By-Product Reusing

By-Product Resusing from olive and

olive oil production

By-Product Reusing




This booklet has been written to help the producer of
olives and olive oil across Europe in understanding the
environmental impact related to the processing of
olives. The aim is to sensitise the producer and to
show different ways of reusing of by-products from the
production of olive oil and table olives.

"The olive encyclopaedia is a collection of 12
publications part of the project TDC-OLIVE which aim
is to collect the information related to the olive sector
and make it accessible to the interested public".
"This publication has been carried out with support
from the European Commission, Priority 5 on Food
Quality and Safety (Contract number FOOD-CT-2004-
505524 Specific Targeted Project), Setting up a
network of Technology Dissemination Centres to
optimise SMEs in the olive and olive oil sector. It does
not necessarily reflect its views and in no way
anticipates the Commissions future policy in this area.


By-Product Reusing

Introduction

TDC-OLIVE project is an initiative included in the Sixth
Framework Programme of the European Union, aimed
to table olive and olive oil SMEs. Its main target is the
creation of a physical and virtual network of
Technology Dissemination Centres (TDC) as means of
support to enterprises of this sector, as well as a bridge
between them and Research and Development
institutions. We pretend to:

Achieve a modern SME, with qualified staff, that
employs new technologies in order to access
information and, in general, to implement technological
innovation systems
Achieve an SME committed to the optimisation of the
product quality and to the treatment, recycling and
reuse of all the wastes generated in its activity

Since Mediterranean olive oil and table olive producers
(particularly SMEs ones) need to modernize and to
increase their competitiveness, TDCs aim to accelerate
the necessary technology innovation process of SMEs
by establishing a training program and by providing
updated information in those topics of interest for
SMEs. Simultaneously, TDCs will carry out a series of
actions and promotion activities in order to achieve a
certain change of mentality in central and northern
European consumers, thus an increase in the
consumption of olive oil and table olives.



PARTNERS


Centro de Informacin y
Documentacin Cientfica



Instituto de la Grasa


Instituto Madrileo de
Investigacin Agraria y Alimentaria


Istituto Sperimentale per la
Elaiotecnica


National Agricultural Research
Foundation, Institute of
Technology of Agricultural
Products


Technologie - Transfer -
Zentrum



Bundesforschungsanstalt Fr
Ernhrung und Lebensmittel -
BFEL


Unilever

Asociacin Agraria de Jvenes
Agricultores Sabina-Agrcola
Agricultural Association Agio
Apostolon Vion


Alcubilla 2000 S.L. Improtechnology Limited


Biozoon GmbH

This booklet has been developed by Technologie Transfer Zentrum - Bremerhaven (and designed
by Improtech Limited) for inclusion in the TDC Olive Encyclopaedia.
By-Product Reusing

0
Table of Content
OLIVE AND OLIVE OIL PRODUCTION 1
TYPES OF WASTES AND BY-PRODUCTS 3
Table olive production 3
Olive Oil Production 4
GENERAL STRATEGIES FOR TREATMENT OF BY-PRODUCTS 7
Minimization and up-grading technologies 7
Treatment of solid waste 7
Treatment of wastewater 9
BY-PRODUCT REUSE AND APPLICATION 13
REUTILISATION OF VALUABLE COMPOUNDS 14
DIFFERENT APPLICATION METHODS 16
Bioremediation and Composting 16
Solid state fermentation 17
Drying 17
De-oiling 17
Gasification 17
Monitoring and Control 17
Catalogue and Database 17
MARKET FOR NEW PRODUCTS 18
Incineration costs 20
Gasification- Pyrolysis costs 21
Mechanical treatment costs 21
Composting costs 21
Anaerobic digestion (AD) costs 23
OTHER RELATED PROJECTS 24
REFERENCES 25

By-Product Reusing

1
Olive and olive oil production



Olive oil production is an important
agricultural and alimentary sector in Europe.
The European Union is the main world
producer, and during the season 2003/2004,
2.282.650 tons were produced in several
thousand of olive oil mills [1]. The majority of
olive mills are small enterprises, in many
cases family-owned and with less than 10
workers.
In the world, 2.766.773 tons of olive oil is
produced, of which 82.50 % is produced in
Europe [1]. If we take into account the
Associated Candidate Countries and Turkey,
the figure rises up to almost 89 % [3].

With average annual growth rates higher than
4 % [2], table olives and olive oil production is
one of the fastest growing agro-food sector in
Europe. In more and more European
countries olive oil has become a part of the
daily nutrition.
More than 12.000.000 tons of olives are
grown annually within the EU [2], from which
over 2.000.000 tons of olive oil are produced
in approximately 12.000 olive mills [2].










Fig. 1: Produced olive oil in tonnes. [2]

The olive oil industry is of prime importance to
the economy of the European Union; it is
among one of the largest industry sectors in
the Union, which provides jobs for 800,000
people in Europe [3], either directly or
indirectly, and with a large SME base with
around 90 % small or medium-sized
enterprises.
In the case of table olives, the European
Union is again the leading world-wide
producer (40-45 %), with figures for the last
growing season of between 500.000 and
600.000 tons out of a world total production of
1.300.000 tons [2]. This sector encompasses
approximately 600 companies in the EU.

Since 1980 the area on which olives are
grown in Europe has been more than doubled
to today. More than 4.000.000 hectares being
the second most important agro-food sector in
Europe. The growth of both sectors is a very
positive economic development as the
industries are mainly located in the less
developed region of southern Europe.

Olive oil production has normally been
concentrated in the Mediterranean basin
countries: Spain, Portugal, Italy, Greece,
Turkey, Tunisia and Morocco.
These seven countries alone account for 89
% of world production as it is shown below.


Did you know?

That the main producer of olives and olive
oil is the European Union with over 80 %.

That the olive and olive oil industry is an
important employer in the agro-food-sector
with over 800 000 employees.
EU Rest of the world
84,22%
15,78%
By-Product Reusing

2

Fig. 2: Main producing countries in 2003 in the
World. [3]

The evolution of world production during the
last ten years is shown in the graph below.
Production trend by country is ascending but
the great influence of the two major producing
countries introduced a high level of
uncertainty in the production level. Indeed,
the fact that production in Italy and Spain
changed much more than the one of the other
producing countries explains the high volatility
of global production.
Finally, it should be mentioned that the
production of other countries (not included in
the graph), such as Australia and United
States, is increasing.














Fig. 3: Production of olive oil in the World in the last 10 years. [3]
By-Product Reusing

3
Types of wastes and by-products


The amount and types of wastes and by-
products depends on the production method
distinguishing between table olive production
(accounting for 8 % of the olives grown) and
olive oil production (accounting for 92 % of
the olives grown):

Table olive production
There are several methods to obtain edible
olives, but common for all methods is that the
final process step is in most cases
fermentation.
The most commonly employed method (>70
%) is the Spanish Style. The process
consists of nine steps (Fig. 4). After washing
(1), the fresh olives are debittered with a
NaOH solution (lye) (2). The NaOH
hydrolyses oleuropein (responsible for the
bitterness in olives) into hydroxytyrosol and
elenolic acid glycoside. After this the olives
are rinsed with water (3,4,5) In a subsequent
step, the olives are placed into NaCl or KCl
brine, in which they undergo lactic
fermentation by means of lactic acid bacteria
(6). Before olives are packed the fermentation
media is removed (7) by means of water
followed by a final washing step (8).The olives
are packed in a brine solution (9).




