1.

Role of credit management in a firms operations Ans: Almost every firm, government agency, and other type of organization employs one or more financial managers. Financial managersoversee the preparation of financial reports, direct investment activities, and implement cash management strategies. Managers also develop strategies and implement the long-term goals of their organization. The duties of financial managers vary with their specific titles, which include controller, treasurer or finance officer, credit manager, cash manager, risk and insurance manager, and manager of international banking. Controllers direct the preparation of financial reports, such as income statements, balance sheets, and analyses of future earnings or expenses, that summarize and forecast the organization's financial position. Controllers also are in charge of preparing special reports required by regulatory authorities. Often, controllers oversee the accounting, audit, and budget departments. Treasurers and finance officers direct their organization's budgets to meet its financial goals. They oversee the investment of funds, manage associated risks, supervise cash management activities, execute capitalraising strategies to support the firm's expansion, and deal with mergers and acquisitions. Credit managers oversee the firm's issuance of credit, establishing credit-rating criteria, determining credit ceilings, and monitoring the collections of past-due accounts. Cash managers monitor and control the flow of cash receipts and disbursements to meet the business and investment needs of their firm. For example, cash flow projections are needed to determine whether loans must be obtained to meet cash requirements or whether surplus cash can be invested. Risk and insurance managers oversee programs to minimize risks and losses that might arise from financial transactions and business operations. Insurance managers decide how best to limit a companys losses by obtaining insurance against risks such as the need to make disability payments for an employee who gets hurt on the job or costs imposed by a lawsuit against the company. Risk managers control financial risk by using hedging and other techniques to limit a companys exposure to currency or commodity price changes. Managers specializing in international finance develop financial and accounting systems for the banking transactions of multinational organizations. Risk managers are also responsible for calculating and limiting potential operations risk. Operations risk includes a wide range of risks, such as a rogue employee damaging the companys finances or a hurricane damaging an important factory. (Chief financial officers and other executives are included with top executives elsewhere in the Handbook.) Financial institutionssuch as commercial banks, savings and loan associations, credit unions, and mortgage and finance companiesemploy additional financial managers who oversee various functions, such as lending, trusts, mortgages, and investments, or programs, including sales, operations, or

electronic financial services. These managers may solicit business, authorize loans, and direct the investment of funds, always adhering to Federal and State laws and regulations. Branch managers of financial institutions administer and manage all of the functions of a branch office. Job duties may include hiring personnel, approving loans and lines of credit, establishing a rapport with the community to attract business, and assisting customers with account problems. Branch mangaers also are becoming more oriented toward sales and marketing. As a result, it is important that they have substantial knowledge about the types of products that the bank sells. Financial managers who work for financial institutions must keep abreast of the rapidly growing array of financial services and products. In addition to the preceding duties, financial managers perform tasks unique to their organization or industry. For example, government financial managers must be experts on the government appropriations and budgeting processes, whereas healthcare financial managers must be knowledgeable about issues surrounding healthcare financing. Moreover, financial managers must be aware of special tax laws and regulations that affect their industry. Financial managers play an important role in mergers and consolidations and in global expansion and related financing. These areas require extensive, specialized knowledge to reduce risks and maximize profit. Financial managers increasingly are hired on a temporary basis to advise senior managers on these and other matters. In fact, some small firms contract out all their accounting and financial functions to companies that provide such services. The role of the financial manager, particularly in business, is changing in response to technological advances that have significantly reduced the amount of time it takes to produce financial reports. Technological improvements have made it easier to produce financial reports, and, as a consequence, financial managers now perform more data analysis that allows them to offer senior managers profitmaximizing ideas. They often work on teams, acting as business advisors to top management.

2. Factors to be consider for setting up an annual Marketing budget ? Ans: Setting an advertising objective is easy, but achieving the objective requires a well-thought out strategy. One key factor affecting the strategy used to achieve advertising objectives is how much money an organization has to spend. The funds designated for advertising make up the advertising budget and it reflects the amount an organization is willing (i.e., approved by high-level management) to commit to achieve its advertising objectives.

