Personality and Individual Dierences 42 (2007) 13111321

www.elsevier.com/locate/paid

Anton Aluja
a

a,*

, Lara Cuevas a, Luis F. Garca a, Oscar Garca

co

Zuckermans personality model predicts MCMI-III personality disorders

b

Abstract

Corresponding author. Tel.: +34 973702326; fax: +34 973702305. E-mail address: aluja@pip.udl.es (A. Aluja).

0191-8869/$ - see front matter 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2006.10.009

Au

Keywords: ZKPQ; MCMI-III; ZuckermanKuhlman personality questionnaire; Personality disorders; Alternative vefactor model

th o

The current study explores the relationships between the basic dimensions of the Zuckerman personality model (measured through the ZKPQ) and the 14 personality disorder scales of the millon clinical multiaxial inventory third edition (MCMI-III). The total sample comprised 673 subjects, of whom 50% were university students and 50% were subjects from the general population. Statistical analysis followed a similar methodology used by Dyce and OConnor (1998) and OConnor (2005). The principal component analysis showed that the ve ZKPQ dimensions were associated with the personality disorder scales in dierent patterns. Linear regression analyses indicated that ZKPQ scales were very good predictors of the three DSM personality disorder clusters, and in particular of cluster B. Also, the global prediction power of Zuckermans dimensions was highly similar to that demonstrated for the NEO-PI-R in previous studies. LOESS graphical analysis showed additional information about nonlinear relationships between normal personality and personality disorders. The discussion focuses on the strengths and weaknesses of Zuckermans approach to account for personality disorders. 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

r's

pe

rs

on

Received 26 June 2006; received in revised form 25 September 2006; accepted 3 October 2006 Available online 15 November 2006

al

Department of Pedagogy and Psychology, Faculty of Education Science, University of Lleida, Complex de la Carparrella, s/n, 25192 Lleida, Spain b European University, Madrid, Spain

py

1312

A. Aluja et al. / Personality and Individual Dierences 42 (2007) 13111321

1. Introduction DSM Axis-II personality disorders are dened as rigid and maladaptive traits (DSM-IV-VR; American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Following this denition, these disorders may be understood as extreme and maladaptive variants of normal personality traits (Widiger & Costa, 1994). In fact, personality dimensional models have always emphasized relationships between normal traits and personality disorders (PDs). Within this tradition, the ve-factor model (FFM) began to look prominent as an alternative to the categorical model in the classication of PDs (Costa & Widiger, 2002). Two meta-analyses developed by Ostendorf (2000) and Saulsman and Page (2004) have supported relationships between personality disorders and the FFM, with special attention to the studies using the NEO-PI-R (Costa & McCrae, 1992). Personality disorders were assessed through dierent procedures: structured interview based on DSM criteria, scales derived from the Minnesota multiphasic personality inventory (MMPI), or dierent inventories like the millon clinical multiaxial inventory (MCMI). The results indicated that: (1) disorders dened by emotional distress such as Paranoid, Schizotypal, Borderline, Avoidant and Dependent are positively associated with Neuroticism, (2) disorders linked with high gregariousness like Histrionic and Narcissistic correlate positively with Extraversion, (3) disorders characterized by shyness and reclusive qualities such as Schizoid, Schizotypal, and Avoidant are negatively related to Extraversion, (4) disorders implying interpersonal diculties (Paranoid, Schizotypal, Antisocial, Borderline and Narcissistic) correlate negatively with Agreeableness, (5) conscientiousness shows positive associations with disorders characterized by orderliness such as ObsessiveCompulsive, and negative associations with recklessness disorders like Antisocial and Borderline, and (6) the Openness dimension is associated with no personality disorders (Saulsman & Page, 2004). In general, it is demonstrated that the broader NEO-PI-R scales (i.e. dimensions) account for around 34% of the variance in personality disorders, this percentage being larger when the narrower NEO-PI-R subscales (i.e. facets) are used as independent variables (Dyce & OConnor, 1998). In contrast with the research eort in the area of the relations between personality disorders and the FFM or other normal personality models such as Eysencks PEN (Jang, Livesley, & Vernon, 1999) and Cloningers Temperament and Character (Svrakic, Whitehead, Przybeck, & Cloninger, 1993), Zuckermans Alternative Five-Factor Model has attracted little attention with regard to this topic. Zuckerman developed his model as an alternative to the FFM (Zuckerman, Kuhlman, Teta, Joireman, & Kraft, 1993; Zuckerman, Kuhlman, Thornquist, & Kiers, 1991), including ve basic personality dimensions: impulsive-unsocialized sensation seeking (ImpSS), neuroticismanxiety (N-Anx), aggressivityhostility (Agg-Hos), activity (Act) and sociability (Sy). Impulsive-unsocialized sensation seeking has been the most studied dimension in relation to the question of personality disorders. In fact, the Antisocial Personality Disorder is supposed to be the extreme pathological end of this trait dimension (Zuckerman, 1999). Also, some research has related this dimension to other cluster B personality disorders due to the shared broad characteristic of impulsiveness of these disorders. Thus, for instance, Ball, Carroll, and Rounsaville (1994) found that sensation seeking correlated with antisocial personality and life-

