by N(t) = N(0) e-at , where N(t) are the observed counts at
time t,
N(0) are the counts at time t = 0 (fixed arbitrarily) and a is the decay constant. Calculate
N(0)
and a by graphical technique from the given data (Table 2)
N(t) = N(0) e-
at

Or ln N(t) = ln N(0) - ot (ln is log to the base e)
Or 2.3log N(t) = 2.3 log N (0) -ot (change of log base to 10)
Or log N(t) = log N(0) - (o/2.3) t.(3)
This is an equation of a straight line with y=log N(t), x- - (o/2.3) t with log N(0) as
intercept and plot of log N(t) vs t will give values of o . Since y is in log form and x is
in linear form the plot has to to prepared using semi-log graph paper whose y-axis is in
log scale while x-axis is in linear scale.
Table 2 summarizes the data collected from an experiment on radioactive decay. Plot the
data on semi-log paper and calculate o and N(0) for this decay.
Exercise: Half-life t is defined as the time needed to have [N(t)/N(0)]= ; derive an
expression for t.
Calculate the value of t for the radioactive process tabulated in Table 2.

Table 2
Time (days) Relative Activity
0.2 35.0
2.2 25.0
4.0 22.1
5.0 17.9

6.0 16.8
8.0 13.7
11.0 12.4
12.0 10.3
15.0 7.5
18.0 4.9
26.0 4.0
33.0 2.4
39.0 1.4
45.0 1.1
Important:
(i) Give a title to the graph; in present case it will be T2 Vs L for a simple pendulum.
(ii) Mark scales on the graph sheet; X-axis 10mm = so many m and Y-axis 10mm=
so
many seconds
(iii) Mark X-axis and Y-axis with quantity (along with units) you are plotting
(iv)Calculate the slope and g on the graph sheet so that a graph is complete and one
need not to refer to the Lab Sheets.
Interpolation: From the graph you can find the L for T=0.44 (for example, within the
present data set)) even though there is no experimental data; this process is called
interpolation.
Extrapolation: One can extend the length of the line so that one can predict L for T
=0.1s or 2.5s (outside the present data set); this is called extrapolation.


Example 2. Change in the value g with the distance h (outside the earth) is given
by g
h
(value of g at a height h)= g(1-2h/R) where R is the radius of earth

Data from an experiment is given in the following table
S.No g
h
m/s
2

h
m
1 8.8 0.05R
2 7.8 0.10R
3 6.9 0.15R
4 5.9 0.20R
5 4.9 0.25R
6 3.9 0.30R

By graphical analysis find the value of g. Can you find out the value of R from the
graph?
Semi-log graph
Radioactive decay is given by N(t) = N(0) e
-ot
, where N(t) are the observed counts at
time t, N(0) are the counts at time t = 0 (fixed arbitrarily) and o is the decay constant.
Calculate N(0) and o by graphical technique from the given data:
Time t
S
No. of counts
1.0 905.0
2.0 820.0
3.0 735.0
4.0 670.0
5.0 600.0
6.0 550.0

N(t) = N(0) e
-ot

Or ln N(t) = ln N(o) - ot (ln is log to the base e)
Or 2.3log N(t) = 2.3 log N (0) -ot (change of log base to 10)
Or log N(t) = log N(0) - (o/2.3) t
Plot of log N(t) with t is a straight line with log N(o) as intercept and -o/2.3 as slope.
Since one side is log so use a semi-log graph paper to get the values of N(0) and o.

Log-log graph
Planetary period T (in earth years) is related to its distance R( AU, astronomical
units; 1AU is equal to average separation between earth and sun) by the relationship of
the form
T = kR
n

Calculate k and n by graphical analysis from the following data


T = kR
n

or log T = log k + n log R
Plot of log T vs log R is a straight line with log k as intercept and n as slope. Since both
sides are in log form use log-log graph paper.

Error analysis

Measurement is basic to science. A measurement is meaningful only if the uncertainties
involved are specified. An operator X has to specify the uncertainty (error) in his final
result; the practice of
comparing the result with
standard value is
unscientific as the
experimental
conditions/instruments used to find out the standard value are different when compared
to those of X. Please remember

The error in an experimentally measured quantity is never found by comparing
it to some number found in a book or web page

