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INTRODUCTION
1.1 WHY REUSE WATER?
Sustainable water management is an important goal and a key element of sustainable urban development. Government authorities and the land development industry are increasingly seeking to use alternative sources, such as water reuse, to conserve drinking water supplies and minimize wastewater. Water reuse must be considered in the context of the specific development and management of the entire water cycle. A Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD) strategy is the starting point for developments water management planning. Within such a strategy, reusing water may be deemed appropriate for a particular site after considering all other water streams and their interactions. Water reuse describes the treatment of wastewater to a standard where it can be used within our community. Throughout the document the term reused water is used to describe recycled water, greywater reuse (wastewater from the household excluding toilet water), sewer mining or reclaimed effluent. References to particular water streams will be made where required. Reused water is used on a fit-for-purpose basis that is, of an appropriate quality for the intended use.
Fig 1.2.1 Integrated water cycle systems approach for water reuse with typical urban applications 1
Fig 2.1 Flow diagram for the evaluation of appropriate water reuse technologies Step 1. Identify site characteristics and interaction with the built environment a. identify development scale, type, location b. evaluate current centralized capacity c. evaluate potential upgrades to cater for development d. investigate offsetting investment in infrastructure upgrades with reuse treatment opportunities Step 2. Conduct a water balance a. align water uses with available water sources (including rainwater, storm water, drinking water) on a fit-for-purpose basis b. assess water demands with an end-use analysis c. calculate water balance d. align demand profile with supply profile 2
Step 3. Identify water reuse options, for example a. onsite b. localised treatment c. dual supply pipeline Step 4. Social and human health considerations a. adopt a risk-based approach to defining methods of delivery and corresponding water quality requirements b. define requirements for pre-commissioning monitoring and demonstration of compliance to current health standards for reused water c. identify community receptiveness to different applications of reused water Step 5. Evaluation of the impact on the natural environment a. receiving water quality impacts b. greenhouse gas emissions c. land suitability Step 6. Life cycle costing and economic considerations a. economies of scale b. capital, operational, replacement and decommissioning costs Step 7. Select an appropriate technology based on the above six steps, having completed an analysis of economic, environmental and social considerations in the context of site characteristics.
Enhanced removal of suspended solids and organic matter typically by chemical addition or filtration Secondary Removal of biodegradable organic matter (in solution or suspension) and suspended solids. Disinfection is also typically included in the definition of conventional secondary treatment Secondary with Removal of biodegradable organics, suspended solids and nutrients (nitrogen, nutrient removal phosphorus or both) Tertiary Removal of residual suspended solids (after secondary treatment) by granular medium filtration or microscreens. Disinfection is typically part of tertiary treatment. Nutrient removal is also included in this definition Removal of dissolved and suspended materials after normal biological treatment
Advanced
Table 3.1.1 Levels of wastewater treatment (adapted from Crites and Tchobanoglous, 1998)
3.3TYPES OF TECHNOLOGIES
To further explore the broad groups of technologies available for water treatment, representative technology types are described. These technologies listed below provide an overview of the most common and applicable treatment systems available and include: biological systems including: o suspended growth systems e.g. activated sludge systems and sequencing batch (SBR) o fixed growth systems e.g. trickle filters, rotating biological contactors (RBC) and recirculating media filters (fixed film bioreactor) o natural systems e.g. subsurface flow wetlands sand and media filtration membrane filtration (micro, ultra, nanofiltration and reverse osmosis) membrane bioreactor.