Au

th o

r's

pe

rs

on

al

co

py

A. Aluja et al. / Personality and Individual Dierences 42 (2007) 13111321

1313

time drug abuse and Thornquist and Zuckerman (1995) reported signicant correlations between ImpSS and Agg-Host with the Total score of the Psychopathy Check List (Hare, 1991). Also, patients diagnosed with borderline personality score higher on this dimension than patients with non-cluster B personality disorders and normal controls (Reist, Haier, DeMet, & Chicz-DeMet, 1990). Also, However, this dimension has not been widely studied in personality disorders other than antisocial personality, and the other four dimensions dened in the model have hardly been investigated at all (Zuckerman, 1996). One noteworthy exception is the study by Wang, Du, Wang, Livesley, and Jang (2004), in which Chinese versions of the ZKPQ and the Dimensional Assessment of Personality PathologyBasic Questionnaire (DAPP-BQ) were applied to a sample of 149 healthy university subjects. The results support the associations between N-Anx and 11 of 18 DAPP-BQ scales. ImpSS was related to both Dissocial and Impulsive Misconduct factors, with Agg-Hos being highly related to the former factor. Sy loaded negatively on the inhibition factor, and Act was mainly related to one scale only (Compulsivity). However, this study presents two limitations, which makes further research necessary: (1) the size of the sample, and (2) the use as a dependent variable of a questionnaire which relates to, but does not directly address, the measuring of all personality disorders described on the DSM-IV Axis II. Also, Pearson correlations and factor analyses are the only methods to have been used in most studies about associations between personality traits and personality disorders, irrespective of the theoretical normal personality model. However, correlations may be misleading if these associations are not linear. Note that measures of PDs were developed with an almost exclusive focus on the high end of the PD continua/um. High-scoring individuals are thus likely to have personality disorders, but the characteristics of low-scoring individuals remain unknown. These individuals are characterized only by the absence, or by diminished amounts, of the personality disorder. If low scores on measures of personality disorders represent normality and psychological health, then these associations, if they exist, may not be linear. For instance, a possible pattern would be to begin departing from average scores on traits only when scores on personality disorders are relatively high. Recently, OConnor (2005) outlined a procedure to detect graphically whether the relations between the FFM and PDs are linear or not. They reported that, most of the time, low scores on particular PDs were accompanied by normal-range scores on FFM variables, so low PD scores do not generally represent some kind of personality deviance in the other direction. In spite of this promising approach, to our knowledge, it has never been applied to another personality model such as Eysencks, Cloningers, or Zuckermans. In general, the relationships between Zuckermans model and personality disorders are still largely unknown. This personality model is of particular interest, however, providing as it does an alternative ve-factor structure that includes, among others, a dimension of Impulsive sensation seeking that is of particular clinical signicance. The current study seeks therefore to ll this gap by exploring the relationships between Zuckermans personality model and MCMI-III personality disorder scales. A similar procedure to Dyce and OConnor (1998) was developed. Also, a graphic analysis was conducted to detect possible nonlinear relationships between Zuckermans personality traits model and personality disorders. To do this, the LOESS, non-parametric, local area, polynomial regression procedure was used following OConnors (2005) specications.