Whether you're selling a product or service to a select group of consumers, creating a marketing plan helps outline how you will inform, persuade or remind the customers about what your business offers. An essential part of this plan includes coming up with a budget for advertising expenditures. While each company's advertising budget may differ, there are several factors that can affect even the smallest advertising budget. 1. Projected Annual Gross Sales

When entrepreneurs prepare to create advertising budgets for their businesses, it's important to take projected annual gross sales into account. This method helps protect entrepreneurs from spending too much or too little on advertising. "Entrepreneur," an online resource and magazine for business owners, suggests calculating your minimum and maximum advertising budget figures by calculating 10 percent and 12 percent of your projected annual gross sales. Then, multiply each figure by the markup you make on your average sales transaction. This figure can vary year to year depending on both your company's performance and your product markups. Marketing Objectives Marketing objectives vary across organizations and can greatly affect what appears on a company's advertising budget. Determine which marketing objective will help you reach your annual business goals. Marketing objectives might include obtaining 5 percent more repeat customers, experiencing growth each month or increasing annual sales by 10 percent. The objectives you come up with help you define marketing strategies and tactics, which ultimately give insight into how and where you advertise, both of which are things that can affect your budget. Target Market While one business is targeting customers whose annual household income is at least $500,000, another business may target recent college graduates who make at least $33,000 a year. The target market you're trying to reach has an impact on your advertising budget. Once you define your target market, you gain insight on how to reach them learning information such as what they read, where they shop, who they get advice from, their needs and wants and what motivates them to buy. Types of Media A print advertisement in a local publication may cost less than running an online advertisement with a popular, credible website. The types of media you select to promote your product, whether it's radio, print, web, email, billboards or direct marketing, can impact your advertising budget. Time of Year

Advertising pricing may change during different times of the year, such as a new season or during popular holidays. While some advertisers may offer discounting, others will increase their prices if they feel their readership or viewership may peak during specific times or events. If you're trying to place an advertisement in a magazine's most popular issue of the year or a television commercial during a highly televised event, such as the Super Bowl, you can expect a change in the amount you spend to promote your product or service. Product Launch vs. Existing Product If you're introducing a new product to the market, consider this as you create your advertising budget, as it may affect how much you spend. When products are launched, business owners often go into overdrive coming up with various ways to advertise and promote their new product or service to potential clients. This may cause an advertising budget to be higher than it would be for a product that customers are already aware of and have purchased in the past.

2. How budgets may be used as a blue prints for actions Ans: Today, when the management of money is more important than ever for public and private entities, budgeting plays an enormous role in controlling operations efficiently and effectively. Budgeting in itself is a familiar process to even the smallest economic unit the household - but it needs to be divided into two different classes: budgeting for public entities and private entities. This differentiation is important because public bodies need to go through many processes before moving into the budget execution phase and post-execution analyses; furthermore, the entire process involves the collaboration of different bodies throughout the government. This collaboration is not only for budget preparation, negotiation and approval processes, but also for the spending approval after the whole budget allocation is finalized. Compared to private sector, it is cumbersome. Another factor is the increasing awareness of the policies of the World Bank in pursuit of restructuring the budgeting and spending processes of developing nations via the World Bank Treasury Reference Model. This new model has led the public sector to understand, digest and adopt a new style. According to this new budgeting methodology, traditional methods of analyzing and utilizing budget figures are insufficient. In traditional terms, organizations start building up their long-term plans and break those plans into annual budgets that are formed as forecasts. At the end of the year, budget figures are compared with actual results and a simple actual-budget variance comparison is calculated. Since the analysis is simple, this analysis lacks any sophistication in terms of adjusting similar budget

items for forthcoming periods by increasing or decreasing the expenditure estimates. Basically, variance results are generally used for revising monetary amounts for the next planning and budgeting cycle, and also for very simple departmental performance tracking. This new approach to budget analysis and utilization is many steps ahead of traditional methods. As an example, a governmental project to enhance the social welfare of children in a remote area can help explain the performance-oriented approach. For such projects, which are generally composed of longterm plans, governments decide on objectives and the activities that are required to be accomplished to achieve them. Practical ways of enhancing social welfare of children in a rural area might include increasing the job skills of parents in the area. In order to achieve such an objective, the government may plan to establish schooling infrastructures in various locations, complete with the necessary equipment, and further plan to assign trainers to those schools for implementing the educational programs. All these activities have a cost aspect and, at this point, long-term plans are broken down into annual budgets that incorporate the monetary figures. Once the long-term plans are accomplished, the traditional way to gauge the effectiveness of this whole project would be to assess the gap between the budget and the actual money spent. However, with the new budgeting approach, the questions to answer are tougher:

3. Brand value does not normally form part of balance sheet yet firms go for brand valuation. Describe some of the methods used for brand valuation Ans: In the last quarter of the 20th century there was a dramatic shift in the understanding of the creation of shareholder value. For most of the century, tangible assets were regarded as the main source of business value. These included manufacturing assets, land and buildings or financial assets such as receivables and investments. They would be valued at cost or outstanding value as shown in the balance sheet. The market was aware of intangibles, but their specific value remained unclear and was not specifically quantified. Even today, the evaluation of profitability and performance of businesses focuses on indicators such as return on investment, assets or equity that exclude intangibles from the denominator. Measures of price relatives (for example, price-to-book ratio) also exclude the value of intangible assets as these are absent from accounting book values. This does not mean that management failed to recognize the importance of intangibles. Brands, technology, patents and employees were always at the heart of corporate success, but rarely explicitly valued. Their value was subsumed in the overall asset value. Major brand owners like The Coca-Cola Company, Procter & Gamble, Unilever and Nestl were aware of the importance of their brands, as

indicated by their creation of brand managers, but on the stock market, investors focused their value assessment on the exploitation of tangible assets. Evidence of brand value The increasing recognition of the value of intangibles came with the continuous increase in the gap between companies book values and their stock market valuations, as well as sharp increases in premiums above the stock market value that were paid in mergers and acquisitions in the late 1980s. Today it is possible to argue that, in general, the majority of business value is derived from intangibles. Management attention to these assets has certainly increased substantially. The brand is a special intangible that in many businesses is the most important asset. This is because of the economic impact that brands have. They influence the choices of customers, employees, investors and government authorities. In a world of abundant choices, such influence is crucial for commercial success and creation of shareholder value. Even non-profit organizations have started embracing the brand as a key asset for obtaining donations, sponsorships and volunteers. Some brands have also demonstrated an astonishing durability. The worlds most valuable brand,1 CocaCola, is more than 118 years old; and the majority of the worlds most valuable brands have been around for more than 60 years. This compares with an estimated average life span for a corporation of 25 years or so.2 Many brands have survived a string of different corporate owners. Several studies have tried to estimate the contribution that brands make to shareholder value. A study by Interbrand in association with JP Morgan (see Table 2.1) concluded that on average brands account for more than one-third of shareholder value. The study reveals that brands create significant value either as consumer or corporate brands or as a combination of both. Table 2.1 shows how big the economic contribution made by brands to companies can be. The McDonalds brand accounts for more than 70 percent of shareholder value. The Coca-Cola brand alone accounts for 51 percent of the stock market value of the Coca-Cola Company. This is despite the fact that the company owns a large portfolio of other drinks brands such as Sprite and Fanta. Studies by academics from Harvard and the University of South Carolina3 and by Interbrand4 of the companies featured in the Best Global Brands league table indicate that companies with strong brands outperform the market in respect of several indices. It has also been shown that a portfolio weighted by the brand values of the Best Global Brands performs significantly better than Morgan Stanleys global MSCI index and the American-focused S&P 500 index.

Today, leading companies focus their management efforts on intangible assets. For example, the Ford Motor Company has reduced its physical asset base in favor of investing in intangible assets. In the past few years, it has spent well over $12 billion to acquire prestigious brand names such as Jaguar, Aston Martin, Volvo and Land Rover. Samsung, a leading electronics group, invests heavily in its intangibles, spending about 7.5 percent of annual revenues on R&D and another 5 percent on communications. 5 In packaged consumer goods, companies spend up to 10 percent of annual revenues on marketing support. As John Akasie wrote in an article in Forbes magazine:6 "Its about brands and brand building and consumer relationships Decapitalized, brand owning companies can earn huge returns on their capital and grow faster, unencumbered by factories and masses of manual workers. Those are the things that the stock market rewards with high price/earnings ratios." Brands on the balance sheet The wave of brand acquisitions in the late 1980s resulted in large amounts of goodwill that most accounting standards could not deal with in an economically sensible way. Transactions that sparked the debate about accounting for goodwill on the balance sheet included Nestls purchase of Rowntree, United Biscuits acquisition and later divestiture of Keebler, Grand Metropolitan acquiring Pillsbury and Danone buying Nabiscos European businesses. Accounting practice for so-called goodwill did not deal with the increasing importance of intangible assets, with the result that companies were penalized for making what they believed to be valueenhancing acquisitions. They either had to suffer massive amortization charges on their profit and loss accounts (income statements), or they had to write off the amount to reserves and in many cases ended up with a lower asset base than before the acquisition. In countries such as the UK, France, Australia and New Zealand it was, and still is, possible to recognize the value of acquired brands as identifiable intangible assets and to put these on the balance sheet of the acquiring company. This helped to resolve the problem of goodwill. Then the recognition of brands as intangible assets made use of a grey area of accounting, at least in the UK and France, whereby companies were not encouraged to include brands on the balance sheet but nor were they prevented from doing so. In the mid-1980s, Reckitt & Colman, a UK-based company, put a value on its balance sheet for the Airwick brand that it had recently bought; Grand Metropolitan did the same with the Smirnoff brand, which it had acquired as part of Heublein. At the same time, some newspaper groups put the value of their acquired mastheads on their balance sheets.