Suspended solids (TSS) Biodegrada ble organics (BOD removal) Yes Yes Yes Function of size Function of size Yes Yes No Nutrients: nitrogen Nutrients: phosphorus
5
Salts
Pathogens
Biological processes Natural systems Recirculating media filter Media filtration Membrane filtration Membrane bioreactor Subsurface flow wetland Disinfection
Limited Good Limited Limited Function of size Function of size Good6 Yes
Filtration is a tertiary treatment process that typically occurs after the secondary biological process. Filtration may be required to remove residual suspended solids and organic matter for more effective disinfection. Filters have been used for water treatment for more than 100 years. Sand (or other media) filters typically treat settled wastewater effluent. For onsite treatment, sand filters are usually lined excavated structures filled with uniform media over an underdrain system. The wastewater is dosed on top of the media and percolates through to the underdrain system. Design variations include recirculating sand filters where the water is collected and recirculated through the filter. Sand filters are essentially aerobic, fixed film bioreactors. Straining and sedimentation also occur, removing solids. Chemical adsorption to media surfaces removes dissolved pollutants (e.g. phosphorus). Water is applied to the top of the filter and allowed to percolate through the media. With time the headloss builds up and the filter media has to be cleaned by backwashing. The principal removal mechanism is by straining where particles larger than the pore space are strained out and smaller particles are trapped within the filter by chance. The hydraulic flow rate determines the dominant pollutant removal mechanisms. Pollutants are removed by infiltration. Larger particles are retained within the filter media by filtration. If organic they will decompose during low-dose periods. Typically a biofilm forms on upper layers. This layer helps to adsorb colloidal pollutants and encourages oxidation of the organic material. For effective microbial control, low flow is desired through the sand filter. This ensures contact between the sand medias biofilm and water. During low flow, the interstitial spaces between the sand granules enable oxygen to diffuse to the biofilm and encourage oxidation of organic material. Depth filtration is a variation of a sand filter. Depth filtration uses a granular media, typically sand or a diatomaceous earth, to filter effluent. Typically there are four layers of filter media. The particle size decreases through the filters layers. The coarser top layer removes larger particles and finer material is removed towards the lower layers, increasing the efficiency of the filter (compared with a conventional sand filter). Sand and media filtration technologies suppliers include: Baleen Filters
Table 3.3.3.1 Membrane filtration key features summary Membrane filtration processes can remove particles, bacteria, other microorganisms, particulate matter, natural organic matter and salt (desalination), with removal determined by the membranes pore size. As the pore size decreases smaller pollutants can be removed and pressure requirements increase. The smaller pore size requires greater pressure and greater energy requirements for effective treatment.
blocked (or fouled) and requires regular maintenance. Fouling can be managed by upstream water treatment such as sedimentation. Reverse osmosis units are particularly effective when used in a series configuration. RO membranes are typically constructed from cellulose acetate and polyamide polymers. Chlorine concentration has the potential to damage RO membranes. The cellulose acetate can tolerate chlorine levels used for microbial control whereas any chlorine present will destroy the polyamide polymers. Membrane treatment technologies suppliers include: NuSource Memcor
There are two basic configurations for a MBR: a submerged integrated bioreactor that immerses the membrane within the activated sludge reactor and a bioreactor with an external membrane unit. MBRs provide a proven and reliable treatment technology, having been used extensively in Japan for greywater and blackwater reuse systems. MBRs replace the need for a separate filtration process. Membranes are costly to replace. Control of membrane fouling is an important operational issue. If fouling is not controlled, membranes will wear quicker, and there will be increased energy costs and decreased effluent quality. MBRs also have higher capital cost and energy costs than other treatment systems. Membrane bioreactor technology suppliers include: Clearwater Aquacell Port Marine Ludowici Zenon Veolia Water Systems Aquatec-Maxcon: Kutoba Memcor Memjet Xpress Nubian Systems
3.7 DISINFECTION
Disinfection destroys pathogenic microorganisms in water to ensure public health. Eradication of waterborne pathogens is the most important public health concern for water treatment. Disinfection ranges from boiling water to large-scale chemical treatment for water supplies. The three most common disinfection methods are ultraviolet radiation, chlorination and ozonation. Ultraviolet (UV) disinfection uses UV light to deactivate microorganisms in water. The short UV wavelength irradiates microorganisms. When the UV radiation penetrates the cell of an organism, it destroys the cells genetic material and its ability to reproduce. UV disinfection has low capital and operating costs, is easy to install and operate and is well suited to small-scale water treatment processes. Chlorination chlorine, a strong oxidant, is the most common water disinfectant. Chlorine can be added in gaseous form (Cl2), hypochlorous acid or as hypochlorous salt (typically Ca(OCl)2). Chlorine addition requires chemical handling and storage. Byproducts of chlorination could be carcinogenic, with particular concern and research to understand trihalomethanes (THMs). Chlorine provides residual microbial control; that is, it continues to disinfect water after it has passed through the treatment process. It is typically selected for drinking water supply systems. Optimal chlorination dosage is dependent on the concentration and water pH and temperature. The pH exerts a strong influence on the chlorination performance and should be regulated. Ozonation ozone is a more powerful oxidising agent than other disinfectants. Ozone is created by an electrical discharge in a gas containing oxygen. Ozone production depends on oxygen concentration and impurities such as dust and water vapour in the gas. The breakdown of ozone to oxygen is rapid. It is impossible to maintain free ozone residuals in water for any significant time.