REPORT ON SIGNAL AND TELECOMMUNICATION SIGNAL & TELECOMMUNICATION

PREFACE

In its broadest sense summer training is necessary to make the students familiar with the industrial environment prevailing in the world. To be competitive students need to know the policies, procedures and the trends going on in the present industrial world. In every professional course, training is an important factor. Professors give us theoretical knowledge of various subjects in the college but we are practically exposed of such subjects when we get the training in the organization. It is only the training through which I come to know that what an industry is and how it works. I can learn about various departmental operations being performed in the industry, which would, in return, help me in the future when I will enter the practical field. Training is an integral part of B.TECH and each and every student has to undergo the training for 1 month in a company and then prepare a project report on the same after the completion of training. During this whole training I got lot of experience and came to know about various communication techniques and other practices in real that how it differs from those of theoretical knowledge and the practically in the real life. In todays globalize world, where cutthroat competition is prevailing in the market, theoretical knowledge is not sufficient. Beside this one need to have practical knowledge, which would help an individual in his/her carrier activities and it is true that Experience is the best teacher.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Indian Railway (North eastern Railway) being a strategic organization requires strict and effective administration in it works. SIGNAL & TELE-COMMUNICATION department take care of proper functioning of communication and in turn plays a crucial role in safety of passengers traveling every day. I am really very thankful of proper guidance of Mr. JAVED ANSARI (JE/TELE) and Mr. JAGVIR SINGH (SSE) in helping out me to overcome many crucial problems which I face as a trainee and thanking all the staff for proper guidance and instruction. I am thankful to Sr. DSTE, DSTE for their support and cooperation.

CONTENTS

1. 2. 3. 4.
5. 6.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT INTRODUCTION COMMUNICATION OPTICAL FIBER CABLE EXCHANGE - ISDN SDH SYSTEM PRS AND UTS CONTROL ABBREVIATIONS CONCLUSION REFERENCES

7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

INTRODUCTION

HISTORY:
The first railway on Indian sub-continent ran over a stretch of 21 miles from Bombay to Thane. The idea of a railway to connect Bombay with Thane, Kalyan and with the Thal and Bhore Ghats inclines first occurred to Mr. George Clark, the Chief Engineer of the Bombay Government, during a visit to Bhandup in 1843. The formal inauguration ceremony was performed on 16th April 1853, when 14 railway carriages carrying about 400 guests left Bori Bunder at 3.30 pm "amidst the loud applause of a vast multitude and to the salute of 21 guns." The first passenger train steamed out of Howrah station destined for Hooghly, a distance of 24 miles, on 15th August, 1854. Thus the first section of the East Indian Railway was opened to public traffic, inaugurating the beginning of railway transport on the Eastern side of the subcontinent. In south the first line was opened on Ist July, 1856 by the Madras Railway Company. It ran between Veyasarpandy and Walajah Road (Arcot), a distance of 63 miles. In the North a length of 119 miles of line was laid from Allahabad to Kanpur on 3rd March 1859. The first section from Hathras Road to Mathura Cantonment was opened to traffic on 19th October, 1875. These were the small beginnings which is due course developed into a network of railway lines all over the country. By 1880 the Indian Railway system had a route mileage of about 9000 miles.

STRUCTURE

Indian Railways has one of the largest and busiest rail networks in the world, transporting over 18 million passengers and more than 2 million tones of freight daily. It is the world's largest commercial or utility employer, with more than 1.4 million employees. The railways traverse the length and breadth of the country, covering 6,909 stations over a total route length of more than 63,327 kilometers (39,350 mi). As to rolling stock, IR owns over 200,000 (freight) wagons, 50,000 coaches and 8,000 locomotives. Indian Railways operates about 9,000 passenger trains and transports 18 million passengers daily across twenty-eight states and one union territory. Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh and Meghalaya are the only states not connected by rail. The passenger division is the most preferred form of long distance transport in most of the country. Indian Railways is divided into zones, which are further sub-divided into divisions. The number of zones in Indian Railways increased from six to eight in 1951, nine in 1952, and finally 16 in 2003. Each zonal railway is made up of a certain number of divisions, each having a divisional headquarters. There are a total of sixty-seven divisions. Each of the sixteen zones, as well as the Kolkata Metro, is headed by a General Manager (GM) who reports directly to the Railway Board. The zones are further divided into divisions under the control of Divisional Railway Managers (DRM). The divisional officers of engineering, mechanical, electrical, signal & telecommunication, accounts, personnel, operating, commercial and safety branches report to the respective Divisional Manager and are in charge of operation and maintenance of assets. Further down the hierarchy tree are the Station Masters who control individual stations and the train movement through the track territory under their stations' administration. (See fig.)

RAILWAY BOARD
ZONAL RAILWAYS (16 ZONES)

DIVISIONS

ENGG.