These uncertainties do not include the blunders/mistakes of the person performing the
measurement. These errors are due to limitations of the measuring instruments (like zero
error, faulty calibration, error due to parallax, bias of the operator etc) and uncontrollable
changes in experimental parameters like temperature, pressure, voltage etc. The
instrument errors (systematic errors) are instrument specific, can be either +ve or ve and
Name of the planet T in
Earth years
R in
Astronomical units
Mercury 0.39 0.24
Venus 0.72 0.62
Earth 1.00 1.00
Mars 1.52 1.88
Jupiter 5.20 11.86
Saturan 9.54 29.46

are constant in nature. On the other hand errors due to changes in experimental
parameters are random in nature; can be both +ve as well as ve in a particular set of
easements.
Estimation of systematic errors
There is no prescribed method to minimize systematic errors. An operator has to examine
various measuring instruments (scales, meters, etc) for zero-errors (zero of a meter or
vernier caliper might have shifted), take readings so as to minimize parallax error and if
possible check the calibration of the measuring instruments. Systematic errors cannot be
minimized by taking large number of measurement (Why?).
Estimation of random errors
Random errors are both +ve as well ve in a measurement cycle, can be handled by well-
known statistical techniques. Two basic techniques are:
(i) Arithmetic Mean or simply mean = (X
1
+ X
2
+ X
3
+..+X
N
)/N=
X
M

(ii) Standard deviation = {(1/N) [(X
1
-X
M
)
2
+ (X
2
-X
M
)
2
+ (X
3
-X
M
)
2
+..+(X
N
-
X
M
)
2
}
1/2

It shows how much deviation there is from the "average" (mean). A low standard
deviation indicates that the data points tend to be very close to the mean. whereas high
standard deviation indicates that the data are spread out over a large range of values.
Propagation of random errors
If Z is a function of X and Y so that we have Z = F(X,Y). Error in X is AX while for Y
the error is AY how to find error in Z (AZ) { X and Y are independent that measurement
in X does not induce error in Y and vice versa; this is the case in most of your
experiments.)
What will be AZ in case Z = X Y ? The standard procedure is:
Contribution to the error AZ due to AX is given by (oF/oX) AX [(oF/oX) is partial
derivative of F with respect to X treating Y as constant) while due to AY the contribution
is (oF/oY) AY.
Total AZ is given by
AZ = {(oF/oX)
2
(AX)
2
+(oF/oY)
2
(AY)
2
}
(1/2)
Example1. Z= X+Y
oZ/oX =1, oZ/oY = 1 so AZ = {(AX)
2
+ ( AY)
2
}
(1/2)

What will be AZ in case Z = X Y ? What conclusion you arrive at from this example?
What will be AZ in case Z =a X + Y/b ? where a and b are constants?

Example2. Z = XY
oZ/oX =Y, oZ/oY = X AZ = {Y
2
(AX)
2
+X
2
( AY)
2
}
(1/2)
. This is absolute error in Z.
Alternately we can have AZ/Z = AZ/XY ={(AX/X)
2
+ ( AY/Y)
2
}
(1/2)
. This is relative error in
Z and can be expressed in terms of % by the relation (AZ/Z) x 100.

Example3. Z = X/Y
oZ/oX = 1/Y, oZ/oY = -X/Y
2
AZ ={(1/Y)
2
(AX)
2
+[(X)
2
]/Y
4
( AY)
2
}
(1/2)
.
Which gives AZ/Z ={(AX/X)
2
+ ( AY/Y)
2
}
(1/2)
.
The procedure outlined above can be used for functions with more than two independent
variables.

Significant figures
The final result of an experiment should be expressed [measured value] [estimated
error] units. If it is a single measurement like measurement of length your final result
could be for example, 10.280.05cm which means that the length could be from 10.33 to
10.23cm. All the four digits in the result are important; your result has four significant
digits. If the object whose length was measured has breadth say 5.410.05cm (measured
with the same scale used for the measurement of length so that error is same). Area =
(10.280.05cm) x (5.410.05cm). (10.28) x (5.41) = 55.6148 and error in area =
{(0.05)
2
+ (0.5)
2
}
1/2
= 0.070710678 (calculated on CASIO 5-VPAM). So our result will
look like 55.61480.070710678 cm
2
. We know the error in our length as well as breadth
measurement is 0.05cm so the order of magnitude of the error in area must be same
which turns out to be 0.07cm when you carefully examine the final result for area. Note
that the error in area is more than that of length or breadth which is expected(WHY?). So
area = 55.61480.07cm
2
which means that area is expressed to 1/10000 accuracy while
error is only accurate to 1/100. Hence digits 4 and 8 have no significance in the final
result which is area = 55.610.07 cm
2
.

Errors in the measurement determine the number of significant digits one
should use in the final result
How to calculate errors in your Lab experiments
1. Check for zero-errors in all your measuring instruments like scales, vernier calipers,
screw gauges, volt/amper meters etc and note them properly in your LAB Note Book=
no rough copy is to used in the LAB for recording of the data.
2. Check and record the least count of all the measuring instruments. Examine each
instrument carefully to determine the least count. For example a scale may be graduated
so that it has markers after every one mm; least count being 0.1cm. However, if the
markers are distant enough so that one can read to an accuracy of o.5mm the least count
is 0.05cm.