Au

th o

r's

pe

rs

on

al

co

py

1314

A. Aluja et al. / Personality and Individual Dierences 42 (2007) 13111321

2. Method 2.1. Subjects The total sample comprised 673 subjects (255 males and 417 women; in one case the sex was not informed). The average age was 33.19 (SD: 15.11; range 1778) for males, and 31.10 (SD: 14.62; range 1879) for females. Fifty per cent of the subjects were undergraduate university students from three Spanish universities (located in Barcelona, Madrid, and Lleida) and the remaining 50% were students friends and relatives. 2.2. Measures

2.3. Procedure and graphical nonlinear analyses The MCMI-III and the ZKPQ were administered to university students in the classroom. Students were trained in the application of psychometric tests, and protocols were given to them to be administered to relatives and friends. Protocols were applied to subjects older than 25 for the purpose of obtaining a larger age distribution, given that the average age for the university students subsample was around 21 years. Only properly lled in questionnaires were processed statistically. Nonlinear relationships were analyzed through the LOESS, non-parametric, local area, polynomial regression procedure (Fan & Gijbels, 1996; Fox, 2000) to produce data points for the ZKPQ dimensions lines that run the full length of the personality disorder continua. This method in-

Au

th o

2.2.2. ZuckermanKuhlman personality questionnaire (ZKPQ) The ZKPQ has 99 items that measure the following personality dimensions: impulsive sensation seeking (ImpSS), neuroticismanxiety (N-Anx), aggressionhostility (Agg-Host), activity (Act), sociability (Sy) and infrequency (Inf). The original reliability coecients of the ZKPQ range between .72 and .86. (Zuckerman et al., 1993). Validity and reliability assessment of the Spanish ZKPQ version have yielded acceptable outcomes (Aluja, Garca, & Garca, 2002; Aluja, Garca, a, 2004). & Garc

r's

pe

2.2.1. Millons clinical multiaxial inventory (MCMI-III) The MCMI-III (Millon, Millon, & Davis, 1994) is a 175 truefalse item-inventory from which scores on 14 personality disorders (PDs), 10 clinical syndrome scales can be computed. Additionally, the MCMI-III incorporates three 3 modier scales. The total scores were obtained by computing according to the handbook instructions. Millon et al. (1994) designed the scales to explicitly align with the diagnostic criteria of the DMS-IV. Evidence for the validity of the English original version was provided as correlations with ratings by clinicians, with collateral tests measuring identical constructs, and strong diagnostic eciency statistics. The alpha coecients reported in the test manual ranged from 0.67 to 0.89 and the testretest values (514 days) ranged from 0.88 to 0.93. An ocial version of the MCMI-III did not exist in Spanish when the present study was carried out. The version used in this study is experimental and was translated into Spanish by the researchers under the supervision of a native English Psychologist translator.

rs

on

al

co

py

A. Aluja et al. / Personality and Individual Dierences 42 (2007) 13111321

1315

3. Results 3.1. Descriptive, distribution statistics and reliability

Table 1 Descriptives, skewness (S), kurtosis (K) and alpha (a) of MCMI-III scales and ZKPQ dimensionsa MCMI-III scales Schizoid Avoidant Dependent Histrionic Narcissistic Antisocial Sadistic ObsessiveCompulsive PassiveAggressive Masochistic Schizotypal Borderline Paranoid Depressive Cluster A Cluster B Cluster C ZKPQImpSS ZKPQN/Anx ZKPQAgg/Hos ZKPQAct ZKPQSy
a