MECH

ELECT

S&T

COMM

OPERATING

PERSONNEL

ACCOUNTS

SAFETY

ZONAL RAILWAYS AND HEADQUARTER

Sl. No 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. Date Established November Central CR 5, 1951 East October 1, ECR Central 2002 ECo April 1, East Coast R 2003 Name Eastern North Central North Eastern North Western Northeast Frontier Northern South Central South East Central South Eastern South Western Southern West Central Western ER NC R April, 1952 April 2003 1, Abb r. Headquarte rs Mumbai Hajipur Bhubaneswa r Kolkata Allahabad Gorakhpur 1, Jaipur Guwahati 14, Delhi Divisions Mumbai, Bhusawal, Pune, Solapur, Nagpur Danapur, Dhanbad, Mughalsarai, Samastipur, Sonpur Khurda Road, Sambalpur, Visakhapatnam Howrah, Sealdah, Asansol, Malda Allahabad, Agra, Jhansi Izzatnagar, Lucknow, Varanasi Jaipur, Ajmer, Bikaner, Jodhpur Alipurduar, Katihar, Lumding, Rangia, Tinsukia Delhi, Ambala, Firozpur, Lucknow, Moradabad Secunderabad, Hyderabad, Guntakal, Guntur, Nanded, Vijayawada Bilaspur, Raipur, Nagpur Adra, Chakradharpur, Kharagpur, Ranchi Hubli, Bengaluru, Mysuru Chennai, Madurai, Palakkad, Salem, Tiruchchirapalli, Thiruvanathapuram Jabalpur, Bhopal, Kota Mumbai Central, Vadodara, Ratlam, Ahmedabad, Rajkot, Bhavnagar

NER 1952 NW R October 2002

NFR 1958 NR SCR SEC R SER SW R SR WC R WR April 1952 October 1966 April 2003 1955 April 2003 April 1951 April 2003 November 5, 1951 1, 14, 1,

2, Secunderaba d 1, Bilaspur, CG Kolkata Hubli Chennai Jabalpur Mumbai

COMMUNICATION
Today, it would be difficult for us to imagine life without the telephone. World-wide, there are some 750 million telephone connections in use and the number of Internet users has exploded in the last few years. By the year 2010, according to a forecast from Nortel, there will be almost 475 million Internet users and the number of services provided will also grow rapidly. To control the working of employers and to ensure the proper running of trains, we need fast and reliable means of communication. To ensure this we have SIGNAL & TELECOMMUNICATION department. They provide path and sources (Equipments) to communicate. Their work is to provide the line and maintain it. Railway communication provides uninterrupted motion of trains. Due to faster means of communication there is increase in the efficiency and greater control. To communicate we require some media, which carry our signal. In past, railway use iron wires, copper wires or aluminum wires for signal propagation. Now, a day we railway use Microwave, Quad cable, Optical Fiber cable & satellite communication. The explosion in demand for network bandwidth is largely due to the growth in data traffic, specifically Internet Protocol (IP). Leading service providers report bandwidths doubling on their backbones about every six to nine months. This is largely in response to the 300 percent growth per year in Internet traffic, while traditional voice traffic grows at a compound annual rate of only about 13 percent.

OPTICAL FIBRE CABLE

HISTORY:
jet. 1870: John Tyndall U.K demonstrated the phenomenon of light guiding in a thin water

1880: Sir Alexander Graham Bell invented the PHOTOPHONE. He used sunlight reflected from thin voice modulated mirror to carry conversation. 1960: Advent of LASER as a coherent optical source.

1966: Kao and Hock man discovered that high loss in fibers was due to impurities in the material used. 1966: Mr. Kao gave thought of communicating using fiber with loss up to 1000 dB/km. 1970: M/s Corning glass works; USA made fiber giving loss of 20dB/km.

1974: Modified chemical vapour Deposition (MCVP) process developed by M/s Sumitomo electric & NTT/JAPAN. 1976: First generation systems multimode graded index fiber 850nm (wavelength), GaAs laser / LEDs as a source & PIN/APD as detector. 1980: Second generation systems multimode fiber at 1300 nm single mode fiber.

1990: Development of longer wavelength fibers, improved version of LASER, APDs for better performance and to support 565 M bits/sec & 2 G bits/sec. Optical fiber is generally made of glass & is made into very thin fibers or hair size. It is a nonmetallic conductor that can transmit light energy from one end to the other end by utilizing the phenomena of Total Internal reflection of light. In conventional cables (copper cables) electrical energy is transmitted through metallic conductors. An optical fiber communication system consists of transmitter, which converts the multiplexed electrical signal into an optical signal. A source of light launches the optical signal through a coupler into the fiber. The fiber carries this signal to the receiver, where another coupler couples the light from the fiber to the detector. The transmitter uses either a LASER DIODE or LIGH EMITTED DIODE (LED) for electrical to optical conversion. The receiver uses either a PIN diode or an AVALANCHE DIODE (APD) for electrical conversion.