Olives
Washing
NaOH
treatment
Washing Washing Washing
Lactic
Fermentation
Removing of
Fermentation Media
Packaging
Brine
Washing Palatable
Olives
1 2 3 4 5
6 7 8 9

Fig. 4: Flow scheme of processing table olives.

Useful Terms and Shortcuts:

BOD
5
: The amount of dissolved oxygen
consumed in five days by biological processes
breaking down organic matter.

COD: The amount of oxygen in mg/l required to
oxidize both organic and oxidizable inorganic
compounds.

NaOH: Sodium hydroxyte - also known as caustic
soda or lye.

KCl: Potassium chloride - It occurs naturally as
the mineral sylvite and in combination with sodium
chloride as sylvinite.

NaCl: Sodium chloride, also known as common
salt, table salt, or halite.

Polyphenols: are a group of vegetable chemical
substances, characterized by the presence of
more than one phenolic group (also known as
carbolic acid, with a chemical formula of C6H5OH)
and are responsible for the colouring of some
plants. Polyphenols have been shown to be strong
antioxidants.

OMWW: Olive Mill Waste Water(-s)

OOW: Olive Oil Waste

By-Product Reusing

4
Three further methods of olive processing are
known but play a secondary role (<30 %
market share) in Europe:
Greek style: the olives are not treated with
lye, but directly fermented in brine, which is
the only wastewater generated in this case.
Californian style: the olives are oxidised and
blackened by lye, successive exposures to
the air and by iron salts addition.
Unfermented green olives: the olives are
debittered with a solution of NaOH and NaCl.

A typical composition of waste water streams
is shown in table 1. However, the composition
of these three residues can vary greatly
depending on the olives variety, the
harvesting method, etc.
Even though table olive production has
undergone comprehensive modernisation in
the last decade, 1.2 litre of fresh water/kg
olives are still needed and the amount of
waste water generated remains unchanged.
For the table olive sector alone this amount to
more than 750.000 tons of waste water/year
to be treated and disposed of.








Olive Oil Production

Three different processes are used today for
olive oil production (Fig. 5), the so-called
traditional process (traditional), the process
based on a 3-phase decanter (3-phase) and
the process based on a 2-phase decanter (2-
phase). These different systems are nearly
similar concerning their oil yield (except the
traditional process) of the first press, but they
significantly differ in the amount and the
composition of the different by-product
fractions. These by-product fractions are
mainly composed of solid and liquid phases
or a kind of slurry.
The traditional pressing process and the three
phase process generate one stream of virgin
olive oil and two streams of wastes, a
wastewater called alpechin and a wet solid
called orujo. The traditional method (Fig. 5a)
is a batch extraction that only differentiates
into two phases by pressing the previously
Useful Terms and Shortcuts:

Alpechin: waste water from the olive oil extraction
process

Orujo: wet solid from the olive oil extraction
process

Alperujo: wet paste from Alpechin and Orujo from
the two-phase centrifugation method for olive oil
extraction.

Pomace: is a substance prepared by pressing or
grinding various fruits, for example olives. Pomace
essentially consists of the pulp of the fruit after oil
has been pressed out.

kWh: Unit for measuring energy. It corresponds to
one kilowatt (kW) of power being used over a
period of one hour and is commonly used for
electrical energy. 1 kWh = 3,600,000 joules.

kcal: kilocalorie. A calorie (abbreviated cal) is a
unit of energy that equals the amount of heat
necessary to raise the temperature of one gram of
water by 1 degree Celsius, at a pressure of 1 atm.

Tab. 1: Main characteristics of waste water from table
olives [1].
Characteristics
Lye &
Wash
Water
Brine
pH 9 -13 4
NaOH [g/L] 1,1-1,5 -
NaCl [g/L] - 6-10
Free acidity [g lactic acid/L] - 6-15
Polyphenols [g tannic acid/L] 4,1-6,3 5-7
COD [g O
2
/L] 23-28 10-20
BOD5 [g O
2
/L] 15-25 9-15
Volatile organic Solids [g/L] 30-40 10-20

By-Product Reusing

5

a) b) c)
Olive Olive Olive
Separator (Dekantation)
Milling
Crushing/
Grinding
Crushing/
Grinding
Horizontal
Centrifugation
Horizontal
Centrifugation
Vegetation
& Process
Water
Oil Pomace
Oil
Olive Pomace
(Alperujo)
Water
Pressing
Oil &
Water
Pomace
Oil
Vegetable
Water
Pomace
Oil
Extracted
Pomace
Further
processing
Vertical
Centrifugation
Oil
Vegetable
Water
Extracted
Pomace
Washing Washing Washing
Further
processing
Pomace
Oil


Fig. 5: Flow schemes of the 3 different olive oil production processes:
a) Traditional process, b) 3-phase decanter process, c) 2-phase decanter process.
milled olives. The liquid phase is separated
later in order to obtain oil. In this case the by-
product is a plastic paste which has the
advantage of avoiding the production of
vegetable waters. In summary, from 1.000 kg
of olives, about 350 kg of the solid fraction
(water content about 25 %) and about 450 kg
of wastewater are generated by this process.
However, although it is more ecological, this
technique may only be run in batches and this
is not always seen as an advantage for the
main producing countries.
The 3-phase process, that replaces the
traditional method, is the most widely used in
intensive production areas. It dates back to
the seventies and eighties. The milled olives
are applied directly to a 3-phase decanter,
where the different fractions are separated
(Fig. 5b). The main disadvantages of this
process are the huge amounts of water
needed and consequently the production of
vegetable waters which cause pollution.
Additional water is needed for this process,
so, from 1000 kg of olives, 500 kg solid
fraction (water content about 50 %) and about
1200 kg of waste water are generated.
Some years ago a new system appeared on
the market, the 2-phase system (also called
ecological system). In this process (Fig 5c);
the stream of the milled olives is separated in
a 2-phase decanter. This system enables
reduced fresh water consumption and the
elimination of wastewater streams.

Unfortunately, a paste-like residue (Alperujo =
alpechin+orujo) is produced. The waste
(about 800 kg / 1000 kg olives) comprises
both, solids and vegetable water from the
olives and poses again difficulties for
disposal, as it is very difficult to handle, dries
out very slowly and it is again very polluting.
For the European olive oil industry, it means
that more than 8.000.000 tons of fresh water
is consumed while at the same time more
than 4.600.000 tons of waste water and more
than 6.800.000 tons of solid waste (pomace)
By-Product Reusing

6
are generated.
During vegetable oil production several by-
products and wastes are generated and are
mainly used for the extraction of residual oil
(by-product), animal feed, energy recovery or
disposed on field. A brief description of them
is provided below.

Leaves and stones - can be pyrolysed under
non-oxidative atmosphere or gasification can
take place with energy or alternative fuel
production. It can be a solution to the
environmental problems that their land filling
or combustion could create. [7]

Olive Pulp - The residual paste which is
produced if the whole olive pits are removed
from the paste prior to processing. This
residual paste has very high water content
and is difficult to store or dispose of.

Crude Olive Cake - There is still a small
amount of oil in this cake so it can be further
processed to obtain refined oil, used for
heating, as animal feed supplement or
returned to the olive trees as mulch (to
prevent soil erosion or enrich the soil).

Exhausted Olive Cake - When the refined oil
is extracted the leftover fibrous material is
primary lignin and cellulose. It can be
composted, burned, used for heating, for
animal feed supplement or returned to the
olive trees as mulch.











Tab. 2: Characteristics of solid wastes from 3-phase
decanter process. [4]

A detailed comparison of results obtained
from a two phases extraction and a three
phases extraction is represented in table 3.
The study has been made with different
varieties of olives whose composition was:
moisture (48 - 51 %) and oil (19 - 23 %).






