Min 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0

Max 21 22 23 24 28 21 22 25 25 22 21 24 24 23

rs
M

on
SD 3.74 4.11 4.55 4.90 3.98 3.89 4.66 4.81 4.83 3.30 3.70 4.44 4.57 4.72 10.25 11.49 9.67 4.38 4.54 3.45 3.34 3.57

Table 1 shows descriptives and reliabilities for ZKPQ and MCMI-III scales and the three DSM-IV personality disorders clusters formed after the corresponding scales of the MCMI-III. Note that the kurtosis and skewness report a normal distribution for seven scales (values between

al
S

co
K 1.71 2.06 .71 .39 .35 .69 .39 .40 .16 3.42 3.89 1.21 1.67 2.00 2.84 .13 .51 .84 .69 .46 .59 .42 a .68 .77 .76 .74 .64 .68 .74 .65 .76 .77 .76 .76 .79 .76 .82 .72 .72 .82 .85 .73 .71 .78

th o

4.63 4.05 6.11 16.29 13.76 5.54 6.04 14.83 7.51 2.68 2.98 4.96 4.45 4.08

1.26 1.44 1.04 .43 .35 .88 .91 .25 .74 1.76 1.82 1.16 1.33 1.49 1.53 .34 .81 .14 .47 .14 .09 .25

0 11 6 0 0 0 0 0

r's

66 87 62 19 19 17 17 17

Au

ImpSS: impulsive sensations seeking; N/Anx: neuroticismanxiety; Agg-Hos: aggressivityhostility; Act: activity; Sy: sociability. Cluster A: Schizotypal + Schizoid + Paranoid. Cluster B: Histrionic + Narcissistic + Antisocial + Borderline. Cluster C: Avoidant + Dependent + Compulsive.

pe
12.06 40.53 25.04 8.55 7.52 7.31 7.91 9.09

py

volves a series of local regression analyses that allows the shape of a curve to vary across the variable continua. each specied neighbourhood of data points, a weighted least-squares regression is performed that ts linear or quadratic functions of the predictors at the centres of every neighborhood (OConnor, 2005). The procedure produces a smoothed, nonlinear curve t to the data which is analogous to the moving averages that are computed in time series analyses. The resulting curves are the best unbiased depictions of the patterns in the data. The curves are much more accurate than the lines (linear or quadratic) that are imposed on the data in familiar parametric analyses.

1316

A. Aluja et al. / Personality and Individual Dierences 42 (2007) 13111321

1 and +1) but not for the rest of the scales. Alpha reliabilities oscillated between 0.64 and 0.79 for Millons scales, between .72 and .82 for Clusters, and between 0.71 and 0.85 for the ZKPQ scales. 3.2. Principal component analyses Five factors were extracted following a Varimax Principal Components analysis including the 5 ZKPQ scales and the 14 Millon scales following the same procedure as in Dyce and OConnor (1998). The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy was 0.90, and Bartletts test of sphericity (BTS) yielded approx. v2 = 8689, 676; df: 171 (p < 0.001). Note that both KMO and Bartletts test of sphericity indicate that factor analysis is appropriate. As can be observed in Table 2, every ZKPQ dimension loads on a dierent factor. The rst one is dened by N-Anx and 10 of the 14 MCMI-III scales (excluding Histrionic, Narcissistic, Antisocial and ObsessiveCompulsive disorders). The second one is dened by Imp-SS and Antisocial, Narcissistic, Sadistic, Borderline and ObsessiveCompulsive (the latter in negative) disorders. Sy loaded on the third one with Histrionic and Avoidant (the latter in negative) scales. The fourth one was formed by Agg-Hos and the Sadistic disorder (and PassiveAggressive and Narcissistic with lower loadings). Finally, Act, Narcissistic, Bordeline, ObsessiveCompulsive and Histrionic scales loaded on the fth factor.
Table 2 Principal component analysis with Varimax rotation including MCMI-III scales and ZKPQ dimensions

pe

MCMI-III scales Schizoid Avoidant Dependent Histrionic Narcissistic Antisocial Sadistic ObsessiveCompulsive PassiveAggressive Masochistic Schizotypal Borderline Paranoid Depressive ZKPQImpSS ZKPQN/Anx ZKPQAgg/Hos ZKPQAct ZKPQSy