10

GROWTH OF OPTICAL FIBER

How Fiber Works:

The main job of optical fibers is to guide light waves with a minimum of attenuation (loss of signal).Optical fibers are composed of fine threads of glass in layers, called the core and cladding, which can transmit light at about two-thirds the speed of light in a vacuum. Though admittedly an oversimplification, the transmission of light in optical fiber is commonly explained using the principle of TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION. With this phenomenon, 100 percent of light that strikes a surface is reflected. By contrast, a mirror reflects about 90 percent of the light that strikes it. Light is either reflected (it bounces back) or refracted (its angle is altered while passing through a different medium) depending upon the angle of incidence (the angle at which light strikes the interface between an optically denser and optically thinner material). Total internal reflection happens when the following conditions are met: Beams pass from a denser to a less dense material. The difference between the optical density of a given material and a vacuum is the materials refractive index. 2-6

Optical Fibers:
The incident angle is less than the critical angle. The critical angle is the maximum angle of incidence at which light stops being refracted and is instead totally reflected. The principle of total internal reflection within a fiber core is illustrated in Figure. The core has a higher refractive index than the cladding, allowing the beam that strikes that

11

surface at less than the critical angle to be reflected. The second beam does not meet the critical angle requirement and is refracted.

Principle of Total Internal Reflection An optical fiber consists of two different types of highly pure, solid glass (silica)the core and the claddingthat are mixed with specific elements, called dopants, to adjust their refractive indices. The difference between the refractive indices of the two materials causes most of the transmitted light to bounce off the cladding and stay within the core. The critical angle requirement is met by controlling the angle at which the light is injected into the fiber. Two or more layers of protective coating around the cladding ensure that the glass can be handled without damage.

TYPE OF OPTICAL FIBERS

Multimode and Single-Mode Fiber: There are two general categories of optical fiber in use today, multimode fiber and singlemode fiber. Multimode, the first type of fiber to be commercialized, has a larger core than singlemode fiber. It gets its name from the fact that numerous modes, or light rays, can be carried simultaneously through the waveguide. Figure shows an example of light transmitted in the first type of multimode fiber, called step-index. Step-index refers to the fact that there is a uniform index of refraction throughout the core; Thus there is a step in the refractive index where the core and cladding interface. Notice that the two modes must travel different distances to arrive at their destinations. This disparity between the times that the light rays arrive is called modal dispersion. This phenomenon results in poor signal quality at the receiving end and ultimately limits the transmission distance. This is why multimode fiber is not used in wide-area applications.

12

To compensate for the dispersion drawback of step-index multimode fiber, graded-index fiber was invented. Graded-index refers to the fact that the refractive index of the core is gradedit gradually decreases from the center of the core

Reflected Light in Step-Index Multimode Fiber Outward. The higher refraction at the center of the core slows the speed of some light rays, allowing all the rays to reach their destination at about the same time and reducing modal dispersion.

Reflected Light in Single-Mode Fiber The second general type of fiber, single-mode, has a much smaller core that allows only one mode of light at a time through the core. As a result, the fidelity of the signal is better retained over longer distances, and modal dispersion is greatly reduced. These factors attribute to a higher bandwidth capacity than multimode fibers are capable of. For its large information-carrying capacity and low intrinsic loss, single-mode fibers are preferred for longer distance and higher bandwidth applications, including DWDM.

13

DWDM SYSTEM FUNCTION The system performs the following main functions: Generating the signalthe source, a solid-state laser, must provide stable light within a specific, narrow bandwidth that carries the digital data, modulated as an analog signal. Combining the signalsModern DWDM systems employ multiplexers to combine the signals. There is some inherent loss associated with multiplexing and demultiplexing. This loss is dependent upon the number of channels but can be mitigated with optical amplifiers, which boost all the wavelengths at once without electrical conversion. Transmitting the signalsthe effects of crosstalk and optical signal degradation or loss must be reckoned with in fiber optic transmission. These effects can be minimized by controlling variables such as channel spacing, wavelength tolerance, and laser power levels. Over a transmission link, The signal may need to be optically amplified. Separating the received signalsat the receiving end, the multiplexed signals must be separated out. Although this task would appear to be simply the opposite of combining the signals, it is actually more technically difficult. Receiving the signalsthe demultiplexed signal is received by a photo detector. In addition to these functions, a DWDM system must also be equipped with client-side interfaces to receive the input signal. This function is performed by transponders. On the DWDM side are interfaces to the optical fiber that links DWDM systems.