By the late 1980s, the recognition of the value of acquired brands on the balance sheet prompted a similar recognition of internally generated brands as valuable financial assets within a company. In 1988, Rank Hovis McDougall (RHM), a leading UK food conglomerate, played heavily on the power of its brands to successfully defend a hostile takeover bid by Goodman Fielder Wattie (GFW). RHMs defence strategy involved carrying out an exercise that demonstrated the value of RHMs brand portfolio. This was the first independent brand valuation establishing that it was possible to value brands not only when they had been acquired, but also when they had been created by the company itself. After successfully fending off the GFW bid, RHM included in its 1988 financial accounts the value of both the internally generated and acquired brands under intangible assets on the balance sheet. In 1989, the London Stock Exchange endorsed the concept of brand valuation as used by RHM by allowing the inclusion of intangible assets in the class tests for shareholder approvals during takeovers. This proved to be the impetus for a wave of major branded-goods companies to recognize the value of brands as intangible assets on their balance sheets. In the UK, these included Cadbury Schweppes, Grand Metropolitan (when it acquired Pillsbury for $5 billion), Guinness, Ladbrokes (when it acquired Hilton) and United Biscuits (including the Smiths brand). Today, many companies including LVMH, LOral, Gucci, Prada and PPR have recognized acquired brands on their balance sheet. Some companies have used the balance-sheet recognition of their brands as an investor-relations tool by providing historic brand values and using brand value as a financial performance indicator. In terms of accounting standards, the UK, Australia and New Zealand have been leading the way by allowing acquired brands to appear on the balance sheet and providing detailed guidelines on how to deal with acquired goodwill. In 1999, the UK Accounting Standards Board introduced FRS 10 and 11 on the treatment of acquired goodwill on the balance sheet. The International Accounting Standards Board followed suit with IAS 38. And in spring 2002, the US Accounting Standards Board introduced FASB 141 and 142, abandoning pooling accounting and laying out detailed rules about recognizing acquired goodwill on the balance sheet. There are indications that most accounting standards, including international and UK standards, will eventually convert to the US model. This is because most international companies that wish to raise funds in the US capital markets or have operations in the United States will be required to adhere to US Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP). The principal stipulations of all these accounting standards are that acquired goodwill needs to be capitalized on the balance sheet and amortized according to its useful life. However, intangible assets such as brands that can claim infinite life do not have to be subjected to amortization. Instead, companies need to perform annual impairment tests. If the value is the same or higher than the initial

