Application of Electrolysis in

Blood Glucose Monitoring Systems

Blood Glucose Monitoring

Earliest devices available for self monitoring of glucose were urine dipsticks or test tapes. A chemical reaction created a measurable (coloured) product on the dipstick or tape. The glucose concentration in urine was estimated by visually comparing the intensity of colour with a reference colour chart. While simple to use, these devices were inconvenient and lacked the precision necessary for insulin dosage adjustments. Accurate and precise measurement of blood glucose levels could be achieved only with laboratory instruments.

In the late 1970s, similar test strips for measuring glucose in whole blood samples were introduced. Like the earlier urine dipsticks, the whole blood test strips used a reagent impregnated pad on a plastic strip to enzymatically convert glucose to a coloured product. Proper use of the whole blood test strips required removal of excess sample (by wiping or blotting), careful timing, and visual estimation of glucose concentration; the quality of results was highly operator-dependent.

Shortly after the introduction of visually read test strips, the first generation of hand-held blood glucose meters reached the market. By incorporating a small optical system (a reflectance photometer), these meters allowed the user to read the test strips electronically to measure the colour intensity on the test strips. Optical readings were converted to a digital display of blood glucose concentration. Although such systems still required wiping and timing, their enhanced performance allowed people with diabetes to accurately and precisely self-monitor their blood glucose levels.

Second-generation meters for BGMS reached the market in the mid to late 1980s. These meters eliminated the need for wiping and timing. A second technologyelectrochemistryjoined reflectance photometry for blood glucose monitoring. Both technologies use an enzyme to convert glucose to a measurable product, but instead of measuring a coloured product, electrochemical meters quantify the number of electrons generated by the enzymatic reaction and convert that number to blood glucose concentration.

Blood glucose monitor consists of a disposable test strip with two carbon working electrodes and silver-silver chloride reference electrode 4 L (4 x 10-6 L) of blood is applied in the circular opening which spreads over all the electrodes.

Steps

Enzymes used in BGMS

Enzymes are used to catalyze the reactions that convert glucose to a measurable substance. Enzymes used in blood glucose monitoring systems are specific for glucose and produce substances that are readily measured by either reflectance photometry or electrochemistry. As a result, routine blood glucose measurements have become rapid, accurate, and sensitive. Enzymes commonly used in the measurement of glucose include glucose oxidase, glucose dehydrogenase, and hexokinase.

Electrons
Using an enzyme as a catalyst, glucose (G) is reacted with a mediator (Y) to generate electrons (e-). The number of electrons captured by the mediator is directly proportional to the amount of glucose present in the sample: the more glucose, the more electrons; the less glucose, the fewer electrons.

Electrochemistry (Amperometry)
Electrochemistry quantifies the number of electrons generated by the oxidation of glucose. A mediator captures the electrons; when a voltage is applied, the electrons are transferred to and counted at the electrodes. A detector converts the resulting current to an electronic signal and translates that signal to its corresponding glucose concentration.

Details of a test strip

Ag|AgCl Reference electrode Carbon working electrode-1 coated with glucose oxidase and mediator Blood is applied here

Electrical contacts

Carbon working electrode-2 coated Hydrophobic mesh spreads blood over the electrodes with mediator but no enzyme

Carbon working electrode(1) coated with glucose oxidase and mediator Carbon working electrode(2) coated only with mediator

Reaction in coating above working electrode

Glucose + 2 Ferricinium ions
( 1,1dimethyl ferricinium ion)

Enzyme 2 Ferrocene Glucose (1,1 dimethyl ferrocene) oxidase CH3 Enzyme Glucose oxidase

CH3 CH2OH O H H OH OH OH OH

+
2
Fe

+2

Fe CH3

CH3

Sandwitch

Reaction in coating above working electrode

Oxidation of glucose due to enzyme glucose oxidase takes place at the coating on carbon working electrode-1, which immediately converts ferricinium ion (reduction) to ferrocene. Ferrocene gets oxidized at the carbon working electrode giving electrons and once again forms ferricinium ions. Working (Ferricinium ion)+ + 2 e2 Ferrocene electrode The current produced at the working electrode is proportional to the concentration of ferrocene which in turn is proportional to concentration of glucose in blood. Thus, concentration of glucose present is found by the difference between the concentrations of ferrocene between the two working electrode.