Physical chemical characteristics of the solid
waste from Three-phases process
(centrifugation)
Humidity (%) (dried at 105 C) 52.05
pH (diluted 1:10) 5.20
Total nitrogen (like N) (%) 0.96
Total phosphorus (like P
2
O
5
) (%) 0.56
Total organic carbon (%) 60.45
Carbon to Nitrogen (C/N) ratio 62.97
Total organic carbon extracted (%) 30.85
Humified dyed carbon extracted (%) 11.40
No humified carbon extracted (%) 18.45
Humification degree (DH) (%) 36.95
Humification rate (HR) (%) 18.86
Humification index (HI) 1.65
By-Product Reusing

7
Tab. 3: Comparison of results obtained from a two
phases extraction and a three phases extraction [5].
(a, b means: Values followed by identical letters show
that they are not statistically different to P< 0.05)
Extraction Art: Two phases Three phases
Oil extraction
capacity
86% a 85% a
Pomace
Quantity (kg/100kg
of olives)
72.5 a 50.7 b
Moisture ( %) 57.5 a 50.7 b
Oil (%) 3.16 a 3.18 a
Oil (% dry material) 7.44 a 6.68 a
Oil (kg/100kg of
olives)
2.28 a 1.60 b
Dry pomace
(kg/100kg of
olives)
30.7 a 23.9 b
Vegetable waters
Quantity
(liters/100kg of
olives)
8.30 a 97.2 b
Oil (g/liter) 13.4 a 12.6 a
Oil (kg/100kg of
olives)
0.14 a 1.20 b
Dry residual
(kg/100kg of
olives)
1.20 b
8.3 b
Oil in by-products
(kg/100kg of
olives)
2.42 a 2.80 a

General strategies for treatment of
by-products
Olive oil industry produce large amounts of
wastes and by-products, producing 35 kg of
solid waste (crude olive cake) and 100 L of
liquid waste (olive mill waste waters OMWW)
per 100 kg of treated olives. Such substantial
amounts of by-products may have harmful
effects on the environment. Consequently,
much alternative utilization of by-products has
been considered (e.g. utilization as a source
of nutrients for animals). [8]

Olive oil extraction is mainly carried out by
means of the traditional discontinuous press
(classic mill) or the more recent continuous
solid/liquid centrifugal system (centrifugal
mill). Both processes produce two waste
streams:
The residual solids, which contain oil to be
recovered by mean of solvent extraction [9].
By taking into consideration the fact that
leaves are not so many in volumes and olive
kernels are useful for the production of seed-
oil and kernel wood, the olive oil extraction
from residual solids doesnt cause significant
solid wastes.
The biggest problem in olive oil process is the
Olive oil mill wastewaters, which is high in
volume and polluting charge, with BOD5
(Biological Oxygen Demand in 5 days) of
20.000-35.000 mg/L, COD (Chemical Oxygen
Demand) of 20.000-35.000 mg/L and a pH
quite low (4-6). This is a very high organic
matter load if we take into account that the
normal quantity in a usual communal waste
water treatment plant is 400-800 mg/L. Olive
oil waste (OOW) or also called black water is
a toxic effluent that results during the
production of olive oil. It is considered a major
pollutant and cause great problems in olive
tree cultivation areas in many European
countries. The total production of OOW in
Greece is about 1.500.000 tons every year
while the number of processing mills is 3.500.

Minimization and up-grading technologies
Treatment of solid waste

Land application
Land application or land treatment of wastes
(such as manure, sludge and other food
processing wastes) is often a very affordable
waste disposal alternative for industry. This
treatment takes advantage of the nutrient
content of these wastes for crop production
and can act as soil conditioner as well. The
objectives are to maximise nutrient use while
minimising pollution hazards. The most
common land application methods are land
spreading or subsurface injection (10-25 cm)
By-Product Reusing

8
of liquid or solid waste on or into the soil,
respectively.
With the necessary control (testing, timing of
application and calibration) land spreading or
injection can add nutrients to the soils while
limiting odours and protecting surface.
This method has the advantages that it has a
high efficiency and low energy consumption.
The disadvantages are that it can be
problematic if danger of animal and plant
epidemics exists, and it can cause
acidification of the soil. [14]

Composting
Composting is the aerobic breakdown of
organic material into soil-like material called
humus. The degradation occurs mainly by
enzymatic digestion of the wastes by soil
micro organisms by using the organic matter
as substrate. Aerobic degradation of organic
substances and mineralization to CO
2

(Carbon dioxide), water and inorganic salts is
accompanied by a mass reduction of 40 to 50
%. The organic waste is built up to heaps.
Due to intense biological activity of bacteria in
the first degradation phase, exothermal
reactions take place, leading to temperatures
of 70 to 80 C inside the heap. This heating
effect leads to a pasteurisation of the waste
material. An active or passive aeration of the
heap has to be ensured to guarantee a rapid
and complete aerobic degradation of the
biodegradable organic matter. The
composting process is completed after a
period of 3 to 4 month. The main problem of
the application of composting from olive by-
products is the odour emission. Biofilters are
applied to treat the aspired gas from
composting piles, which increase the whole
technology costs.
Compost is a valuable product and can be
used for several purposes such as:
Additive for improvement of texture
and biological activity for
bioremediation for contaminated soils
Disease control for plants and animals
Fertiliser, for re-cultivation, erosion
control and landscaping
Reforestation, wetlands restoration
Habitat revitalisation
The disadvantages of this method are that
smell can occur and drainage water that have
to be treated. [14]

Anaerobic digestion
Anaerobic fermentation or digestion of solid
organic wastes is a widely applied
technology. One technological solution is to
adjust the water content of the waste to at
least 90 % (wet fermentation) and to treat it in
a completely mixed bioreactor (applied for
liquid manure). The second solution is the
treatment of the waste with a water content of
60 to 70 % in a fixed bed bioreactor.
The first step of the anaerobic degradation
process is acidification, where the hydrolysis
of the organic substances takes place. The
second step that is strictly anaerobic is the
formation of methane. Different technological
solutions exist: these two steps can be
realised in one reactor (one step process) or
in two separate reactors (two step process).
Approximately 40 to 50 % of the organic
matter is transformed to biogas, which can be
used to produce electric energy and heat. The
main disadvantage is the production of low
sludge. [14]


Fig. 6: Anaerobic Digester producing
gas for a power plant.
By-Product Reusing

9
Incineration/combustion
Wastes can be burned in controlled waste
incineration plants or in less controlled oven
systems. Wastes are used as combustible
material from which heat can be recovered to
produce electrical energy, e.g. from 1 ton of
processed olives waste, 400.000 kcal (
465kWh) can be recovered [6]. The remaining
ashes can be used for agriculture as a source
of mineral salts, which is not authorised
except in some EU-member states.
Incineration processes are subjected to strict
environmental regulations. The 2000/76
Directive [16] on the incineration of waste was
designed to prevent or to limit as far as
practicable negative effects on the
environment, in particular pollution by
emissions into air, soil, surface water and
groundwater, and the resulting risks to human
health, from the incineration and co-
incineration of waste. This aim shall be met
by means of stringent operational conditions
and technical requirements, through setting
emission limit values for waste incineration
and co-incineration plants within the
Community and also through meeting the
requirements of Directive 75/442/EEC [17].
This Directive covers incineration and co-
incineration plants.
Most wastes from agro-food industries are
due to the high water content problematic
combustibles. If the energy content of the
waste is low, an additional fuel is needed to
support the incineration process. Industrial
waste incinerating plants dispose of
demanding dust elimination and exhaust gas
treatment devices.
It is not such a good method because waste
is disposed of without valorisation, normally
energy recovery is low, and ash is dumped so
energy and nutrient content of the waste are
not used. [14]