Intelligent and careful use of the measuring instruments to get best out of these
instruments is the basic experimental skill. In real world you will never get
ideal instruments.
3. Make the required measurements and record these measurements directly in your
LAB note book. Units of all the quantities you have entered in the note book should be
mentioned.
4. Compute the result
5. Calculate the error by standard deviation technique.
6. Calculate the percentage error by partial differentiation technique


Experiment No.2: To Study the induced e.m.f. as function velocity of the magnet.
Equipment Required: A small permanent magnet mounted at the middle of a semi-circular
arc, a coil consisting of number of turns, two weights, stopwatch, capacitor, diode, resistance,
voltmeter
Material Required: A small strong permanent magnet, a stopwatch
Learning Objectives:
- Electromagnetic induction
- Induced e.m.f
- Dependence of the magnitude of induced e.m.f on the velocity of the magnet.
Outline of the Procedure:
- Mount the magnet at the middle point of the semi-circular arc and suspend the rigid
aluminium frame from its centre so that whole frame can oscillate freely through the
coil.
- Adjust the position of two weights on the diameter arm of the arc to have minimum
time period.
- Connect the terminals of the coil to the diode circuit for measuring the peak value of
induced e.m.f.
- Note time for about 20 oscillations with an amplitude of about say 20cm and
respective peak voltage.
- Repeat thrice keeping the amplitude same and find the time period. Also note the peak
voltage each time.
- Repeat the experiment after changing the amplitude and take 8-10 readings.
- Now change the time period by adjusting the position of the weights on the diameter
arm. Take about three readings at this position.
- Repeat the experiment after changing the time-period and take 8-10 readings.

Scope of the results expected: This experiment will help in understanding the nature and
polarity of induced e.m.f. One can apply the acquired knowledge to see the dependence of
induced e.m.f. on velocity of magnet w.r.t. the pickup coil.

Parameters and Plots:
(A) Time period constant, amplitude variable:
Mean position of the centre of the magnet= cm.
Radius of the semi-circular arc R
0
= cm.

Sr.No. Amplitude
a = R
0
0

Time for 20
Oscillations
Mean time
period(T)
e
o
e
o
/a= e
o
/ R
0
0
Linear velocity
v = (2/T) R
0
0

1

.
.
.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)

Mean

2

(B) Amplitude constant, time period variable:

Sr.No. Amplitude
a = R
0
0

Time for 20
Oscillations
Mean time
period(T)
e
o
e
o
T Linear velocity
v = (2/T) R
0
0

1

(i)
(ii)
(iii)

Mean

Model Plot:

Cautions:
- The semi circular frame should oscillate freely as a whole on the knife edge.
- The magnet should pass freely through the coils..
- The magnet should be small and should be mounted at the middle of the semi circular
arc.


Experiment No. 3
Title: To study the variation of magnetic field with the distance along the axis of circular coil
carrying current by plotting a graph. (Using Stewart and Gees apparatus.)
Equipments required: Stewart and Gees type tangent galvanometer, a battery, a rheostat, an
ammeter, a one-way key, a reversing key, connecting wires.
Material Used: NA
To understand the working of Tangent Galvanometer using Tangent Law.
To study the direction and magnitude of the magnetic field around the coil.

Circuit Diagram

Outline of Procedure:
1. Place the instrument in such a way that the arms of the magnetometer lie roughly east and
west and the magnetic needle lies at the centre of the vertical coil. Place the eye a little
above the coil and rotate the instrument in the horizontal plane till the coil, the needle and
its image in the mirror provided at the base of the compass box, all lie in same vertical
plane. The coil is thus set roughly in the magnetic meridian. Rotate the compass box so
that the pointer lies on the 0-0 line.
2. Connect the galvanometer to a battery, rheostat, one way key and an ammeter through a
reversing key.
3. Adjust the value of the current so that the magnetometer gives a deflection of the order of
60-70
0
degrees. Reverse the current and note the deflection again.
4. Now slide the magnetometer along the axis and find the position where the maximum
deflection is obtained.
5. Note the position of arm against the reference mark and also the value of current. Read
both ends of the pointer in the magnetometer, reverse the current and again read both
ends. Now shift the magnetometer by 2 cm and note the reading again. Record a number
of observations.

6. Similarly repeat the observation by shifting the magnetometer in the opposite direction
and keeping the current constant at the same value.

Observations.
Least count of the magnetometer =
Current I =

S. No Distance from
the centre,x
(in )
Left Side Mean tan Right Side Mean tan
Direct Reversed Direct Reversed

Scope of the result to be reported
Plots & Parameters: Plot a graph between tan and x, where is the deflection produced in
a deflection magnetometer and x is the distance from the centre of the coil.
The intensity of magnetic field varies with distance from the centre of coil, the
graph can be plotted and variation can be known. The intensity of magnetic field is maximum
at the centre and goes on decreasing as we move away from the centre of the coil towards
right or left.
The value of magnetic field at the centre of coil and radius of coil can also be
determined from this experiment. A graph showing the relation between B and the distance
x is plotted. The curve is first concave towards O and then afterwards becomes convex.
Then the points where the curve changes its nature are called the point of inflection. The
distance between the two points of inflexion is equal to the radius of the circular coil.
Cautions:
1. There should be no magnet, magnetic substances and current carrying conductor near the
apparatus.
2. The plane of the coil should be set in the magnetic medium.
3. The current should remain constant and should be reversed for each observation.