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Operation of a Transponder Based DWDM System

Figure shows the end-to-end operation of a unidirectional DWDM system. Anatomy of a DWDM System

The following steps describe the system shown in Figure: 1. The transponder accepts input in the form of standard single-mode or multimode laser. The input can come from different physical media and different protocols and traffic types. 2. The wavelength of each input signal is mapped to a DWDM wavelength. 3. DWDM wavelengths from the transponder are multiplexed into a single optical signal and launched into the fiber. The system might also include the ability to accept direct optical signals to the multiplexer; such signals could come, for example, from a satellite node. 4. A post-amplifier boosts the strength of the optical signal as it leaves the system (optional). 5. Optical amplifiers are used along the fiber span as needed (optional). 6. A pre-amplifier boosts the signal before it enters the end system (optional). 7. The incoming signal is demultiplexed into individual DWDM lambdas (or wavelengths). 8. The individual DWDM lambdas are mapped to the required output type (for example, OC-48 single-mode fiber) and sent out through the transponder.

Transponder Functions

15

Options for Increasing Carrier Bandwidth

Faced with the challenge of dramatically increasing capacity while constraining costs, carriers have two options: Install new fiber or increase the effective bandwidth of existing fiber. Laying new fiber is the traditional means used by carriers to expand their networks. Deploying new fiber, however, is a costly proposition. It is estimated at about $70,000 per mile, most of which is the cost of permits and construction rather than the fiber itself. Laying new fiber may make sense only when it is desirable to expand the embedded base. Increasing the effective capacity of existing fiber can be accomplished in two ways: Increase the bit rate of existing systems. Increase the number of wavelengths on a fiber.

Increase the Bit Rate:

Using TDM, data is now routinely transmitted at 2.5 Gbps (OC-48) and, increasingly, at 10 Gbps(OC-192); recent advances have resulted in speeds of 40 Gbps (OC-768). The electronic circuitry that makes this possible, however, is complex and costly, both to purchase and to maintain. In addition, there are significant technical issues that may restrict the applicability of this approach. Transmission at OC-192 over single-mode (SM) fiber, for example, is 16 times more affected by chromatic dispersion than the next lower aggregate speed, OC-48. The greater transmission power required by the higher bit rates also introduces nonlinear effects that can affect waveform quality. Finally, polarization mode dispersion, another effect that limits the distance a light pulse can travel without degradation, is also an issue. These characteristics of light in fiber are discussed further in the Optical Fibers.

Increase the Number of Wavelengths:

In this approach, many wavelengths are combined onto a single fiber. Using wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) technology several wavelengths, or light colors, can simultaneously multiplex signals of 2.5 to 40 Gbps each over a strand of fiber. Without having to lay new fiber, the effective capacity of existing fiber plant can routinely be increased by a factor of 16 or 32. Systems with 128 and 160 wavelengths are in operation today, with higher density on the horizon. The specific limits of this technology are not yet known.

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EXCHANGE

I S D N:
ISDN stands for integrated services Digital network was introduced in 1979. Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is a set of communications standards for simultaneous digital transmission of voice, video, data, and other network services over the traditional circuits of the public switched telephone network. It was first defined in 1988 in the CCITT red book. An ISDN is a network, in general evolving from a telephone IDN that provides end to end digital connectivity to support a wide range of services, to which users have access by a limited set of standard multipurpose user network interfaces. Network It is a communication carrying system including medium, switching points and proper routing. Networks follow certain protocols for transmission. Digital The communication is digital up to subscribers instrument. But it is also compatible to analog working instruments, though the transmission is in digital mode. Services Services to the subscriber like transmission of speech, image and data. Integrated - All the three services are transmitted simultaneously on a single pair of wires. Speech: 64 kbps. Image 64 kbps (minimum.) Data 16 kbps The transmission is possible on the existing copper wire pairs. Even though replacing the copper wire with fiber is more ideal, the copper cable network, which is already existing need not be immediately replaced as very high amounts of expenditure is to be incurred at once which is unnecessary. The existing copper network can be made use upto 5.1 km 0.5 mm gauge copper conductor cable 4.0 km 0.4 mm gauge copper conductor cable

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ISDN is intended to be a worldwide public telecommunications network to replace the existing telecommunications networks and deliver a wide variety of services. The ISDN is defined by the standardization of user interfaces and will be implemented as a set of digital switches and paths supporting a broad range of traffic types and providing value added processing services. In, practice there will be multiple networks, implemented within the national boundaries, but from the users point of view, there will be a single, uniformly accessible, worldwide network. ISDN has emerged as a powerful tool for provision of voice, data and image by means of existing network. There are two basic types of ISDN service: Basic Rate Interface (BRI) and Primary Rate Interface (PRI). BRI consists of two 64 kb/s B channels and one 16 kb/s D channel for a total of 144 kb/s. This basic service is intended to meet the needs of most individual users. PRI is intended for users with greater capacity requirements. Typically the channel structure is 23 B channels plus one 64 kb/s D channel for a total of 1536 kb/s. In Europe, PRI consists of 30 B channels plus one 64 kb/s D channel for a total of 1984 kb/s. It is also possible to support multiple PRI lines with one 64 kb/s D channel using Non-Facility Associated Signaling (NFAS). H channels provide a way to aggregate B channels. They are implemented as: H0=384 kb/s (6 B channels) H10=1472 kb/s (23 B channels) H11=1536 kb/s (24 B channels) H12=1920 kb/s (30 B channels) - International (E1) only To access BRI service, it is necessary to subscribe to an ISDN phone line. Customer must be within 18000 feet (about 3.4 miles or 5.5 km) of the telephone company central office for BRI service; beyond that, expensive repeater devices are required, or ISDN service may not be available at all. Customers will also need special equipment to communicate with the phone company switch and with other ISDN devices. These devices include ISDN Terminal Adapters (sometimes called, incorrectly, "ISDN Modems") and ISDN Routers.