Pyrolysis/Gasification
This process is only very rarely applied and
converts any carbon containing material into a
synthesis gas (syngas) composed primarily of
carbon monoxide and hydrogen. This syngas
can be used as a fuel to generate electricity
or steam or as a basic chemical reactant. The
wastes are fed to the gasifier as dry wastes or
slurry, and then they react with steam under
oxygen exclusion at high temperatures and
pressure in a reducing atmosphere. Products
of this process are besides the synthesis gas
condensed water and solid and liquid
residues.
If syngas is used to produce electricity, it is
the fuel in an integrated gasification combined
cycle (IGCC) power generation configuration.
And it can be also processed to produce a
range of marketable products such as fuels,
tar oils, chemicals or industrial gases. [8]
Some side effects are liquid and solid
pyrolysis residues, and condense water that
has to be treated. [14]
Treatment of wastewater

The treatment of olive oil mill waste waters
(OMWW) is very difficult because of the high
organic load (COD, BOD), bacteriocide
substances (polyphenol, oleuropein) and that
the main waste load is only in a period of
harvest (from the middle of October until
January / February latest) and it is not spread
through the year.
Some methods are used to treat these
wastewaters, but until now, there is not a
method which can dispose completely this
OMWW. The OMWW is still a big problem in
the olive oil sector and the environment.
It is shown below the used methods for the
treatment of OMWW, with their main
restrictions.







By-Product Reusing

10
Filtration
Filtration is used to remove solids from the
wastewater. Those solids include clays and
silts, natural organic matter, precipitates from
other treatments, Fe (Iron) and Mn
(Manganese) and micro organisms. The
separation is done by means of a porous
medium, screen or filter cloth, which retains
the solids and allows the liquid to pass
through. The filters can be layers of sand,
gravel, and charcoal or activated carbon that
help remove even smaller particles. Filtration
clarifies water and enhances the
effectiveness of disinfections [9].
It can be applied alone or as a pre-treatment
before the application of another technology.
Filtration equipment can operate naturally or
forced by the application of pressure
(pressure filtration) to the feed side or by the
application of a vacuum (vacuum filtration) to
the filtrate side.
It is obtained a filter cake to be disposed of or
re-cycled. [14]

Membrane separation
Membrane separation processes are applied
to remove suspended, colloidal, and
dissolved solutes instead of soluble and
dispersed substances as it was before from
wastewater. All membrane separation
processes use a semi-permeable or porous
membrane which has to be supported against
the high pressure difference by supporting
devices. The membrane is a thin physical
barrier through which substances can either
pass (the permeate) or be rejected and
retained (the retentate). The structure and the
characteristic of the membrane layer
determinates the nature of the separation.

In general, membrane separations are
classified according to the pore size as follow:


Microfiltration (retains bacteria)
Ultrafiltration (retains proteins,
suspended solids)
Nanofiltration (retains sugars)
Reverse osmosis (retains salts)


Prior to membrane separation a pre-filtration
stage is necessary to remove large
suspended solids.
This method is not suitable for highly fouling
wastewater and products from the olive oil
production can be recovered in an unchanged
chemical form.
The membrane technologies are quite
effective for waste minimization and up-
grading of OMWW, but they are usually of
high cost. [14]

Activated sludge treatment
The purification process takes place in closed
basins where an intense mixing of wastewater
with microbial biomass and air takes place.
The biomass consists of bacteria, which are
responsible for the degradation process, and
protozoa that eat the bacteria. This
biocenosis is called activated sludge. The
biomass is recycled to obtain a high density of
biodegrading micro organisms.
The degradation process leads to the
production of high quantities of sludge, CO
2
(Carbon dioxide) and NH
4
(Ammonia). The
sludge is partly recycled to the aeration tank
and the surplus of sludge has to be treated or
disposed.
Recently membrane bioreactors (MBRs), both
with external or submerged MF
huge






small
P
a
r
t
i
c
l
e

s
i
z
e

Useful Terms and Shortcuts:

m: Mu meter, unit which corresponds to
the micrometre (which is now denoted
"m") one millionth of a metre (1106 m),
equivalent to one thousandth of a
millimetre.

By-Product Reusing

11
(microfiltration) and UF (ultrafiltration)
membrane modules have merged as a very
promising alternative to conventional
activated sludge systems being
compact(avoiding the sedimentation tank)
and high rate systems (with sludge
concentrations 2-3 times larger than
conventional systems) very adequate for food
high COD loaded wastewaters.
This method is used for wastewater with BOD
< 3000 mg/L. That is the reason why it usually
represents a second step for the treatment,
once it has been reduced the high BOD
5

(20.000-35.000 mg/L) corresponding to the
OMWW. [14]

Anaerobic treatment
The anaerobic biological degradation process
takes place at the absence of atmospheric
oxygen and leads to the conversion of soluble
organic substances into biogas through
biological fermentation. The biogas can be
used in a processing plant. It results low
amounts of sludge, which can be brought out
on agricultural land as fertilizer.
Anaerobic treatment is usually applied for
such highly organically contaminated OMWW
(BOD
5
>3000 mg/L) and it represents the first
step for the treatment, since a post treatment
(e.g. activated sludge) is very often
necessary. [14]

Precipitation
Precipitation is used to eliminate dissolved
substances out of the solution by adding a
chemical agent that encourages the particles
to stick together, usually by inhibiting
electrostatic forces which hold them apart.
There are four basic stages in the process:
pH adjustment, coagulation, clarification and
filtration.
Precipitation is mainly applied in wastewater
that contains non-biodegradable substances.
[14]

Flocculation
Flocculation combines or coagulates small
colloidal particles (<1 m) to large particles,
which settle down as sediment or can be
floated or filtered. In some cases soluble
colloidal substances are removed by
combining flocculation-coagulation chemicals.
Aluminium and iron salts (Al
2
(SO
4
)
3
, FeCl
3
)
and

lime are the most common coagulants
use and/or synthetic organic polymers such
as polyelectrolyte are generally used to
promote coagulation. Smell from the
screened material is an often side effect. [14]

Incineration
Incineration is the destruction of organic
wastewater components via oxidation with air
based oxygen at high temperatures
accompanied by a complete evaporation of
the water. This process is very well suitable
because the OMWW contains a high
percentage of organic matter. The higher the
load of the wastewater, the more favourable
is the incineration technology in comparison
to mechanical-biological treatment. Fluid bed
oven or static incineration chambers or
generally used for incineration of wastewater
whereas rotary tube ovens are applied for
combined incineration of solid and liquid
wastes.
The main problem is that it results ashes and
exhaust gas. Wastewater is disposed of with
high energy consumption. [14]

Distillation / Evaporation
Evaporation uses a heat input to vaporise and
remove one or more components from a
liquid feed stream. It reduces the volume of
the original feed stream and concentrates
non-volatile substances that are dissolved in
it. It can sometimes be combined with a
reduction in pressure, e.g. vacuum.
Distillation is mainly applied for OMWW as it
is highly contaminated.
The mentioned method is reliable but very
expensive and energy consuming. [14]
By-Product Reusing

12




































Heating
Grinding
1
st
centrifuge
1
st
oil separation Waste oil recovery
2
nd
oil separation
Olive oil
2-3 PHASES
PROCESS
TRADITIONAL
PROCESS
Hydraulic pressing
Residue
(olives kernel)
1
st
oil separation
2
nd
oil separation
Olive oil
Water
Fig. 6: Flow diagram for traditional, 2 and 3 phases olive oil mills [9]
Washing of
equipment and
general area
Wastewater
Residue (olives kernel)
Olive liquid
GENERAL
PRETREATMENT
POMACE
VEGETABLE
WATER
VEGETABL
E WATER
POMACE
Leaf removal
Washing
By-Product Reusing

13
By-product reuse and application

The actual uses of olives oil residues are
shown in the table below, where it is shown
which are the advantages and disadvantages
of each use.