Experiment4: To find the frequency of a.c. mains using electrical viberator.
Equipment Required: Electric vibrator, A.C supply source, a table clamp along with
frictionless pulley, weight pan, weight box
Material required: a long uniform thread
Learning objectives:
(i) To find the frequency of a.c. mains
(ii) To verify the law of string
Diagram:

Outline of the procedure:
1. The current is switched on and the length of the steel rod is adjusted such that the free
end of the rod starts vibrating with maximum amplitude.
2. The current is then switched of and a string of about 2m length is tied to the free end
of the rod and the other end of the rod is passed over a frictionless pulley fixed on
the table. To this end a light weight pan is attached and some weights are added on it
to make the string taut.
3. The current is again switched on and the string starts vibrating. The length of the
string is adjusted by moving the vibrator forward
or backward to get sharp loops and clearly marked nodes.
4. The positions of the extreme loops are marked leaving the first and and the last loop.
5. The distance between the two marks is measured and then divided by number of
loops to get the length of one loop.
6. The experiment is repeated three times by taking three different weights in the pan.

Scope of the results expected:

Actual frequency of a.c. mains is 50Hz.
Parameter and Plots:
Frequency of a.c. mains(n) = frequency of the vibrator
Therefore,

where m is the mass per unit length of the string, l is the length of one loop and T is the
tension produced in the string which is given by
T = weight of pan + weight in pan
= (mass of pan + mass in pan)g
g = 980 cm/s
2
Therefore, for different values of T, find the corresponding values of n.
Report data in tabular form.
Caution:
1) Make sure that the string should be of uniform thickness and free from knots
2) Nodes and antinodes should be sharply defined.
3) The pulley should be frictionless.


Experiment No. 5- To plot a graph between current and frequency in LCR series and parallel
circuit and find resonant frequency, quality factor and band width.
Equipment Required- An audio-frequency oscillator (range 10 Hz to 10 kHz), an inductance
coil, variable capacitors, variable resistors, a non-inductive resistance box, ac milliammeter,
ac voltmeter, connecting wires etc.
Material Required: NA
Learning Objective - To experimentally study LCR series and parallel circuit.
2. To find the quality factor and resonant frequency.
3. Also calculate bandwidth from the graph.
4. Be able to explain why LCR series circuit is called acceptor and LCR parallel circuit is
called rejector circuit.
Circuit diagram:

Fig: Series LCR Circuit Fig: Parallel LCR Circuit

Procedure: 1. Connect the LCR (series/parallel) circuit.
2. With output voltage of the oscillator kept constant throughout the experiment vary the
value of A.F. and measure the corresponding value of current in millammeter for each
observation.

3. Repeat the experiment for two more different values of R.

4. Plot a graph between current (y axis) and frequency (x axis).

Observations:
Resistance R =
Capacitance C =
Inductance L =
Output voltage of audio oscillator = Input voltage for LCR Circuit , E
v
=
S. No Frequency (in ) Current in the circuit (in mA) for
R
1
R
2
R
3

Current at resonance from the graph for
(i) R
1
=
(ii) R
2
=

(iii) R
3
=
Calculated value of current at resonance for
(i) R
1
= Ev

/R
1
(ii) R
2
= Ev

/R
2
(iii) R
3
= E
V
/R
3
Resonant frequency,
r
= 1/(2 LC )
Resonant frequency,
r
(graphically) =

Quality Factor
Maximum value of current at resonance I
r
=
Corresponding Frequency
r
=
0.707 I
r
=
Corresponding value of frequency
below
r
,

1
=
above
r
,

2
=
Band Width =
2
-
1
=
Quality Factor, Q = 2
|
|
.
|
\
|
1 2
v v
v
r

Calculated value of Q from inductance L = (
r
L)/R =
R
L
r
v H 2

Calculated value of Q from inductance L =
R
C
r
) / 1 ( e
=
r
CRv H 2
1

Parallel Circuit
S. No Frequency (in ) Current in the circuit (in mA) for
R
1
R
2
R
3

Current at (anti) resonance from the graph for

(i) R
1
=
C R
L
1
=
(ii) R
2
=
C R
L
2
=
Impedance at resonance Z =

Calculated value of current at (anti) resonance for
(i) R
1
= Ev

/Z =
L
C R E
v 1

(ii) R
2
= Ev

/Z =
L
C R E
v 2

Anti Resonant frequency,
r
(graphically) =
Calculated value for R
1
=
H 2
1
|
|
.
|
\
|
2
2
1
1
L
R
LC

Calculated value for R
2
=
H 2
1
|
|
.
|
\
|
2
2
2
1
L
R
LC

Plots and parameters:
Current vs. frequency

Scope of the Result-
Graph between current and frequency will be Gaussian.
Resonant frequency, quality factor and band width can be calculated from the graph.
Cautions-
- If the amplitude of the output voltage of the oscillator changes with frequency, it
must be adjusted.
- The values of inductance and capacitance are so selected that the natural frequency
of the circuit lies almost in the middle of the available frequency range.