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The early phone network consisted of a pure analog system that connected telephone users directly by a mechanical interconnection of wires. This system was very inefficient, was very prone to breakdown and noise, and did not lend itself easily to long-distance connections. Beginning in the 1960s, the telephone system gradually began converting its internal connections to a packet-based, digital switching system. Today, nearly all voice switching in the U.S. is digital within the telephone network. Still, the final connection from the local central office to the customer equipment was, and still largely is, an analog Plain-Old Telephone Service (POTS) line. Most recently, ISDN service has largely been displaced by broadband internet service, such as xDSL and Cable Modem service. These services are faster, less expensive, and easier to set up and maintain than ISDN. Still, ISDN has its place, as backup to dedicated lines, and in locations where broadband service is not yet available

Speed:
The modem was a big breakthrough in computer communications. It allowed computers to communicate by converting their digital information into an analog signal to travel through the public phone network. There is an upper limit to the amount of information that an analog telephone line can hold. Currently, it is about 56 kb/s bidirectional. Commonly available modems have a maximum speed of 56 kb/s, but are limited by the quality of the analog connection and routinely go about 45-50 kb/s. Some phone lines do not support 56 kb/s connections at all.

Multiple Devices:
Previously, it was necessary to have a separate phone line for each device you wished to use simultaneously. For example, one line each was required for a telephone, fax, computer, bridge/router, and live video conference system. Transferring a file to someone while talking on the phone or seeing their live picture on a video screen would require several potentially expensive phone lines. ISDN allows multiple devices to share a single line. It is possible to combine many different digital data sources and have the information routed to the proper destination. Since the line is digital, it is easier to keep the noise and interference out while combining these signals. ISDN technically refers to a

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specific set of digital services provided through a single, standard interface. Without ISDN, distinct interfaces are required instead.

Signaling:
Instead of the phone company sending a ring voltage signal to ring the bell in your phone ("In-Band signal"), it sends a digital packet on a separate channel ("Out-of-Band signal"). The Out-of-Band signal does not disturb established connections, no bandwidth is taken from the data channels, and call setup time is very fast. For example, a V.90 or V.92 modem typically takes 30-60 seconds to establish a connection; an ISDN call setup usually takes less than 2 seconds. The signaling also indicates who is calling, what type of call it is (data/voice), and what number was dialed. Available ISDN phone equipment is then capable of making intelligent decisions on how to direct the call.

ADVANTAGES OF ISDN
High speed and high quality communication Reliability and security. Better use of existing facility International standardization Simplified wiring Efficiency of network usage Standard data transport rate

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SDH SYSTEM

SDH (Synchronous Digital Hierarchy) is a standard for telecommunications transport formulated by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), previously called the International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee (CCITT). SDH was first introduced into the telecommunications network in 1992 and has been deployed at rapid rates since then. Its deployed at all levels of the network infrastructure, including the access network and the long-distance trunk network. Its based on overlaying a synchronous multiplexed signal onto a light stream transmitted over fiber-optic cable. SDH is also defined for use on radio relay links, satellite links, and at electrical interfaces between equipment. The comprehensive SDH standard is expected to provide the transport infrastructure for worldwide telecommunications for at least the next two or three decades. The increased configuration flexibility and bandwidth availability of SDH provides significant advantages over the older telecommunications system. These advantages include: A reduction in the amount of equipment and an increase in network reliability. The provision of overhead and payload bytes the overhead bytes permitting management of the payload bytes on an individual basis and facilitating centralized fault section. The definition of a synchronous multiplexing format for carrying lower-level digital signals (such as 2 Mbit/s, 34 Mbit/s, 140 Mbit/s) which greatly simplifies the interface to digital switches, digital cross-connects, and add/drop multiplexers. The availability of a set of generic standards, which enable multi-vendor interoperability. The definition of a flexible architecture capable of accommodating future applications, with a variety of transmission rates. In brief, SDH defines synchronous transport modules (STMs) for the fiber-optic based transmission hierarchy.

Synchronization Hierarchy:
Digital switches and digital cross-connect systems are commonly employed in the digital network synchronization hierarchy. The network is organized with a master-slave relationship with clocks of the higher-level nodes feeding timing signals to clocks of the lower-level nodes. All nodes can be traced up to a Primary Reference Clock (PRC).