Tab. 4: Actual uses of olives oil residues.

A novel research on reusing of the OMWW
shows that this waste water contains 4.5 g/L
of total solids, of which 1.5 g/L are mineral
solids, comprised mainly of potassium mineral
salts that can be used as nutrients to produce
an algal biomass balanced in protein and
carbohydrates with a fraction rich in
polyunsaturated fatty acids. [10]





Uses Advantages Disadvantages Source
Fertilizer (for the olive
orchards)
Easy, direct land
spreading.
Odour.
Problem with ground water
contamination. Many
countries have restrictions on
quantities to dispose due to
the high level of chemical
oxygen demand.
Tree roots may burn.
-Ramos, A. et al.
(1995).
-The Olive Oil
Sources (2001).
Composting and
bioremediation
Minimise the emissions.
Great quality, Nitrogen
rich material.
Long maturation period.
Needs carbon-bulking agents
to prevent odour.
-Improlive, UCM
(2000).
-Carter, B. (2001).
Bio-gas production Good output
Special devices are needed.
Very high costs.
-Tekin, A. et al.
(2000).
Animal feed Cheap.
Low protein content
Lysine-deficent
High cellulose contain
Bitter (non feed able)
-Clemente, A. et al.
(1997).
-Haddadin, M. et
al. (1999).
Fuel, commercially sold
charcoal.
Environmentally non-
polluting and
biodegradable.
Non-valuable due to very low
heat value.
-Alexander, C.
(2001).
Energy recovery (e.g. the
pomace is used as fuel
for electricity production)
High efficiency.(Its
calorific value is 3.600-
3.700 kcal/kg and the
humidity 10-14 %)
Air pollution. (It exists
Emission Limit Values for
biomass fuels in Italy and
Spain, and they will be
introduced in Portugal soon
Which is expected to be a
limitation for potential use of
pomace as biomass fuel)
-Torre, M. et
al.(1995).
-Mariani, G. et al.
(1992).
Activated carbon

High adsorption
capacity.

Non-valuable due to the cost-
value ratio.

-Gharaibed, S. et
al. (1998).
- Baaoui, A. et al.
(1998).
By-Product Reusing

14
The alpechin treatment process
is shown below.
Reutilisation of valuable compounds

It is known that the growing evidence that free
radical- mediated events are involved in
several pathological processes, such as
cancer and coronary heart disease has
increased the interest in natural antioxidants.
Some of these natural antioxidants such as
tocopheroles, carotenoids, phospholipids and
phenolic compounds, are present in olive oil
and give to it, besides favourable fatty acid
profile, its beneficial health effects [11]. These
compounds can be found in olive oil residues.

Phenolic compounds are categories of
phytonutrients, which exert strong antioxidant
effects, thus avoiding lipid oxidation inside the
arteries and therefore the accumulation of
LDL (low density lipoprotein) in the arterial























Fig. 7: The alpechin treatment process. [15]


Fig. 6: The alpechin treatment process. [15]
Neutralization
CaO
Red water
Oil press (Process)
Elimination of toughness
Evaporation
Mire treatment
Animal feeding plant Compost plant
Coagulation
Flocculation
Filter
Exchanger
Oil
Refuse
after pressing
Olive
Alpechin
Flocculant
Solids
Water
Hot
oil press
Steam
Vegetable
Wastes
Solids
Organic amendment Animal
feed
Condensed water
Did you know?

That olives and olive oil has a high content of
Phenols and antioxidants like Oleuropein and
Hydroxytyrosol, which have positive effects on
cancer, hearth and coronary diseases.

Useful Terms and Shortcuts:

In-Situ: "in place", it means to examine the
phenomenon exactly in place where it occurs,
without removing it.

w/v: weight per volume

w/w: weight per weight

By-Product Reusing

15
walls, a primary cause of coronary heart
disease. Many of them are recognised by
their bitter flavour [12]. Oleuropein is
tresponsible for the bitter taste of olives and it
has also been shown to have antioxidant
together with anti-inflammatory properties. It
is present in high amount in the leaves of the
olive tree (90 mg/g dry weight) and in all
constituent parts of the fruit: peel, pulp and
seed [13].

The Hydroxytyrosol is an antioxidant
phenolic compound which is obtained from
the enzymatic cleavage of oleuropein. Their
combined efforts for free radical scavenging
properties are greater than the commercial
preservative 3,5-di-tert-butyl-4-
hydroxytoluene (BHT) or than vitamin C [11].
Flavonoids, such as tyrosol and
hydroxytyrosol, are more potent antioxidants
than the combination of the vitamins C and E.
In the olive fruits, phenyl acids, flavonoids and
secoiridoids have been reported, the phenolic
compounds representing 1-3 % (w/v) [14]. In
the leaves, 19 % (w/w) is oleuropein and 1.8
% flavonoids [16].
Besides these polyphenols, others beneficial
substances are present in the olive residues.

Mannitol is a nutritive sweetener (compare to
non-nutritive sweeteners such as aspartame
and saccharin which provide no nutrients or
calories), stabiliser, humectant and bulking
agent in foods and supplements. It is one of
several carbohydrates classified as a sugar
alcohol or polyalcohols. The chemical
structure of mannitol allows it to be absorbed
more slowly by the body than regular sugars.
Therefore, it has a smaller impact on blood
insulin levels, making it a useful additive for
diabetic foods. In addition, mannitol does not
promote tooth decay.

The results of researches demonstrate that
alpechin extracts have powerful antioxidant
activity and might therefore represent a
cheap, source of natural antioxidants, as yet
unused (it is not commercially available
because of the expensive and low yields
procedures known for their production)

The main components of the olive oil residue
are summarised in the following table. Most of
the possible applications are already
commercially available.


















By-Product Reusing

16
Tab. 5: Main components of the olive oil residues.


Organic substance
Contents in
olive pomace.
(g/ 100g of
extracted dried
olive pomace)


Benefits

Possible
application


Source
-Polyphenols:
Oleuropein
Tocopherols
Hydroxytyro
sol
Tyrosol
-Flavonoids
(apigenin,
quercitin, luteolin)
0.29-0.27
-Decrease the risk
of heart disease.
-Protect
cardiovascular
tissue.
-Anticancer.
-Antioxidant
-Antiinflamatory
-Food additives
-Cosmetics
-Pharmacology
-Health food
-Ibanez, E. et al.
(2000).
- Clemente, A. et al
(1997).
-De la Puerta, R. Et
al. (2000).
-Giacosa, O.(2000).
Fibre 70.0-79.3
Anticancer: Favour
the intestinal transit.
-Food
-Clemente, A. et al
(1997).
Ash 3.54-4.75
High absorption
capacity.
-Cosmetics
-Clemente, A. et al
(1997).
Polyalcohols:
mannitol
107,1-195.4*
Nutritive sweetener,
stabilizer
-Dietetics food
additives
-Cosmetics
-Clemente, A. et al
(1997).
Triterpenoids
Natural pigments
and aromas
-Cosmetics
-Gil, M. et al.
(1997).
*mg/100g dry matter

Different application methods

The great variety of compounds of the wastes
needs several technologies to remove the
harmful compounds for the environment. Most
of the following methods have been tested in
laboratory and only some of them in industrial
scale. In the case of alpeorujo the most used
treatments are drying/evaporation, thermal
treatment, biological treatment, and treatment
by fungi. Compost and livestock feeding
manufacture could follow this treatment.
For the liquid waste, the possible methods
are, either in single or in combined ways,
aerobic treatment (bioremediation),
lagooning, anaerobic treatment, filtration,
ultrafiltration, membrane filtration, wet
oxidation, precipitation/flocculation,
adsorption, evaporation, electrolysis. An
emerging technology, co-composting of
diverse mixtures of different wastes, would be
specially attractive to research.