valuation, the asset value on the balance sheet remains the same. If the impairment value is lower, the asset needs to be written down to the lower value. Recommended valuation methods are discounted cash flow (DCF) and market value approaches. The valuations need to be performed on the business unit (or subsidiary) that generates the revenues and profit. The accounting treatment of goodwill upon acquisition is an important step in improving the financial reporting of intangibles such as brands. It is still insufficient, as only acquired goodwill is recognized and the detail of the reporting is reduced to a minor footnote in the accounts. This leads to the distortion that the McDonalds brand does not appear on the companys balance sheet, even though it is estimated to account for about 70 percent of the firms stock market value (see Table 2.1), yet the Burger King brand is recognized on the balance sheet. There is also still a problem with the quality of brand valuations for balance-sheet recognition. Although some companies use a brand-specific valuation approach, others use less sophisticated valuation techniques that often produce questionable values. The debate about bringing financial reporting more in line with the reality of long-term corporate value is likely to continue, but if there is greater consistency in brand-valuation approaches and greater reporting of brand values, corporate asset values will become much more transparent. The social value of brands The economic value of brands to their owners is now widely accepted, but their social value is less clear. Do brands create value for anyone other than their owners, and is the value they create at the expense of society at large?7 The ubiquity of global mega-brands has made branding the focus of discontent for many people around the world. They see a direct link between brands and such issues as the exploitation of workers in developing countries and the homogenization of cultures. Furthermore, brands are accused of stifling competition and tarnishing the virtues of the capitalist system by encouraging monopoly and limiting consumer choice. The opposing argument is that brands create substantial social as well as economic value as a result of increased competition, improved product performance and the pressure on brand owners to behave in socially responsible ways. Competition on the basis of performance as well as price, which is the nature of brand competition, fosters product development and improvement. And there is evidence that companies that promote their brands more heavily than others in their categories do also tend to be the more innovative in their categories. A study by PIMS Europe for the European Brands Association8 revealed that less-branded businesses launch fewer products, invest significantly less in development and have fewer product advantages than their branded counterparts. Almost half of the non-branded sample spent nothing on product R&D compared with less than a quarter of the branded sample. And while 26 percent of non-

branded producers never introduced significant new products, this figure was far lower at 7 percent for the branded set. The need to keep brands relevant promotes increased investments in R&D, which in turn leads to a continuous process of product improvement and development. Brand owners are accountable for both the quality and the performance of their branded products and services and for their ethical practices. Given the direct link between brand value and both sales and share price, the potential costs of behaving unethically far outweigh any benefits, and outweigh the monitoring costs associated with an ethical business. A number of high-profile brands have been accused of unethical practices. Interestingly, among these are some of the brands that have been pioneering the use of voluntary codes of conduct and internal monitoring systems. This is not to say that these brands have successfully eradicated unethical business practices, but at least they are demonstrating the will to deal with the problem. The more honest companies are in admitting the gap they have to bridge in terms of ethical behavior, the more credible they will seem. Nike, a company once criticized for the employment practices of some of its suppliers in developing countries, now posts results of external audits and interviews with factory workers at www.nikebiz.com. The concern of multinational companies is understandable, considering that a 5 percent drop in sales could result in a loss of brand value exceeding $1 billion. It is clearly in their economic interests to behave ethically. Approaches to brand valuation Financial values have to some extent always been attached to brands and to other intangible assets, but it was only in the late 1980s that valuation approaches were established that could fairly claim to understand and assess the specific value of brands. The idea of putting a separate value on brands is now widely accepted. For those concerned with accounting, transfer pricing and licensing agreements, mergers and acquisitions and valuebased management, brand valuation plays a key role in business today. Unlike other assets such as stocks, bonds, commodities and real estate, there is no active market in brands that would provide comparable values. So to arrive at an authoritative and valid approach, a number of brand evaluation models have been developed. Most have fallen into two categories: research-based brand equity evaluations, and purely financially driven approaches

Research-based approaches

There are numerous brand equity models that use consumer research to assess the relative performance of brands. These do not put a financial value on brands; instead, they measure consumer behavior and attitudes that have an impact on the economic performance of brands. Although the sophistication and complexity of such models vary, they all try to explain, interpret and measure consumers perceptions that influence purchase behavior. They include a wide range of perceptive measures such as different levels of awareness (unaided, aided, top of mind), knowledge, familiarity, relevance, specific image attributes, purchase consideration, preference, satisfaction and recommendation. Some models add behavioral measures such as market share and relative price. Through different stages and depths of statistical modeling, these measures are arranged either in hierarchic order, to provide hurdles that lead from awareness to preference and purchase, or relative to their impact on overall consumer perception, to provide an overall brand equity score or measure. A change in one or a combination of indicators is expected to influence consumers purchasing behavior, which in turn will affect the financial value of the brand in question. However, these approaches do not differentiate between the effects of other influential factors such as R&D and design and the brand. They therefore do not provide a clear link between the specific marketing indicators and the financial performance of the brand. A brand can perform strongly according to these indicators but still fail to create financial and shareholder value. The understanding, interpretation and measurement of brand equity indicators are crucial for assessing the financial value of brands. After all, they are key measures of consumers purchasing behavior upon which the success of the brand depends. However, unless they are integrated into an economic model, they are insufficient for assessing the economic value of brands. Financially driven approaches Cost-based approaches define the value of a brand as the aggregation of all historic costs incurred or replacement costs required in bringing the brand to its current state: that is, the sum of the development costs, marketing costs, advertising and other communication costs, and so on. These approaches fail because there is no direct correlation between the financial investment made and the value added by a brand. Financial investment is an important component in building brand value, provided it is effectively targeted. If it isnt, it may not make a bean of difference. The investment needs to go beyond the obvious advertising and promotion and include R&D, employee training, packaging and product design, retail design, and so on. Comparables. Another approach is to arrive at a value for a brand on the basis of something comparable. But comparability is difficult in the case of brands as by definition they should be differentiated and thus not comparable. Furthermore, the value creation of brands in the same category can be very different,