I .46 .77 .86 .23 .27 .27 .49 .03 .77 .83 .79 .78 .67 .87 .11 .70 .12 .05 .01

rs
II

on

al
III .75 .40 .07 .78 .17 .01 .10 .14 .08 .20 .24 .01 .29 .13 .30 .10 .07 .23 .82 12.9

co
IV 8.3

py
.00 .07 .18 .10 .32 .23 .50 .09 .35 .01 .06 .18 .25 .10 .07 .33 .87 .01 .01

V .11 .12 .04 .30 .61 .12 .29 .37 .05 .01 .17 .01 .39 .06 .14 .34 .06 .67 .15 8.1

th o

.03 .09 .02 .23 .44 .83 .43 .80 .25 .13 .20 .41 .11 .02

r's
32.9

% Accounted variance

Au

.73 .16 .24 .13 .20 14.5

(a) ImpSS: impulsive-unsocialized sensations seeking; N/Anx: neuroticismanxiety; Agg-Hos: aggressivityhostility; Act: activity Sy: sociability. (b) Loadings >.40 are in boldface.

A. Aluja et al. / Personality and Individual Dierences 42 (2007) 13111321

1317

3.3. Linear and logistic regression analyses Following Dyce and OConnor (1998) procedure, several regression analyses (stepwise method at a 0.0001 necessary signicance level to be included in the equation) were conducted taking ZKPQ dimensions as independent variables and every MCMI-III scale and the three clusters successively as dependent ones. Moreover, two extreme groups were formed. The criterion for selection was to obtain a z score equal to or higher than +1 SD for the high group, or equal to or lower than 1 SD for the low group. Further, a logistic regression was conducted to explore which ZKPQ dimensions contribute signicantly to the classication between extreme groups. Regression results are shown in Table 3. Percentage of variance ranged between 19% and 52%. N-Anx was presented in most of the equations, except for Antisocial and ObsessiveCompulsive disorders. Cluster A disorders are mainly characterized by social shyness and an extreme distrust and suspicion of others (Schizoid, Schizotypal, and Paranoia), although other dimensions add specicity, such as ImpSS and Agg-Hos to the Schizotypal disorder. Regarding Cluster B, ImpSS and Agg-Hos play the most important role, although other scales are specically related to some disorders of this cluster; for instance, N-Anx to Bordeline or Sy to Histrionic. Cluster C is almost entirely predicted by N-Anx, although low levels of ImpSS were relevant as well. With minor exceptions, logistic regression equations are formed by the same variables and identical sign. Percentages of right classication were between 76% (ObsessiveCompulsive) and 92% (Antisocial).
Table 3 Linear multiple and logistic regression results analyzing the contribution of ZKPQ dimensions to the prediction of MCMI-III scores and extreme groups (1 SD)a MCM-III scale Schizoid Avoidant Dependent Histrionic Narcissistic Antisocial Sadistic ObsessiveCompulsive PassiveAggressive Masochistic Schizotypal Borderline Paranoid Depressive Cluster A Cluster B Cluster C
a

Linear multiple regression R .58 .57 .54 .69 .61 .63 .61 .54 .64 .55 .54 .63 .44 .65 R
2

pe

rs

on

al

Logistic regression %b SySy-, N-Anx+ N-Anx+, Sy+, ImpSS+ Agg-Hos+, N-Anx-, ImpSS+ ImpSS+, Agg-Hos+ ImpSS+, Agg-Hos+ ImpSSN-Anx+, Agg-Hos+ N-Anx+ N-Anx+, ImpSS+, N-Anx+, Agg-Hos+, ImpSS+ N-Anx+, Agg-Hos+ N-Anx+ N-Anx+, Agg-Hos, SyImpSS+, Agg-Hos+, Sy+ ImpSS-, N-Anx+ 87 87 83 89 88 92 85 76 89 84 85 88 77 91 85 97 85