Bioremediation and Composting
Composting and subsequent utilisation in
agriculture has turned out to be the most
suitable procedure for the treatment of solid
waste (alperujo). The bacterial isolation and
identification and physiological responses of
bacteria present in fresh alperujo and
involved in the bioremediation of the liquid
fractions and composting of the solid fractions
of alperujo were assessed. The liquid waste is
very well suited for anaerobic treatment, but
should be submitted to further aerobic
treatment in an activated sludge plant.
A novel thermophilic process of composting,
based on the use of hydrogen peroxide,
allows the transformation of alperujo either
alone or mixed with other agricultural bulky
wastes into a humidified organic substrate
By-Product Reusing

17
suitable for agricultural use. In the former
case the process is self-sustainable, i.e. the
fresh alperujo is fed batch wise with partial
recycling for practically an unlimited time. In
both cases after the necessary maturation
period the processes yield a final product
(alperujo-compost) of good quality.
The chemical composition of alperujo is
suitable for composting, but its physical
structure and lack of porosity do not allow this
treatment approach. The addition of woody
materials or straw as bulking agents is not
feasible in most cases, as they are not usually
available in the vicinity of olive producing
areas. [19]

Solid state fermentation
Enrichment of the substrate with microbial
protein, to attain subsequent amino acid
production with a possibility of use as an
animal feed. [19]

Drying
A new and innovative contactor based on
fluidised/moving beds has been designed and
its fluid dynamics and behaviour as drier were
studied. The operating conditions of drying of
alperujo in fluidised/moving beds have been
studied and optimised. The operation seems
feasible for industrial scale but further tests in
higher scale are needed. Using ring dryer, the
humidity of the alperujo is reduced to approx.
10-15 %. The dried material is a powder, the
fractions of which are: pit fragments (also by
using a pit separator before), skin, fruit flesh
particles or agglomerates. [19]

De-oiling
The de-oiling of the fresh alperujo in a further
two phase decanter as well as in the
ecological line is possible, also directly after
the first deoiling step, the mean oil extraction
line. In an one metric ton pilot plant several
processes or different process parameters
were investigated, e.g. with/without pit
separation, malaxing time, enzymes, water
addition, milling or combinations of these.
Alperujo, which is de-oiled directly, gives an
oil which would reach the quality stage "olive
oil", but the sterol content in the orujo oil
indicates a low quality. [19]

Gasification
Physicochemical treatments of de-oiled
alperujo and pits in new systems based on
fluidised/moving beds in which the material
suffers combustion and gasification were
tested. The new contactor based on
fluidised/moving beds does not serves for
pure combustion or burning but it is positively
useful and feasible for the gasification of de-
oiled orujo and pits with air/water. The flue
gas obtained has a typical composition and,
through adequate further tests, it could be
proved the use in explosion engines to
produce electricity. [19]

Monitoring and Control
A new device to control flow of granular solids
was designed and proved successfully. The
device can be implemented in control loops.
It was developed an industrial grade Moisture
Sensor and Panel Controller technology. [19]

Catalogue and Database
Data collection was related mainly to 13
treatments of wastewater from three-phase
decanting process. From research resulted
that the two-phase decanting process shows
unequivocal advantages. Five main
procedures suitable for alperujo treatment
were finally identified: drying (natural,
mechanical), combustion, aerobic treatment
(composting), anaerobic treatment and
treatment by fungi.

An in-situ inquiry resulted in 11 data records
collected in Greece and 18 in Spain. Alperujo
is mainly treated in large evaporation lagoons
and/or used as fuel. This does not comply
with the ecological principles of the EU or the
respective countries. A third measure for data
By-Product Reusing

18
Useful Terms and Shortcuts:

kW: kilowatt, is a unit for measuring power,
equal to one thousand watts (is the SI derived
unit for power. It is equivalent to 1 joule per
second (1 J/s), or in electrical units, 1 volt-
ampere (1 V A).

MWe: Mega-Watt of electrical output is a unit
for measuring the output of a power plant.

MWh: Mega-Watt of electrical output per
hour.
collection exists through the forms of the
interactive database on the Internet. [19, 20]

There is a lack of information related to the
limits of applicability and economical viability
for each solution to valorise the olive wastes.
This fact implies that the decisions are taken
under an "atmosphere" of increasing
difficulties and decreasing accuracy. The
selection of "good solutions" for the
management and valorisation of the wastes
coming from olive oil production, and the
design of a economical activity should be
particular for each case. They always will
depend on several factors, such as capacity
of production, regional characteristics,
industrial and agronomy-ecological
surroundings, local laws, etc.








Market for new products













Olive oil processing is characterized by very
high water consumption and high organic
strength wastewater generation. Major
waterborne pollutant loadings are
biological/chemical oxygen demand, total
suspended solids, fats-oils-greases, and
nutrients. Most facilities employ on-site
primary treatment prior to sending their
wastewater to municipal wastewater
treatment plants. Large volumes of high
strength wastewater will both increase the
cost of disposal for food processing facilities
and present difficult challenges for the
municipal wastewater treatment plant
operators.
The direct combustion and gasification has an
efficiency between 65-70%, fast pyrolysis
between 45-60 %, anaerobic digestion or
composting between 35-50%.




By-Product Reusing

19
Tab. 6: Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) treatment/disposal methods costs in different EU countries. [15]
(WTE= waste-to-energy)
Treatment/disposal methods Total
Incineration Landfill
Prevention
Composting Recycling
WTE
no
WTE
Direct Indirect
Exclusive
Indirect
Landfill
Inclusive
Indirect
Landfill
Country
(/ton) (/ton) (/ton) (/ton) (/ton) (/ton) (/ton) (/ton) (/ton)
Austria 35 81 23 105 55 55 62 61
Belgium 26 74 14 98 49 49 55 55
Denmark 24 76 14 100 51 51 61 60
Finland 24 80 17 103 54 54 64 64
France 37 78 20 102 52 52 59 58
Germany 35 76 18 100 50 50 56 56
Greece 40 79 22 53 56 56
Ireland 57 81 28 55 59 59
Italy 28 79 18 103 53 53 51 51
Luxembourg 24 78 26 102 52 52 64 64
Netherlands 31 75 17 100 50 50 56 56
Portugal 40 84 24 58 59 59
Spain 43 78 21 101 52 52 54 54
Sweden 24 77 14 100 51 51 62 61
UK 20 75 14 100 50 50 43 43
EU-15 31 77 18 101 52 51 54 54