Experiment No. 6: To study the voltage regulation and ripple factor of (a) Half Wave
Rectifier (b) Full Wave Rectifier (c) Bridge rectifier and trace it input and output by using
CRO. Also Study the L-type and -type filter circuit.
Equipment Required: A step down transformer, P-N junction diodes, a high resistance, a
voltmeter, a ammeter, multimeter, a cathode ray oscilloscope, connecting wires.
- Input current I
ac
and Input Voltage V
ac

- Output current I
dc
and output voltage V
dc

- Voltage Regulation Factor with and without filter
- Rectifier Efficiency with and without filter.
- Varying the R
L
you can compare effect of load on circuit output.
- You can trace the output using CRO to visualize the changing in output of
circuit with respective change in various electronic parameters of circuit.
1) Set the circuit as shown in circuit diagram for both half wave and full wave
rectifier.
2) Study the entire crux mentioned under learning objectives.
3) Do the required calculations and trace out the output.
4) Repeat all these steps for different value of load R
L
.
5) Full wave Rectifier with -type filter: Close the switch S to bring both the
semi-conductor diodes D
1
and D
2
in circuit so that the arrangement acts as a full wave
rectifier. Also close switches S
1
and S
2
to get a -type filter. Connect the terminals A
1

and B
1
to the y-y plate of C.R.O. Connect the primary of the transformer T to A.C.
mains supply and switch on the key K. Obtain the pattern of the full wave rectified
voltage through the -type filter on the C.R.O. screen and trace it.
6) Full Wave Rectifier with L-type filter: Switch off S
1
keeping S
2
closed so
that L-type filter consisting of choke coil L and capacitor C
2
is only in circuit. Repeat
all observations in step 2, 3 and 4.
Circuit Diagram:

Half Wave Rectifier

Fig 1: Half Wave Rectifier

Fig2: Full Wave rectifier
Fig 3: Bridge Rectifier


Fig 4: Full wave rectifier with L filter

Fig5: filter

Observations:
Half Wave Rectifier
S. No Resistance V
ac
V
dc
=
dc
ac
V
V

Full Wave Rectifier
S. No Resistance V
ac
V
dc
=
dc
ac
V
V


Bridge Rectifier
S. No Resistance V
ac
V
dc
=
dc
ac
V
V

Full Wave Rectifier with L filter
S. No Resistance V
ac
V
dc
=
dc
ac
V
V

Full Wave Rectifier with pi filter
S. No Resistance V
ac
V
dc
=
dc
ac
V
V

Plots and Parameters:
- Trace of Output waveform of HWR and FWR with and without the use
of filters.
- Ripple Factor
Scope of Results:
You can trace the output of both HWR and FWR in this experiment and study the response of
circuit under different conditions.
Voltage regulation is the ability of a rectifier to provide near constant voltage over a
wide range of load conditions. It is a dimensionless quantity defined as:
Where V
nl
is voltage at no load and V
fl
is voltage at full
load. A smaller value of VR

is usually beneficial.
- Current Regulation of a circuit can also be studied by using the current as a
study parameter instead of voltage.
- Rectification or Power Efficiency can be defined as ratio of output d.c
power available at load to input d.c power from the mains.
Rectification
where ,

The rectification of HWR and FWR ideally is 40.53% and 81.06% respectively.
Cautions:
- A safely resistance must be connected in series with the load to avoid
excessive current.
- To find the effective value of a.c. component a blocking capacitor of
16f capacitance must be used.
- The load in the output circuit must be varied by changing the resistance
by 1k at a time.


Experiment No. 7: To determine the coefficient of self-inductance of unknown coil by
Andersons method using a headphone.
Equipment Required: Inductance coil, Capacitor, Two variable resistances, Galvanometer,
headphone, audio oscillator
(a).Balancing point of the Wheatstone bridge.
(b). Self-inductance of the unknown coil
(c). Unknown capacity of capacitor can be determined.
- According to circuit diagram using a battery in place of A.C. Source and
galvanometer in place of headphone make the connections.
- Make Resistance P = Q
- Taking a suitable value of R adjust the value of S so as to get a null point. Note
the values of resistances P and R.
- Now replace the galvanometer by a headphone and battery by A.C. source you
will hear a sound in headphone.
- Reduce the sound to minimum or zero value by varying the variable resistance r
by keeping all other resistances constant out of which three are already constant.
This is the balance point for alternating current. Note the value of r for which
sound in minimum or zero.
- Note the value of capacitance marked on it. Repeat it three times by changing the
value of capacitance.