Signicant dimensions at last step Sy-, N-Anx+ N-Anx+, SyN-Anx+ Sy+, ImpSS+, N-AnxImpSS+, N-Anx-, Agg-Hos+, Act+ ImpSS+, Agg-Hos+ Agg-Hos+, N-Anx+, ImpSS+ ImpSS-, Act+ N-Anx+, Agg-Hos+ N-Anx+ N-Anx+, ImpSS+, SyN-Anx+, ImpSS+, Agg-Hos+ N-Anx+, Agg-Hos+ N-Anx+ N-Anx+, Sy-, Agg-Hos+ ImpSS+, Agg-Hos+, Sy+ N-Anx+, ImpSS-

Au

.35 .32 .30 .48 .37 .40 .37 .29 .41 .30 .29 .40 .19 .52

ImpSS: impulsive-unsocialized sensation seeking; N/Anx: neuroticismanxiety; Agg-Hos: aggressionhostility; Act: activity; Sy: sociability. Cluster A: Schizotypal + Schizoid + Paranoid. Cluster B: Histrionic + Narcissistic + Antisocial + Borderline. Cluster C: Avoidant + Dependent + Compulsive. b Percentage of right classication.

th o

.53 .72 .52

.27 .52 .27

r's

co

py

1318

A. Aluja et al. / Personality and Individual Dierences 42 (2007) 13111321

Percentages were 85%, 97%, and 85% for clusters A, B, and C, respectively. Note ImpSS, AggHos, and Sy dimensions predicted almost perfectly the group classication for cluster B. 3.4. Graphical analysis The graphical analysis procedure described above (OConnor, 2005) was conducted to analyse possible nonlinear relationships between ZKPQ scales and the three DSM personality disorders clusters. Previously, ZKPQ raw scores were transformed to z scores, and scores on the three clusters were converted to T scores using the average and standard deviation of the sample itself. With
2 1 0 -1 -2 30 40 50 60

al on
80
80
80

70

90

rs
70 90 100
70 90 100

Cluster A (T scores)

2 1 0 -1

pe
30

r's

40

50

60

Cluster B (T scores)

th o

Au

-1

30

40

50

60

Cluster C (T scores)

Fig. 1. LOESS plots for DSM personality disorders clusters (T scores) after ZKPQ dimensions (z scores).