Tab. 7: MSW (Municipal Solid Waste) prevention and treatment/disposal methods costs in different EU countries.
[15] (WTE= waste-to-energy)
Treatment/disposal methods Total
Incineration Landfill
Composting Recycling
WTE
no
WTE
Direct Indirect
Exclusive
Indirect
Landfill
Inclusive
Indirect
Landfill
Country
(/ton) (/ton) (/ton) (/ton) (/ton) (/ton) (/ton) (/ton)
Austria 81 8 105 55 55 59 59
Belgium 74 1 98 119 49 49 71 69
Denmark 76 -3 100 51 51 66 65
Finland 80 -2 103 54 54 69 68
France 78 7 102 123 52 52 70 69
Germany 76 5 100 50 50 54 54
Greece 5 53 47 47
Ireland 14 55 49 49
Italy 5 124 53 53 49 49
Luxembourg 78 21 102 52 52 66 65
Netherlands 75 -1 100 120 50 50 58 57
Portugal 84 10 58 55 55
Spain 78 9 101 122 52 52 50 50
Sweden 77 -3 100 51 51 67 65
UK 2 100 120 50 50 46 46
EU-15 77 5 100 122 52 51 56 55
By-Product Reusing

20
Incineration costs
The costs are based on:
Costs of land acquisition
Scale
Plant utilisation rate
The requirements for treatment of flue
gas
The treatment and disposal / recovery
of ash residues
The efficiency of energy recovery and
the revenue received for energy
delivered
The recovery of metals and the
revenues received from it
Taxes on incineration


A sensitivity analysis shows the high impact
of:
the heat value of the waste input,
the state of the art of technology and
the capacity (throughput/year)
cogeneration of heat
heat recovery or not
industrial framework








Tab. 8: Grate incineration associated costs. [15]
Economic information
Capacity
(tons per annum)
Note 1
Typical capital costs
Note 2
(EUR)
Typical operating costs
Note 3
(EUR)
20.000 25.000.000 950.000 p.a.
50.000 45.000.000 1.750.000 p.a.
100.000 90.000.000 4.000.000 p.a.
200.000 160.000.000 6.800.000 p.a.

Note 1: The Biodegradable Municipal Waste
(BMW) proportion amounts typically to 5070
% of the annual input.

Note 2: Plant cost excluding tax, planning and
design fee and land based on Danish
conditions. In central Europe the cost of
plants is approximately a factor 1.52 higher,
especially in Germany. [21]
Note 3: Operating costs excluding the costs of
transport, residue disposal, staff costs,
income from sales of residue/by products and
incomes from net sales of energy. Operation
costs include yearly maintenance cost
estimated to 3 % of the initial capital costs.
[22]










By-Product Reusing

21
Gasification- Pyrolysis costs

Tab. 9: Gasification-Pyrolysis associated costs. [15]
Economic information
Capacity
(tons per annum)
Typical capital costs
Note 1
(EUR)
Typical operating costs
Note 2
(EUR)
20.000 (8.000.000)-15.000.000 800.000 p.a.
50.000 35.000.000 1.200.000 p.a.
100.000 60.000.000 2.100.000 p.a.
200.000 90.000.000-100.000.000 3.300.000 p.a.

Note 1: Plant cost excluding tax, planning and
design fee and land based on Danish
conditions. In central Europe the cost of
plants is approximately a factor 1.52 higher,
especially in Germany. [22]

Note 2: Operating costs excluding the costs of
transport, residue disposal, staff costs,
income from sales of residue/by products and
incomes from sales of energy. Operating cost
includes chemical cost e.g. for oxygen,
natural gas, nitrogen and limestone and
yearly maintenance cost of 3 % of initial
capital cost. [22]

The number of staff required is 2540,
depending on process, site, size and number
of administrative staff situated at the plant.
The cost for a simple biomass gasification
plant for wood waste is about EUR 1.000.000
per 1.000 kW waste based on 45 % moisture
on weight basis. [23]

A study shows the technical and economic
data of three hypothetical combustion power
plants placed in Castilla y Leon, with net
electric capacity ranging 10-22 MWe (Mega-
Watt electric); net electricity efficiency was
found to be 22-25%. The exploitation costs
were 75 Euro/MWh for a plant of 10 MWe and
58 Euro/MWh for a plant of 22 MWe. This
technology has been implemented in large
scale and can be regarded as a mature
technology.

Mechanical treatment costs
Before the waste can be treated in an
incineration plant, in a biological plant, or in
another plant very often it has be prepared by
mechanical measures like sorting lines,
physical treatments, it has to be transported,
stabilised, pelletised, etc. [24]

The transport costs are normally directly
related to the distance. The price is usually
between 7-20 Euros/ton.
The treatment costs are in a similar order like
other treatment costs (digestion, compost)
and in the range between 50-100 Euro/ton,
depending from the capacity.
The capital or investment costs are normally
in a higher range than the running or
operative costs.


Composting costs
Costs of land acquisition
The requirements for land per unit of
capacity
Scale
Plant utilisation rate
The choice of technology, especially
the degree (and technological
sophistication) of process control
The purity of source separation
By-Product Reusing

22
The nature and length of contracts and
the materials received
Revenues for sale of product, related
to the quality of input material and the
maturity of the end product

Composting is highly suitable as an option for
diverting biological waste away from landfill.
The principal advantages are that a useful
and potentially valuable product is being
manufactured from waste and that the
negative consequences associated with land
filling such as the production of landfill gas
and leach ate with high BOD
5
are avoided.
The main obstacle to successful composting
of BMW is contamination of the waste stream.
There is little point in investing public or
private money in the construction of
composting facilities if, at the end of the day,
the compost produced cannot be put to
beneficial use due to inadequate quality. A
key strategic issue, therefore, is ensuring that
as clean as possible a waste stream is
collected for composting. This means
investing resources in separate collection and
public education.

Tab. 10: Composting without forced aeration. [15]
Economic information
Capacity
(tons per annum)
Typical capital costs
Note 1
(EUR)
Typical operating costs
Note 2
(EUR)
2.000 300.000 130.000
5.000 600.000 240.000
10.000 900.000 400.000
20.000 1.300.000 730.000
50.000 2.200.000 1.350.000
100.000 4.500.000 2.600.000


Tab. 11: Composting with forced aeration. [15]
Economic information
Capacity
(tons per annum)
Typical capital costs
Note 1
(EUR)
Typical operating costs
Note 2
(EUR)
2.000 550.000-800.000 270.000
5.000 950.000-1.500.000 550.000
10.000 1.600.000-2.700.000 950.000
20.000 2.700.000-4.700.000 1.600.000
50.000 5.400.000-9.400.000 2.700.000
100.000 9.400.000-16.100.000 5.400.000

The figures in Table 10 and 11 are reliable for
general planning purposes.

Note 1: Capital costs including site costs,
planning costs and construction/plant
development costs.
Note 2: Operating costs excluding the costs of
residue disposal, staff costs, income from
sales of residue/by-products. [25]




By-Product Reusing

23
Anaerobic digestion (AD) costs

Anaerobic digestion is fully suitable for
treatment of the OMWW presuming that the
waste is pre-sorted. It produces biogas that
can be used for heating or combined heat and
power production, provided that there is a
market or the gas can be stored or inserted
in gas pipelines.


Tab. 12: Separate digestion, dry method. [15]
Economic information
Capacity
Note 1
(tons per annum)
Typical capital costs
Note 2
(EUR)
Typical operating costs
Note 3
(EUR)
5.000 2.900.000-3.100.000 120.000 p.a.
10.000 5.300.000-5.600.000 220.000 p.a.
20.000 9.500.000-10.00.000 400.000 p.a.


Tab. 13: Co-digestion, wet method. [15]
Economic information
Capacity
Note 1
(tons per annum)
Typical capital costs
Note 2
(EUR)
Typical operating costs
Note 3
(EUR)
20.000 3.700.000-4.500.000 130.000 p.a.
50.000 4.600.000-5.500.000 150.000 p.a.
100.000 10.500.000-12.500.000 350.000 p.a.