Synchronizing SDH:
The internal clock of an SDH terminal may derive its timing signal from a Synchronization Supply Unit (SSU) used by switching systems and other equipment. Thus, this terminal can serve as a master for other SDH nodes, providing timing on its outgoing STM-N signal. Other SDH nodes will operate in a slave mode with their internal clocks timed by the incoming STM-N signal. Present standards specify that an SDH network must ultimately be able to derive its timing from a PRC. 21

SDH FRAME STRUCTURE:

The STM-1 frame is the basic transmission format for SDH. The frame lasts for 125 microseconds; therefore, there are 8000 frames per second. The STM-1 frame consists of overhead plus a virtual container capacity (see Figure 2). The first nine columns of each frame make up The Section Overhead, and the last 261 columns make up the Virtual Container (VC) capacity. The VC plus the pointers (H1, H2, and H3 bytes) is called the AU (Administrative Unit). Carried within the VC capacity, which has its own frame structure of nine rows and 261 columns, is the Path Overhead and the Container (see Figure). The first column is for Path Overhead; its followed by the payload container, which can itself carry other containers. Virtual Containers can have any phase alignment within the Administrative Unit, and this alignment is indicated by the Pointer in row four, as described later in the Pointers section. Within the Section Overhead, the first three rows are used for the Regenerator Section Overhead, and the last five rows are used for the Multiplex Section Overhead. The STM frame is transmitted in a byte-serial fashion, row by- row, and is scrambled immediately prior to transmission to ensure adequate clock timing content for downstream regenerators.

Virtual Container:
SDH supports a concept called virtual containers (VC). Through the use of pointers and offset values, VCs can be carried in the SDH Payload as independent data packages. VCs are used to transport lower-speed tributary signals. Figure illustrates the location of a VC4 within the STM-1 frame. Note that it can start (indicated by the J1 path overhead byte) at any point within the STM-1 frame. The start location of the J1 byte is indicated by the pointer byte values. Virtual containers can also be concatenated to provide more capacity in a flexible fashion. Table lists the names and some of the parameters of the virtual containers. VIRTUAL CONTAINER (VC)

22

STM-1 FRAME STRUCTURE

Virtual container structure showing VC-4

SDH Network Configurations:

Point-to-Point:-

The simplest network configuration involves two terminal multiplexers linked by fibre with or without a regenerator in the link (sees Figure). In this configuration, the

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SDH path and the Service path (for example, E1 or E3 links end to-end) are identical and this synchronous island can exist within an asynchronous network world. In the future, point-to-point service path connections will span across the whole network and will always originate and terminate in a multiplexer.

Point-to-Multipoint:-

A point-to-multipoint (linear add/drop) architecture includes adding and dropping circuits along the way (see Figure). The SDH ADM (add/drop multiplexer) is a unique network element specifically designed for this task. It avoids the current cumbersome network architecture of demultiplexing, cross-connecting, adding and dropping channels, and then re-multiplexing. The ADM typically is placed in an SDH link to facilitate adding and dropping tributary channel sat intermediate points in the network.

Mesh Architecture:-

The meshed network architecture accommodates unexpected growth and change more easily than simple point-to-point networks. A cross-connects function concentrates traffic at a central site and allows easy re-provisioning of the circuits (see Figure). There are two possible implementations of this type of network function: 1. Cross-connection at higher-order path levels, for example, using AU-4 granularity in the switching matrix. 2. Cross-connection at lower order path levels, for example, using TU-12 granularity in the switching matrix. 24

Ring Architecture:-

The SDH building block for ring architecture is the ADM (see Figure). Multiple ADMs can be put into a ring configuration for either Bidirectional or Uni-directional traffic. The main advantage of the ring topology is its survivability; if a fiber cable is cut, for example, the multiplexers have the local intelligence to send the services affected via an alternate path through the ring without a lengthy interruption. The demand for survivable services, diverse routing of fiber facilities, flexibility to rearrange services to alternate serving nodes, as well as automatic restoration within seconds, have made rings a popular SDH topology.

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Benefits of SDH Conclusions

A transport network using SDH provides much more powerful networking capabilities than existing asynchronous systems. The key benefits provided by SDH are the following.

Pointers, MUX/DEMUX:-

As a result of SDH transmission, the network clocks are referenced to a highly stable reference point; so the need to align the data streams using non-deterministic bit-stuffing is unnecessary. Therefore, a lower rate channel such as E1 is directly accessible, and intermediate demultiplexing is not needed to access the bit streams. For those situations in which synchronisation reference frequency and phase may vary, SDH uses pointers to allow the streams to float within the payload. Pointers are the key to synchronous timing; they allow a very flexible allocation and alignment of the payload within the transmission frame.