co
Act Sy 100
Act Sy
Act Sy

py
ImpSS N-Anx Agg-hos
ImpSS N-Anx Agg-hos
ImpSS N-Anx Agg-hos

A. Aluja et al. / Personality and Individual Dierences 42 (2007) 13111321

1319

The goal of the present study was to explore the relationships between Zuckermans alternative ve-factor model and the MCMI-III personality disorders scales through multivariate analyses. Factor analysis showed a clear ve-factor structure where N-Anx was related to most of the PDs. This nding reproduces what has previously been found about the role of the Neuroticism dimension, irrespective of the specic personality instrument, and the personality disorders (Dyce & OConnor, 1998; Krueger, Caspi, Mot, Silva, & McGee, 1996). The impulsive-unsocialized sensation seeking scale was associated with Antisocial, Borderline, Narcissistic, Sadistic, and negatively, with the ObsessiveCompulsive scales. In this sense, the Socialization domain also reproduces the relationships previously observed for Extraversion, since higher loadings were found for Schizoid, Avoidant, and Histrionic scales. Contrarily, Activity captures a dierent common variance since it was mainly related with Narcissistic, Paranoid, and ObsessiveCompulsive disorders. Aggressionhostility was associated with Sadistic and PassiveAggressive scales, thus showing its usefulness to predict personality disorders. Regression analyses of the MCMI-III disorders and DSM-IV clusters showed that the predictive power of ZKPQ scales was practically the same (mean R2 = .36) as that reported for the vefactor model in Dyce and OConnors study (1998) (mean R2 = .35). Also, the ZKPQ dimensions helped increase specicity and discriminate between PDs. For instance, the Histrionic scale was only related to Extraversion in the ve-factor model, but this scale was also related to Sy and ImpSS in Zuckermans model. Another example is the relationships found for the three DSMIV clusters. For instance, Agg-Hos and ImpSS distinguished between clusters A and C. Looking at those results, it may be argued that an understanding of the relationships between Zuckermans dimensions and personality disorders may add valuable information to the denition, description, and treatment of PDs. The ZKPQ does not have subscales (with the exception of ImpSS and Act, but those subscales have not been analyzed in the present study). Dyce and OConnor (1998) reported that including the 30 NEO-PI-R facets oers a richer and more diverse description of the personality disorders and a slight increase in the accounted total variance. In this sense, facet level analyses may contribute to increase specicity and discriminate between PDs. A further study including the ZKPQ subscales or comparing the ZKPQ with NEO-PI-R facets should be conducted. Graphical results support the notion that linear correlation statistics commonly used in previous research probably provide some misleading or attenuated results. Thus, deviant ZKPQ dimensions levels at the high PD end only rarely had deviant personality scores at the low PD end. Most of the time, low scores in particular PDs were accompanied by normal-range scores on ZKPQ scales. Low PD scores thus do not generally represent some kind of personality

Au

th o

r's

pe

rs

on

al

co

4. Discussion

py

regard to the graphical results (Fig. 1), subjects at the high end of cluster A presented a prole of high scores on N-Anx (and also on Agg-Hos) and low ones on Sy. For Cluster B (Fig. 1), Imp-SS, Agg-Hos, and Sy were quite high. Also, Act and N-Anx presented a tendency to be above the average. Finally, for Cluster C (Fig. 1), graphical analysis highlighted the deviance of N-Anx for the high end of the continuum, with the remaining dimensions showing negative scores, especially Sy.

1320

A. Aluja et al. / Personality and Individual Dierences 42 (2007) 13111321

References

Aluja, A., Garca, O., & Garca, L. F. (2004). Replicability of the three, four and ve Zuckermans personality superfactors: exploratory and conrmatory factor analysis of the EPQ-RS, ZKPQ and NEO-PI-R. Personality and Individual Dierences, 36, 10931108. Aluja, A., Garca, O., & Garca, L. F. (2002). A comparative study of Zuckermans three structural models for personality through the NEO-PI-R, ZKPQ-III-R, EPQ-R and Goldbergs 50-bipolar adjectives. Personality and Individual Dierences, 33, 713725. American Psychiatric Association (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., Revised (DSMIV TR)). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press. Ball, S. A., Carroll, K. M., & Rounsaville, B. J. (1994). Sensation Seeking, substance abuse, and psychopathology in treatment seeking and community cocaine users. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62, 10531057. Costa, P. T., & McCrae, R. R. (1992). Professional manual: revised NEO personality inventory (NEO PI-R) and NEO ve-factor-inventory (NEO-FFI). Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources. Costa, P. T., Jr., & Widiger, T. A. (2002). Personality disorders and the ve-factor model of personality. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Dyce, J. A., & OConnor, B. P. (1998). Personality disorders and the ve-factor model: a test of facet-level predictions. Journal of Personality Disorders, 12(1), 3145. Fan, J., & Gijbels, I. (1996). Local polynomial modelling and its applications. London: Chapman and Hall. Fox, J. (2000). Nonparametric simple regression: smoothing scatterplots. Thousand Oaks, CA. Hare, R. D. (1991). The Hare psychopathic checklist-revised. Toronto: Multi-Health Systems. Jang, K. L., Livesley, W. J., & Vernon, P. A. (1999). The relationship between Eysencks P-E-N model of personality and traits delineating personality disorder. Personality and Individual Dierences, 26, 121128. Krueger, R. F., Caspi, A., Mot, T. E., Silva, P. A., & McGee, R. (1996). Personality traits are dierentially linked to mental disorders: a multitrait-multidiagnosis study of an adolescent birth cohort. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 105, 299313. Millon, T., Millon, C., & Davis, R. (1994). Millon clinical inventory-III manual. Minneapolis, MN: National Computer Systems. OConnor, B. P. (2005). Graphical analyses of personality disorders in ve-factor model space. European Journal of Personality, 19, 287305.