even if most other aspects of the underlying business such as target groups, advertising spend, price promotions and distribution channel are similar or identical. Comparables can provide an interesting cross-check, however, even though they should never be relied on solely for valuing brands. Premium price. In the premium price method, the value is calculated as the net present value of future price premiums that a branded product would command over an unbranded or generic equivalent. However, the primary purpose of many brands is not necessarily to obtain a price premium but rather to secure the highest level of future demand. The value generation of these brands lies in securing future volumes rather than securing a premium price. This is true for many durable and non-durable consumer goods categories. This method is flawed because there are rarely generic equivalents to which the premium price of a branded product can be compared. Today, almost everything is branded, and in some cases store brands can be as strong as producer brands charging the same or similar prices. The price difference between a brand and competing products can be an indicator of its strength, but it does not represent the only and most important value contribution a brand makes to the underlying business. Economic use. Approaches that are driven exclusively by brand equity measures or financial measures lack either the financial or the marketing component to provide a complete and robust assessment of the economic value of brands. The economic use approach, which was developed in 1988, combines brand equity and financial measures, and has become the most widely recognized and accepted methodology for brand valuation. It has been used in more than 3,500 brand valuations worldwide. The economic use approach is based on fundamental marketing and financial principles: The marketing principle relates to the commercial function that brands perform within businesses. First, brands help to generate customer demand. Customers can be individual consumers as well as corporate consumers depending on the nature of the business and the purchase situation. Customer demand translates into revenues through purchase volume, price and frequency. Second, brands secure customer demand for the long term through repurchase and loyalty. The financial principle relates to the net present value of future expected earnings, a concept widely used in business. The brands future earnings are identified and then discounted to a net present value using a discount rate that reflects the risk of those earnings being realized. To capture the complex value creation of a brand, take the following five steps:

1. Market segmentation. Brands influence customer choice, but the influence varies depending on the market in which the brand operates. Split the brands markets into non-overlapping and homogeneous groups of consumers according to applicable criteria such as product or service, distribution channels, consumption patterns, purchase sophistication, geography, existing and new customers, and so on. The brand is valued in each segment and the sum of the segment valuations constitutes the total value of the brand. 2. Financial analysis. Identify and forecast revenues and earnings from intangibles generated by the brand for each of the distinct segments determined in Step 1. Intangible earnings are defined as brand revenue less operating costs, applicable taxes and a charge for the capital employed. The concept is similar to the notion of economic profit. 3. Demand analysis. Assess the role that the brand plays in driving demand for products and services in the markets in which it operates, and determine what proportion of intangible earnings is attributable to the brand measured by an indicator referred to as the role of branding index. This is done by first identifying the various drivers of demand for the branded business, then determining the degree to which each driver is directly influenced by the brand. The role of branding index represents the percentage of intangible earnings that are generated by the brand. Brand earnings are calculated by multiplying the role of branding index by intangible earnings. 4. Competitive benchmarking. Determine the competitive strengths and weaknesses of the brand to derive the specific brand discount rate that reflects the risk profile of its expected future earnings (this is measured by an indicator referred to as the brand strength score). This comprises extensive competitive benchmarking and a structured evaluation of the brands market, stability, leadership position, growth trend, support, geographic footprint and legal protectability. 5. Brand value calculation. Brand value is the net present value (NPV) of the forecast brand earnings, discounted by the brand discount rate. The NPV calculation comprises both the forecast period and the period beyond, reflecting the ability of brands to continue generating future earnings. An example of a hypothetical valuation of a brand in one market segment is shown in Table 2.2. This calculation is useful for brand value modeling in a wide range of situations, such as: predicting the effect of marketing and investment strategies; determining and assessing communication budgets; calculating the return on brand investment; assessing opportunities in new or underexploited markets; and

 tracking brand value management.