Note 1: The BMW proportion amounts to
approximately 100 % of the annual input.

Note 2: Plant cost excluding energy
conversion gas engine, tax, planning, and
design fee. [26]

Note 3: Operating costs excluding the costs
of transport, residue disposal, staff costs,
income from sales of residue/by products and
incomes from net sales of energy. Operating
costs includes yearly maintenance costs
estimated to 4 % of the initial capital cost. [27]
Staff costs may vary from plant to plant i.e. 5
15 persons for 100 000 tonnes per annum per
plant. Total operating costs excluding
transport may reach EUR 6 per tonne [28].
Electric consumption at a plant is typically
about 0.2 kWh/m3 biogas, and process heat
consumption about 0.83 kWh/m
3
biogas.

The cost components are:
Costs of land acquisition
The choice of process (there are many
variants)
The input material used
The efficiency of biogas production and
the revenue received for biogas
delivered
Price support for energy production
Regulations concerning the conditions
for utilisation of AD residue
Revenues for AD residue

With in the EU, anaerobic digestion in general
is utilized in Germany, Netherlands and
Denmark, there are developments in Spain
and Portugal, and it is used to a limited extent
By-Product Reusing

24
in other countries such as Sweden, UK and
France.
Based on the relatively few plants in Europe
(compared to land filling, incineration and
composting), the treatment cost net of
revenue seems to vary between 60 and 150
Euro/ton.


Other related projects

Impel Olive Oil project (Impel Network)

Mobile and flexible wastewater
treatment plant for small and medium
sized olive mills (MOWOM)

Development of a solar distillation
wastewater treatment plant for olive oil
mills (SOLARDIST)



Use of industrial waste waters from
olive-oil extraction in the biomass
production of Scnesdesmus Obliquus.

Utilisation of phenol-modified olive
stones in the preparation of resol-type
adhesives.




























By-Product Reusing

25
References

[1] ANONYMOUS, Faostat Database, www.fao.org [last Access on: 19.11.2004]

[2] ANONYMOUS, International Olive Oil Council, www.internationaloliveoil.org
[last Access on 22.11.2004]

[3] ANONYMOUS, Food and agriculture organization of the United Nations, www.fao.org
[last Access on 23.11.2004]

[4] ANONYMOUS, Consiglio Nazionale delle Rizerche, www.cnr.it [last Access on 23.11.2004]

[5] AMIRANTE, P. et al., (1993), Olivae n48, 43.

[6] ANONYMOUS, PIA, Italy AWARENET Projekt Member, www.pia.it

[7] ZABANIOTOU et al., (2000): Management of olive residues by thermochemical conversion.
Proc. 5th International Conference on Environmental Pollution, Chemical engineering
department of A.U.TH., Thessaloniki, Greece, p. 694-699.

[8] ALCAIDE E.M. AND NEFZAOUI A., (1996), Recycling of Olive Oil by-Products: Possibilities of
utilization in Animal nutrition, International Biodeteriotation & Biodegradation, p. 227-235,
Elsevier Science Limited, UK

[9] ISRAILIDES C.J., VLYSSIDES A. G., et al. (1996), Olive oil Waste treatment with the use of an
electrolysis system, Proc. 2
nd
Specialized Conference on Pretreatment of Industrial
Wastewaters, 16-18/10/1996, IAWQ Greek National Committee, Athens, Greece, p. 840-
843.

[10] SNCHEZ, S. et al. (2004), Use of Industrial waste waters from olive-oil extraction in the
biomass production of Scenedesmus Obliquus. 2
nd
World Conference on Biomass for
Energy, Industry and Climate protection, 10-14 May 2004, Rome, Italy, 1, p.342.

[11] VISIOLI, F. et al., (1995): Waste waters from olive oil production are rich in natural antioxidants,
Experientia, 51, p. 32-34.

[12] SOLER- RIVAS, C. et al., (2000): Oleuropein and related compounds. J. Sci.Food Agric. 80,
p. 1013-1023.

[13] SERVILLI, M. et al., (1996): Antioxidant activity of tocopherols and phenolic compounds of virgin
olive oil. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 1996, 73, 1589-1593.

[14] BRENES, G. et al., (1993): Phenolic compounds in Spanish olive oils. J. Agric. Food Chem.
1999, 47, p. 3535-3540.

By-Product Reusing

26
[15] ANONYMOUS, (2004), Handbook for the prevention and minimisation of waste and valorisation
of by-products in European agro-food industries, Agro food wastes minimisation and
reduction network - AWARENET, p. 349

[16] LE TUTOUR, B. et al., (1992): Antioxidative activities of Olea europaea leaves and related
phenolic compounds. Phytochem 31 (4), 1173-1178.

[17] ANONYMOUS, European Commission, Directive 2000/76/EC of the European parliament and of
the council of 4 December 2000 on the incineration of waste - Official Journal of the
European Communities (28.12.2000)
Online available:
http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/wasteinc/newdir/2000-76_en.pdf

[18] ANONYMOUS, Council of the European Communities, Council Directive on Waste 75/442/EEC
(15 07 1975)
Online available:
http://europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!celexplus!prod!DocNumber&lg=en&type_doc=
Directive&an_doc=1975&nu_doc=442

[19] ANONYMOUS, (2000): IMPROLIVE- Improvements of treatments and validation of the liquid-
solid waste from the two-phases olive oil extraction.

[20] ANONYMOUS, Improlive project website, www.ucm.es/info/improliv/ [last Access on 25.11.2004]

[21] ANONYMOUS, (1995) Danish Energy Agency, Progress report on theEconomy of Centralised
Biogas Plants, Danish Energy Agency.

[22] MCOS/Cowi, (1999): Waste management, a strategy for Dublin. Feasibility study of thermal
treatment of waste for the Dublin region, report on siting and environmental issues, report
by M. C. OSullivan and CO Ltd. Consulting Engineers, Dublin and Cowi
ConsultingEngineers and Planners A/A, Copenhagen. In collaboration with
Vestforbrandingen WTE Plant, Copenhagen, A. Beenackers, Univerity of Groningen,
Netherlands, J. Petts, University of Birmingham, M. Murphy, Murphy and Associates,
Dublin.

[23] DIMITRIOS TSOTSOS (2001): Biodegradable municipal waste management in Europe European
Environment Agency, Topic report 15/2001

[24] R. OETJEN-DEHNE, B. WINKLER (2000): Kostenseitiger Vergleich verschiedener
Entsorgungsoptionen mit thermischer Behandlung und Verwertung, Berlin 2000

[25] WANNHOLT (1999): Biological treatment of domestic waste in closed plants in Europe Plant
visit reports. RVF Report 98:8. ISSN 1103-4092. RVF The Swedish Association of Waste
Management and RFV Service AB, Malm. 321 pp

By-Product Reusing

27
[26] HJELLNES (1993): Evaluation of cost data on alternative treatment concepts. Internal project
report, prepared for Bergen Municipality, Norway, on treatment facilities for biodegradable waste.
References and reading list 2 Cowi AS and Cowi AS,.

[27] HJELLNES, (1997): Evaluation of cost data on alternative treatment concepts. Internal project
report, prepared for Oslo Renholdsverk (waste company), Norway, on treatment facilities for
biodegradable waste. Cowi AS and Cowi AS.

[28] LINBOE, H.H. et al. (1995): Progress report on the economy of centralised biogas plants, Edited
by J. Christensen. Publisher: Danish Energy Agency, Copenhagen. 34 pp.