Au

th o

r's

pe

rs

on

al

deviance in the other direction. It should also be remarked that large deviances from the average personality scores were found beyond a T score of 70. Summing up, this study represents a rst step to understanding the usefulness of Zuckermans alternative ve-factor personality model in the prediction, assessment and treatment of personality disorders. The results suggest that the predictive power of the ZKPQ is similar to the FFM in general, and specically to the NEO-PI-R. Also, this model emphasizes the relevance of personality basic dimensions other than those of the FFM. The case of ImpSS is paradigmatic. Note that the impulsive-unsocialized sensation seeking is composed of two facets, Impulsivity and Sensation Seeking, located on the Neuroticism and Extraversion NEO-PI-R dimensions, respectively (Costa & McCrae, 1992). Thus, the FFM measured using the NEO-PI-R may thus underestimate the relevance of these constructs. Finally, the present study presents two major limitations: (1) the nonclinical nature of the sample. A limitation reinforced by the fact that Millons questionnaire was developed as an instrument for assessing PDs in clinical rather than non-clinical populations. (2) The use of a self-report measure of personality disorders. Future studies on Zuckermans personality model and personality disorders should analyse clinical samples and conduct multi-method assessment procedures of PDs with preference for structured interviews based on DSM criteria.

co

py

A. Aluja et al. / Personality and Individual Dierences 42 (2007) 13111321

1321

Au

th o

r's

pe

rs

on

Ostendorf, F. (2000). Personality disorders and the ve-factor model. A meta-analysis. European Psychiatry, 15(Suppl. 2), 226S227S. Reist, C., Haier, R. J., DeMet, E., & Chicz-DeMet, A. (1990). Platelet MAO activity in personality disorders and normal controls. Psychiatry Research, 33, 221227. Saulsman, L. M., & Page, A. C. (2004). The ve-factor model and personality disorder empirical literature: a metaanalytic review. Clinical Psychological Review, 23, 10551085. Svrakic, D. M., Whitehead, C., Przybeck, T. R., & Cloninger, C. R. (1993). Dierential diagnosis of personality disorders by the seven-factor model of temperament and character. Archives of General Psychiatry, 50, 991999. Thornquist, M. H., & Zuckerman, M. (1995). Psychopathy, passive-avoidance learning and basic dimensions of personality. Personality and Individual Dierences, 14, 525534. Wang, W., Du, W., Wang, Y., Livesley, W. J., & Jang, K. L. (2004). The relationship between the Zuckerman Kuhlman Personality Questionnaire and traits delineating personality pathology. Personality and Individual Dierences, 36, 155162. Widiger, T. A., & Costa, P. T. (1994). Personality and personality disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 103, 7891. Zuckerman, M. (1996). Sensation seeking. In Ch. G. Costello (Ed.), Personality characteristics of the personality disordered (pp. 289316). New York: John Wiley & Sons. Zuckerman, M. (1999). Vulnerability to psychopathology. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Zuckerman, M., Kuhlman, D. M., Teta, P., Joireman, J., & Kraft, M. (1993). A comparison of three structural models of personality: the big three, the big ve, and the alternative ve. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 757768. Zuckerman, M., Kuhlman, D. M., Thornquist, M., & Kiers, H. (1991). Five (or three) robust questionnaire scales factors of personality without culture. Personality and Individual Dierences, 12, 929941.

al

co

py