6. ROI as a concept has several applications in marketing Return on marketing investment (ROMI) is the contribution attributable to marketing (net of marketing spending), divided by the marketing invested or risked. ROMI is a relatively new metric. It is not like the other return-on-investment metrics because marketing is not the same kind of investment. Instead of moneys that are "tied" up in plants and inventories, marketing funds are typically risked. Marketing spending is typically expensed in the current period. The idea of measuring the markets response in terms of sales and profits is not new, but terms such as marketing ROI and ROMI are used more frequently now than in past periods. Usually, marketing spending will be deemed as justified if the ROMI is positive. In a survey of nearly 200 senior marketing managers, nearly half responded that they found the ROMI metric very useful. Purpose The purpose of ROMI is to measure the degree to which spending on marketing contributes to profits. [1] Marketers are under more and more pressure to show a return on their activities. [edit]Construction Return on Marketing Investment (ROMI) = [Incremental Revenue Attributable to Marketing ($) * Contribution Margin (%) - Marketing Spending ($)] Marketing Spending (S) A necessary step in calculating ROMI is the estimation of the incremental sales attributable to marketing. These incremental sales can be total sales attributable to marketing or marginal. [1] [edit]Methodologies There are two forms of the Return on Marketing Investment (ROMI) metric. short-term ROMI long-term ROMI [edit]Short term

The first, short-term ROMI, is also used as a simple index measuring the dollars of revenue (or market share, contribution margin or other desired outputs) for every dollar of marketing spend. For example, if a company spends $100,000 on a direct mail piece and it delivers $500,000 in incremental revenue then the ROMI factor is 5.0. If the incremental contribution margin for that $500,000 in revenue is 60%, then the margin ROMI (the amount of incremental margin for each dollar of marketing spent is 3.0 (= 5.0 x 60%). The value of the first ROMI is in its simplicity. In most cases a simple determination of revenue per dollar spent for each marketing activity can be sufficient enough to help make important decisions to improve the entire marketing mix. [edit]Long term In a similar way the second ROMI concept, long-term ROMI can be used to determine other less tangible aspects of marketing effectiveness. For example, ROMI could be used to determine the incremental value of marketing as it pertains to increased brand awareness, consideration or purchase intent. In this way both the longer-term value of marketing activities (incremental brand awareness, etc.) and the shorterterm revenue and profit can be determined. This is a sophisticated metric that balances marketing and business analytics and is used increasingly by many of the world's leading organizations (Hewlett-Packard and Procter & Gamble to name two) to measure the economic (that is, cash-flow derived) benefits created by marketing investments. For many other organizations, this method offers a way to prioritize investments and allocate marketing and other resources on a formalized basis.

Note: No return on marketing investment methodologies have been independently audited by the Marketing Accountability Standards Board (MASB) according to MMAP (Marketing Metric Audit Protocol) . [edit]Complications and cautions of measuring marketing effectiveness Direct measures of the short-term variant of ROMI are often criticized as only including the direct impact of marketing activities without including the long-term brand building value of any communication inserted into the market. Short-term ROMI is best employed as a tool to determine marketing effectiveness to help steer investments from less productive activities to those that are more productive. It is a simple tool to gauge the success of measurable marketing activities against various marketing objectives (e.g., incremental revenue, brand awareness or brand equity). With this knowledge, marketing investments can be redirected away from under-performing activities to better performing marketing media.