The self inductance of unknown coil is ------- L. This experiment can be used to
calculate the unknown capacity of capacitor.
Parameters and Plots:
Capacitance C =
Resistance P = Q =
Resistance R =
Resistance r = (i) (ii) (iii)
Mean r =
Inductance L= CR (P+2r)
Cautions:
- Balancing point should be clearly noted.
- Sound should be reduced to minimum value or zero before noting balancing point.

- The resistance used should be non-inductive
Error analysis:-
Probable error:-

Probable error = Standard Error

=
Where S =
2

= n mean value of frequency
m is the number of readings taken.

S.NO. Inductance of coil
2

Percentage error:-

%age error = (actual value measured value/ Actual value) * 100


Experiment No. 8: - To study Hall-effect by using hall probe. (Germanium crystal).
Equipment Requirement: -Hall probe, Gauss probe, Gauss meter, electromagnet,
constant current power supply, digital voltmeter.
Material used: Ge crystal
Learning objectives: - When a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to a current
carrying conductor, a voltage is developed in a specimen in a direction perpendicular to
both the current and the magnetic field. This phenomenon is called the Hall Effect. The
voltage is so produced is called hall voltage. When the charges flow, a magnetic field
directed perpendicular to the direction of flow produces a mutually perpendicular force
on the charges. Consequently the electrons and holes get separated by opposite forces and
produce an electric field. , there by setting up a potential difference between the ends of
specimen. This is called hall potential.

Outline of Procedure:-
1. Place the specimen at the centre between the pole pieces and exactly perpendicular to
the magnetic field.
2. Place the hall probe at the centre between the pole pieces, parallel to the semiconductor
sample and note the magnetic flux density from the guess meter keeping the current
constant through electromagnet.
3. Before taking the reading from the gauss meter ensure that gauss meter is showing zero
value. For this put the probe away the electromagnet and switch on the gauss meter and
adjust zero.
4. Do not change the current in the electromagnet for the first observation.
5. Vary the current in small increment. Note the current and the hall voltage.
6. For the 2
nd
observation keep the current constant through the specimen and vary the
current through electromagnet and note the hall voltage.
7. Plot the graph between the hall voltage and the current through electromagnet.

Observations:

Current through the electromagnet = A(Constant)
Magnetic field (as measured by the Gaussmeter) =
S.
No
Current through
Hall probe I (in )
Voltmeter reading
Hall
Voltage, V=
V
H

- V
H

with magnetic
field,V
H

without magnetic
field,V
H

1

Current through the specimen = mA(Constant)
S.
No
Current through
Electromagnet I

( in )
Voltmeter reading
Hall
Voltage, V=
V
H

- V
H

with magnetic
field,V
H

without magnetic
field,V
H

1

Scope of Result: - The graph between the V
H
and I, V
H
and I is the straight line.
Parameters & Plots: -

The current density J = I / A
I = n E v A
The hall coefficient is given R
H
= V
H
b / IB,
where b = thickness of the specimen, V
H
= Hall Voltage, I = Current through the specimen,
B = Magnetic Field

The hall coefficient m
3 /
C
Caution:-
1. The hall probe should be placed at the centre of the electromagnet.
2. The specimen should be placed at the centre of the electromagnet.
3. Zero should be ensured in the gauss meter before placing the hall probe between the
centre of electromagnet.


Experiment No. 9: To study the characteristics of pnp and npn transistor (CE and CB).
Equipments Required: A pnp and npn transistor, Two voltmeters, Two milliammeters, a
potentiometer of total resistance of the order of one mega ohm, Batteries, connecting wires.
- Set the transistor circuit to study its input/output characteristics with proper biasing.
- Study the active, cut-off and saturation region.
- Comparison of CB and CE characteristics
Circuit diagram: From C.L Arora (Ch 51)
Common base characteristics of the PNP transistor: Base is common to input and output
circuit. To draw the input characteristics, adjust the values of V
CB
(fix at one point) and
increase the V
EB
from zero onwards note I
E.
To draw the output characteristics, adjust the values of I
E
at some fixed value and increase the
value of V
CB
from zero onwards and note I
C
.
Common emitter characteristics of the PNP transistor: Emitter is common to input and
output circuit. To draw the input characteristics, adjust the value of V
CE
(fix at one point) and
increase the value of V
EB
from zero onwards and note the value of I
B.
To draw the output characteristics, adjust the values of I
B
at some fixed value and increase the
value of V
CE
from zero onwards and note I
C
.
Parameters & Plots:
I
E
=Emitter current, I
B
=Base current, I
C
=Collector current, V
EB
=Emitter to base voltage,
V
CB
=collector to base voltage, V
CE
= Collector to emitter voltage.
Characteristics of Transistor: There are two types of characteristics.
(A) Input:
For Common Base: Between I
E
and V
EB
at constant values of the collector voltages.
For Common Emitter: Between I
B
and V
BE
(b) Output:

For Common Base: Between I
C
and V
CB
at constant value of emitter current.
For Common Emitter: Between I
C
and V
CE
Plots of data:
Common Base configuration:

Input characteristics Output characteristics

Common Emitter Configuration:

Input characteristics Output characteristics
Cautions:
1. If the collector voltage exceeds the breakdown voltage for the junction the result may vary.
2. If in a PNP transistor the emitter is not given the positive potential with respect to the base
and collector a negative voltage with respect to the base then the result may vary.

3. The leads of the transistor should be connected in the right way, the collector and the
emitter junctions should not be interchanged.


Experiment No. 10: To compare the frequencies of oscillations produced by two audio-
oscillators using Lissajous figures.
Equipment Required: A standard 1000 Hz audio-oscillator, a variable frequency audio-
oscillator and cathode ray oscilloscope.
- To draw the lissajous figure.
- From the lissajous figure the Phase difference can be calculated.
- Compare the frequencies of two audio oscillators.
1. Connect the standard frequency [1000 Hz] oscillator to the vertical input terminal of
the oscilloscope. Connect the audio oscillator whose frequencies are to be compared
with the standard oscillator to the horizontal frequency input terminal .Connect
together the ground terminals of both the oscillators.
2. Set the CRO so that the sharp, bright spot is obtained at the centre of the screen. Set
the audio oscillator frequency to the marked value of 1000Hz.
3. Switch on both the oscillators and adjust the gain control of the oscillators as well
as the horizontal and vertical gains of the oscilloscope so that a good size ellipse
appears on the screen. The actual frequency oscillator frequency is now
1000Hz.Record the dial reading.
4. Set the oscillator frequency to the marked value of 500 and adjust slowly so that a
1:2 Lissajous figure is obtained. Record the dial reading.
5. Similarly obtain (1:3,3:1), (2:3,3:2) Lissajous figure and so on up to (1:5,5:1).
Observations:
Vertical input standard frequency = 1000Hz
Hor. Input
Marked dial
Shape of fig No. of tangency points Vertical Freq.
Horizontal Freq.
Actual Hor. Freq.
On X-axis On Y-axis

Scope of the results expected: Actual Horizontal frequency
Parameters and Plots: NA
Cautions:

- The vertical and horizontal gain controls of the oscilloscope should be adjusted to
obtain a proper size of Lissajous Figure.
- The sensitivity depends upon the amplifier gain. The gain control knob should not
be disturbed during the experiment.
- The frequency of the audio-oscillator should be slowly adjusted so as to lock the
pattern.


Experiment 11 : To find the wavelength of He-Ne laser by using Michelson
interferometer.
Learning objectives:
- To determine the wavelength of monochromatic light (He-Ne Laser).
- To study the phenomena of interference of light.
Apparatus: A Michelson interferometer, He-Ne Laser, collimating lens, screen,
magnifying lens.
Diagram:

Fig. 1

Fig. 2
Outline of the procedure
First put the interferometer on a rigid table and level the instrument with three
leveling screws provided at the base.
Put the Helium-Neon laser, about 50 to 60 cm away from the instrument such that
its beam passes through the pin hole fitted in front of the instrument. Make sure
that the laser beam falls at the middle of the Mirrors M
1
and M
2
after getting split
from beam splitter plate G
1
.

The beam after the reflections will make four spots on the wall or on a screen.
One pair is formed due to partial reflections at the unsilvered surface of G
1
and
reflections at M
1
and M
2
respectively. While the other pair is formed due to
partial reflections at M
1
and M
2
respectively. Out of these one pair is brighter than
the other.
Now mirrors M
1
and M
2
are tilted carefully such that the two brighter images
coincide.
Now the instrument is aligned and the fringes are formed on the wall or screen.
The mirror M
2
is kept fixed and the mirror M
1
is moved with the help of the fine
movement screw and the number of fringes that cross the field of view is counted.
The student will be able to find the wavelength of He-Ne laser with the help of
interference phenomena and will come to know about the role of path difference in
interference of light.
Parameter and Plots:
Take any value of n20 and note down the value of distance (d) through which the mirror
is moved and apply theory of interference of light to find wavelength of light. [Report
data in tabular or systematic manner]
Caution:
- Do not use the telescope.
- Do not see directly into the laser beam.
- Make sure that the distances of mirror M
1
and M
2
are almost equal from beam
splitter G
1
.
- Make sure that centre of the circular fringes are properly adjusted.