Reduced Back-to-Back Multiplexing:-

In the asynchronous PDH systems, care must be taken when routing circuits in order to avoid multiplexing and demultiplexing too many times since electronics (and their associated capital cost) are required every time an E1 signal is processed. With SDH, E1s can be multiplexed directly to the STM-N rate. Because of synchronisation, an entire optical signal doesnt have to be demultiplexed only the individual VC or STM signals that need to be accessed.

Optical Interconnect:-

A major SDH benefit is that it allows mid-span meet with multi-vendor compatibility. Todays SDH standards contain definitions for fibre-to-fibre interfaces at the physical level. They determine the optical line rate, wavelength, power levels, pulse shapes, and coding. The current standards also fully define the frame structure, overhead, and payload mappings. Enhancements are being developed to define the messages in the overhead channels to provide increased OAM functionality.SDH allows optical interconnection between network providers regardless of who makes the equipment. The network provider can purchase one vendors equipment and conveniently interface with other vendors SDH equipment at either operator locations or customer premises. Users may now obtain the STM-N equipment of their choice and meet with their network provider of choice at that STM-N level.

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Multi-point Configurations:-

Most existing asynchronous transmission systems are only economic for point-to-point applications, whereas SDH can efficiently support a multi-point or cross-connected configuration. The cross-connect allows many nodes or sites to communicate as a single network instead of as separate systems. Cross-connecting reduces requirements for back-to-back multiplexing and demultiplexing, and helps realize the benefits of traffic grooming. Network providers no longer need to own and maintain customer-located equipment. A multi-point implementation permits STM-N interconnects and mid-span meets, allowing network providers and their customers to optimize their shared use of the SDH infrastructure.

Grooming:-

Grooming refers to either consolidating or segregating traffic to make more efficient use of the network facilities. Consolidation means combining traffic from different locations onto one facility, while segregation is the separation of traffic. Grooming eliminates inefficient techniques such as back-hauling. Its possible to groom traffic on asynchronous systems, however to do so requires expensive back-to-back configurations and manual or electronic cross-connects. By contrast, an SDH system can segregate traffic at either an STM-1 or VC level to send it to the appropriate nodes. Grooming can also provide segregation of services. For example, at an interconnect point, an incoming SDH line may contain different types of traffic, such as switched voice, leased circuits for data, or video. An SDH network can conveniently segregate the switched and non-switched traffic.

Enhanced OAM:-

SDH allows integrated network OAM, in accordance with the philosophy of single-ended maintenance. In other words, one connection can reach all network elements within a given architecture; separate links are not required for each network element. Remote provisioning provides centralized maintenance and reduced travel for maintenance personnel which translate to expense savings.

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UTS AND PRS

In 1982, Government set up Freight Operations information Systems (FOIS) for freight operations computerization on Indian Railways, later in 1986, Ministry of Railways established CENTRE FOR RAILWAY INFORMATION SYSTEMS (CRIS) an umbrella for all computer activities on Indian Railways (IR). They also entrusted it with the task of design, development and implementation of the FOIS, along with its associated communications infrastructure. The Centre started functioning from July, 1987. It is an autonomous organization headed by Managing Director. CRIS is mainly a project oriented organization engaged in development of major computer systems on the Railways. CRIS has acquired special knowledge and expertise in the field of informatics. With such a rich practical experience, a dedicated team of professionals and its own R&D effort. At present Indian Railways is one of the most advanced ministries in India, with an innovative and extensive IT environment.

TERMINALS BSNL Line G 703 V.35 switch LTS J panel (Inbuilt)

RCIL OFC

Patch card (RJ47) ROUTER

G 703

V.35

SWITCH

SERVER

PRS (LOCAL TERMINAL SERVER)

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Passenger Reservation System (PRS) & UTS:

A countrywide online passenger reservation and ticketing system developed and maintained by CRIS, is a complex online distributed client server application developed in C and Fortran programming languages on Digital OpenVMS operating system using RTR (Reliable Transaction Router) as middleware. CONCERT (Country-wide Network of Computerized Enhanced Reservation & Ticketing) interconnects the five regional computing systems at New Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai and Secunderabad into a National PRS grid. It allows a passenger from any location to book train tickets from any station to any station. It handles reservations, modifications, and cancellations / refunds. It performs reservation for over 995,000 seats and berths (peak rush as high as 1,017,000) daily. It has complex rules, validations and fare computation techniques interwoven in the application. The computerization of the Unreserved Ticketing System (UTS) of Indian Railways. Unreserved ticketing constitutes a major component of the Indian Railways overall ticketing volume and is an important source of revenue. UTS delivers fast and efficient unreserved ticketing from dedicated counters replacing manual Printed Card Tickets/ EFTs/ BPTs with centralized online sales accounting. The solution architecture lends itself to easy integration with handheld terminals, smart cards, automatic vending machines, etc. Main server of PRS is situated in Delhi. There are two channels (lines) connecting server and hub: RCIL & BSNL (lease line). Cable used to connect the equipment is serial cable/ smart cable. We distribute the line through CAT-5 cable. There is one router, which selects the shortest available path for data transmission. The switch is used to increase the number of connections and these connections are given by JET Panel.

