11/11/2011

Topics
Semiconductor diode construction Diode operation
No bias Reverse bias Forward bias

Diodes
EE 21-Fundamentals of Electronics

Diode characteristic curve Zener/Avalanche Region Packaging DC and AC (dynamic) resistance

Semiconductor Diode
A two-terminal device Most basic of all semiconductor devices Used in rectification (AC to DC) Switching circuits Voltage Regulation LEDs

Semiconductor Diode Construction

Formed using a P-type and an N-type material Depletion region is formed in the middle from IONS
Majority Carrier Minority Carrier Majority Carrier

Minority Carrier

Acceptor atom turned ion

Donor atom turned ion

Semiconductor Diode Symbol

Diode Operation
Three options of operation: No-bias, Forward bias, and Reverse bias Bias refers to the application of an external voltage across the two terminals of a device to extract a response

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No-bias condition (VAK = 0)

Net current = 0

Reverse bias condition (VAK < 0)

Opposite polarity bias Depletion region widens due to the bias Very small current called reverse saturation current (Is) due to minority-carrier flow (A, nA range)

Forward bias condition (VAK > 0)

Same polarity bias Depletion region thins due to the bias Current is a sum of the majority carrier flow and the minority carrier flow Increasing the bias naturally increases the current

Diode Characteristic Curve

I D I S (e kVD / TK 1)
Where: ID = diode current IS = reverse saturation current k = 11,600/n, 1 < n < 2, ideality factor TK = temperature in K

Diode Characteristic Curve

I D I S (eVD / nVT 1)
Where: ID = diode current IS = reverse saturation current n = ideality factor (1 n 2) VT = thermal voltage VT = kT/q, where k = 8.617 x 10-5 eV/K q = 1 e = 1.602 x 10-19 C T = temperature (K) ~ 26 mV at T = 300K

Diode Characteristic Curve

I D I S eVD / nVT I S
First term is similar to the Exponential function y = ex At reverse bias condition, ID = - IS At forward bias condition, IS becomes negligible The point at FB where the current begins to rise exponentially is called the knee

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Avalanche Region
Point in reverse bias region where the diode breaks down Reverse current sharply increases due to KE of minority carriers (how??)

Zener Breakdown & Zener Region

Avalanche region can be brought closer to vertical axis by changing doping levels Zener breakdown strong electric field in the region of the junction that can disrupt the bonding forces within the atom and generate carrier Special-purpose diodes called Zener Diodes utilize this phenomenon.

Silicon vs. Germanium Diode

VT = Threshold Voltage forward bias voltage required to reach the region of upward swing (Si 0.7V, Ge 0.3V) Silicon is suitable for higher temperatures (200 C), Ge 100 OC

Temperature Effects
Reverse saturation current doubles per 10oC increase (despite increasing breakdown V*) In general: increasing T = more ideal forward characteristics (but wait)

Resistance Levels: DC resistance

Also called static resistance Application of DC bias results in one operating point on the characteristic curve

Example
Determine the DC resistance for the diode at (a) ID = 2 mA (b) ID = 20 mA (c) VD = -10 V Answers: (a) 250 (b) 40 (c) 10 M

RD

VD ID

RD at and below the knee > after knee

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AC or Dynamic Resistance
AC operation (i.e. sinusoidal input) Operating point moves along the curve Q-point occurs on absence of the varying signal. Q: Quiescent, meaning still or unvarying

AC or Dynamic Resistance

rD

Vd I d

In general, the lower the Q-point of operation, the higher the AC resistance.

Example
Determine the dynamic resistance at: (a) ID = 2mA (b) ID = 25 mA (c) Compare them with the DC resistances at the given ID levels.

Mathematical determination of AC resistance

Recall: the derivative of a function at a point is equal to the slope of the tangent line drawn at that point: From

d d (I D ) [ I S (eVD / nVT 1)] , dVD dVD

dI D 1 (I D ) dVD nVT

we arrive at

Mathematical determination of AC resistance

Flipping the fraction yields the desired V/I quantity for resistance:

Body resistance
Additional resistance introduced by the connection b/w semiconductor material and the external contacts 0.1 for high-power devices to 2 for general-purpose diodes

dVD nV rd T dI D ID
Substituting n=1 and a standard thermal voltage of 26 volts gives us:

rd

26mV ID

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Average AC resistance
Resistance determined by a straight line drawn b/w the range of input voltages desired. In equation form:

Diode Equivalent Circuits

Ideal Equivalent Circuit (First approximation) Simplified Equivalent Circuit (Second approximation)

rav

Vd I d

pt .to . pt .

Piecewise-Linear Equivalent Circuit (Third Approximation)

Ideal Equivalent Circuit

Simplest approximation available; ignores knee voltages and diode resistances Assumes an ideal diode that is forward biased as long as VAK > 0

Simplified Equivalent Circuit

Takes into consideration the threshold voltage of the diode but disregards diode resistances Will be the main approximation used in solving diode circuits

Piecewise-Linear Equivalent Circuit

Closest to the exact diode model; only difference is the approximation of the curve using a straight line segment = rav

Diode Specification Sheets

Give parameters related to the operation of the diodes
Forward voltage VF Maximum forward current IF Reverse saturation current IR Reverse-voltage rating (also called peak inverse voltage, peak reverse voltage, voltage reverse maximum) Capacitance levels Reverse recovery time trr

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Transition and Diffusion Capacitance

Every electronic or electrical device is frequency sensitive Diodes have stray capacitance: recall Xc = 1/2fC May affect the diode performance especially at high frequencies, creating a parallel shorting path

Transition capacitance
Significant at the reverse-bias region due to wide depletion region Recall the parallel-plate capacitance:

d can be found in the width of the depletion region of the diode. Is used by special diodes called Varactor or Varicap diodes.

C A / d

Diffusion Capacitance
Dependent on the rate at which charge is injected into the regions just outside the depletion region Rate of change of charge = current Increased current = increased levels of diffusion capacitance

Transition and Diffusion Capacitance

Reverse recovery time, trr

Happens when a diode changes state from FB to RB Caused by a temporary delay in the minority carriers and majority carriers and their respective -ity states (i.e. an electron is a majority carrier at n-type but is a minority carrier at p-type) Ideally, reverse-bias response should be instantaneous

Reverse recovery time

t rr t s tt
Where ts storage time (carriers still unable to return to their nonconducting states) tt transition interval (as carriers return to their nonconducting states)