Experiment 12: To study the output characteristics of FET/MOSFET

Objective:
a) To study Drain Characteristics of a FET.
b) To study Transfer Characteristics of a FET

Equipment Required: JFET, Resistance, Power Supply, Ammeter, Voltmeter, Bread
Board and Connecting Wires.
Circuit Diagram:

DRAIN CHARACTERISTICS
Determine the drain characteristics of FET by keeping V
GS
= 0v.Plot its
characteristics with respect to V
DS
versus I
D

TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS

Determine the transfer characteristics of FET for constant value of
VDS
.
Plot its characteristics with respect to V
GS
versus I
D

Graph (Instructions):
1. Plot the drain characteristics by taking V
DS
on X-axis and I
D
on Y-axis at
constant V
GS
.
2. Plot the Transfer characteristics by taking V
GS
on X-axis and I
D
on Y-axis
atconstant V
DS


Calculations from Graph:

Drain Resistance (r
d
):
It is given by the ration of small change in drain to source voltage (V
DS
) tothe
corresponding change in Drain current (I
D
) for a constant gate to source
voltage(V
GS
),when the JFET is operating in pinch-off or saturation.egion.

Trans-Conductance (g
m
):
Ratio of small change in drain current (I
D
) to the corresponding change ingate
to source voltage (V
GS
) for a constant V
DS
.
gm = I
D
/ V
GS
at constant V
DS
.(from transfer characteristics) The value of gm is
expressed in mhos or siemens (s).

Amplification Factor ():
It is given by the ratio of small change in drain to sourcevoltage (V
DS
) to the
corresponding change in gate to sourcevoltage (V
GS
) for a constant drain
current.
= V
DS
/ V
GS
.
= (V
DS
/ I
D
) X (I
D
/V
GS
)
= r
d
Xg
m
.

Inference:
1. As the gate to source voltage (V
GS
) is increased above zero, pinch off voltage
isincreased at a smaller value of drain current as compared to that when V
GS
=0V
2. The value of drain to source voltage (V
DS
) is decreased as compared to that
When V
GS
=0V

Result:
1. Drain Resistance (r
d
) = .
2. Transconductance (g
m
) = .
3. Amplification factor () =


Experiment 13: To draw the forward and reverse characteristics of P-N junction
diode and draw load line.
Objective:
1. To plot Volt-Ampere Characteristics of Silicon P-N Junction Diode.
2. To find cut-in Voltage for Silicon P-N Junction
diode.
3. To find static and dynamic resistances in both forward and reverse Biased
conditions for P-N Junction diode.
Equipment Required:
PN Junction Diode Resistance 1k ohm Regulated power supply(0
30V) 104 Ammeter mC (0-30)mA, (0-500)A105 Voltmeter mC
(0 1)V, (0 30)V 106 Bread board and connecting wires
Reverse BiasHere the anode of the diode is connected to the negative terminal of battery
andcathode of the diode is connected to positive terminal of the battery.
Circuit Diagram:

Forward Biased:

Reverse Biased:
For reverse biased , observer should reverse the polarity of battery.


Forward Biased Condition:
1. Connect the PN Junction diode in forward bias i.eAnode is connected to
positive of the power supply and cathode is connected to negative of the power supply.
2. Use a Regulated power supply of range (0-30)V and a series resistance of 1k.
3. For various values of forward voltage (V
f
) note down the correspondingvalues
of forward current(I
f
)

Reverse biased condition:
1. Connect the PN Junction diode in Reverse bias i.e; anode is connected to negative of
the power supply and cathode is connected to positive of the power supply.
2. For various values of reverse voltage (V
r
) note down the corresponding values
of reverse current ( I
r
)
Tabular Column:
Forward Biased:

S.no (V
f
) (I
f
)
1
2

Reversed Biased:

S.no (V
r
) (I
r
)
1
2

Graph ( instructions) :
1. Take a graph sheet and divide it into 4 equal parts. Mark origin at the center of
thegraph sheet.
2. Now mark +ve x-axis as( V
f
), -ve x-axis as (V
r
) ,+ve y-axis as (I
f
) , -ve y-axis as (I
r
).
3. Mark the readings tabulated for diode forward biased condition in first Quadrantand
Diode reverse biased condition in third Quadrant.

Calculations from Graph:
Static forward Resistance R dc= V
f
/I
f

Dynamic forward Resistance rac= V
f
/I
f

Static Reverse Resistance R dc=V
r
/I
r

Dynamic Reverse Resistance rac= V
r
/I
r

Load Line:

Result:
Thus the VI characteristics of PN junction diode is
verified.
1. Cut in voltage = V
2. Static forward resistance = .
3. Dynamic forward resistance = .
Cautions:

1. While doing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the diode. This may
lead to damage of the diode.
2. Connect voltmeter and Ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the circuit
diagram.
3. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the
Circuit connections as per the circuit diagram.

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LMPHY-122 PHYSICS LAB-II

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