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CONTROL
VOICE FREQUENCY COMMUNICATION UNDERGROUND 4/6 QUAD CABLE: SYSTEM FOR

The voice frequency system is used for underground PET 4/6 Quad cable of 0.9mm diameter, having characteristic impedance of 470 , for telecommunication between way side stations and control office/test room. The PET Quad need not be loaded to compensate uneven attenuation characteristics over the voice band. There shall be no need for balancing also. Every, way side station is provided with V.F communication system having equalized amplifiers. The complete system works on 12 V DC. All components used are of reputed makes and the connections/Terminals used are of international standards to achieve best reliability and long life.

Test Room Monitor:

Remote monitor having a control panel with LED displays and LEDs used for internal and remote maintenance operation as well as calling any station or subscriber on the Control station. It has a hand micro phone the monitoring is done on the control desk and also inside the test room rack. It can execute the following functions: The command called station code appears in the LED display. The response from the remote sensor for the called way side station also displayed identifying its own code. On failure of AC fuse Remote sensor automatically send fuse fail signal to the test Room Remote Monitor. Suitable password codes are provided to prevent unauthorized initiation. Remote monitoring facility is provided for remote monitoring and fault localization from the test room. Remote monitoring facility for Emergency Control and section control circuits are separately provided whereas for the remaining two control circuit it is combined. The test room control equipment has 4 numbers of seven segment LED display unit and segment LED display unit & 16 numbers LED on the front panel. It is possible to carry out following functions using remote monitoring facility from test room and executes the following operations on receipt of valid DTMF commands.

REMOTE SENSING MODULE:

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The sensing circuit is wired in between the integrated protection module and the equalizer amplifier input. This sensing circuit consists mainly of 12 V DC to changeover DIP relays, a micro controller and a DTMF encoder/decoder. The command received from the remote monitor of the test room is accepted by the DTMF decoder and the micro controller executes the function and sends the response in the form of DTMF codes to the remote monitor. The connection to this circuit is made through the Mother Board for easy wiring.

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ABBREVIATIONS

ADM AGGR AUX CID ECC EMC ETSI GFP ID IEC IETF I/O IP ITU ITU LAPS LCAS LED MAC MDI MDIX MTBF MLM MPLS NA PDH PIN PPP PRC RFC S4 S12 SDH

Add/Drop Multiplexer Aggregate Auxiliary Alarm Consecutive Identical Digit Embedded Communications Channel Electromagnetic Compatibility European Telecommunications Standards Institute Generic Framing Procedure Identification International Electro technical Commission The Internet Engineering Task Force Community Input/Output Internet Protocol Telecommunication Standardization Sector International Telecommunication Union Link Access Procedure - SDH Link Capacity Adjustment Scheme Light Emitting Diode Media Access Control Media Dependent Interface MDI cross-over Mean Time between Failures Multi Longitudinal Mode Laser Multi-Protocol Label Switching Not Applicable Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy P-doped, Intrinsic, N-doped Point-to-Point Protocol Primary Reference Clock Request for Comments VC-4 path layer VC-12 path layer Synchronous Digital Hierarchy

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SEC SFP SIR SLM SNC/I SNMP STM SW T0 T1 T2 T3 TCP TDEV TM TRIB UDP VC-4 VC-12

Synchronous Equipment Clock Small Form Pluggable Signal / Interference Ratio Single Longitudinal Mode Laser Inherently monitored Sub-Network Connection protection Simple Network Management Protocol Synchronous Transport Module Software Outgoing SDH timing reference point Incoming SDH timing reference point Incoming PDH timing reference point External 2.048 MHz reference timing source Transmission Control Protocol Time Deviation Terminal Multiplexer Tributary User Datagram Protocol Virtual Container of 4'th order Virtual Container of 1st order

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CONCLUSION

Indian Railways is the largest rail network in Asia and the worlds second largest under one management. This Signal and telecommunication is the most important field in Railway. It deals with the Control, Exchange, Unreserved ticketing system and Passenger reservation system etc. The control of the train is controlled by the control room. They use various techniques and softwares to deal with it. A new technology is introduced in Railway is VSAT that is very small aperture terminal by which any person in control room can deal with the accidental remote area. Earlier it takes hours to reach to the accidental areas. Earlier we use Omni bus communication which was full of losses and coaxial cobles. The overhead lines were used. Now we use quad cables, which have better efficiency and less loss. In some parts we also use Optical fiber cable. In exchange, railway provides its own telephone network in its offices. It has its own broadband internet facility, which they provide in their offices.

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REFERENCES

www.en.wikipedia.org www.en.wikipedia.org www.indianrailways.gov.in/indianrailways/indexhome.jsp Railway Manual for ISDN. Indian Railway Chapter V for train traffic control.

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