Long-term ROMI is often criticized as a "silo-in-the-making"it is intensively data driven and creates a challenge for firms that are not used to working business analytics into the marketing analytics that typically determine resource allocation decisions. Long-term ROMI, however, is a sophisticated measure used by a number of forward-thinking firms interested in getting to the bottom of value for money challenges often posed by competing brand managers. However, it is often unclear exactly what it means to "show a return" on marketing investment. Certainly, marketing spending is not an investment in the usual sense of the word. There is usually no tangible asset and often not even a predictable (quantifiable) result to show for the spending, but marketers still want to emphasize that their activities contribute to financial health. Some might argue that marketing should be considered an expense and the focus should be on whether it is a necessary expense. Marketers believe that many of their activities generate lasting results and therefore should be considered investments in the future of the business. [1] [6]

8. What is the role of Account receivables in a firms operations?. Discuss briefly the costs of maintaining account receivables Ans: Accounts receivable represents money owed by entities to the firm on the sale of products or services on credit. In most business entities, accounts receivable is typically executed by generating an invoice and either mailing or electronically delivering it to the customer, who, in turn, must pay it within an established timeframe, called credit terms or payment terms. The accounts receivable departments use the sales ledger, this is because a sales ledger normally records [2]: - The sales a business has made. - The amount of money received for goods or services. - The amount of money owed at the end of each month varies (debtors). The accounts receivable team is in charge of receiving funds on behalf of a company and applying it towards their current pending balances. Collections and cashiering teams are part of the accounts receivable department. While the collection's department seeks the debtor, the cashiering team applies the monies received. Special uses

Companies can use their accounts receivable as collateral when obtaining a loan (asset-based lending). They may also sell them through factoring or on an exchange. Pools or portfolios of accounts receivable can be sold in capital markets through securitization. For tax reporting purposes, a general provision for bad debts is not an allowable deduction from profit[4] - a business can only get relief for specific debtors that have gone bad. However, for financial reporting purposes, companies may choose to have a general provision against bad debts consistent with their past experience of customer payments, in order to avoid over-stating debtors in the balance sheet.

9. Significance of Inventory Management in marketing Ans: Inventory Management Inventory management is primarily about specifying the shape and percentage of stocked goods. It is required at different locations within a facility or within many locations of a supply network to proceed the regular and planned course of production and stock of materials. The scope of inventory management concerns the fine lines between replenishment lead time, carrying costs of inventory, asset management, inventory forecasting, inventory valuation, inventory visibility, future inventory price forecasting, physical inventory, available physical space for inventory, quality management, replenishment, returns and defective goods and demand forecasting.Balancing these competing requirements leads to optimal inventory levels, which is an on-going process as the business needs shift and react to the wider environment. Inventory management involves a retailer seeking to acquire and maintain a proper merchandise assortment while ordering, shipping, handling, and related costs are kept in check. It also involves systems and processes that identify inventory requirements, set targets, provide replenishment techniques, report actual and projected inventory status and handles all functions related to the tracking and management of material. This would include the monitoring of material moved into and out of stockroom locations and the reconciling of the inventory balances. Also may include ABC analysis, lot tracking, cycle counting support etc. Management of the inventories, with the primary objective of determining/controlling stock levels within the physical distribution function to balance the need for product availability against the need for minimizing stock holding and handling costs Purpose Inventory proportionality is the goal of demand-driven inventory management. The primary optimal outcome is to have the same number of days' (or hours', etc.) worth of inventory on hand across all

products so that the time of runout of all products would be simultaneous. In such a case, there is no "excess inventory," that is, inventory that would be left over of another product when the first product runs out. Excess inventory is sub-optimal because the money spent to obtain it could have been utilized better elsewhere, i.e. to the product that just ran out. The secondary goal of inventory proportionality is inventory minimization. By integrating accurate demand forecasting with inventory management, replenishment inventories can be scheduled to arrive just in time to replenish the product destined to run out first, while at the same time balancing out the inventory supply of all products to make their inventories more proportional, and thereby closer to achieving the primary goal. Accurate demand forecasting also allows the desired inventory proportions to be dynamic by determining expected sales out into the future; this allows for inventory to be in proportion to expected short-term sales or consumption rather than to past averages, a much more accurate and optimal outcome. Integrating demand forecasting into inventory management in this way also allows for the prediction of the "can fit" point when inventory storage is limited on a per-product basis. [edit]Applications The technique of inventory proportionality is most appropriate for inventories that remain unseen by the consumer. As opposed to "keep full" systems where a retail consumer would like to see full shelves of the product they are buying so as not to think they are buying something old, unwanted or stale; and differentiated from the "trigger point" systems where product is reordered when it hits a certain level; inventory proportionality is used effectively by just-in-time manufacturing processes and retail applications where the product is hidden from view. One early example of inventory proportionality used in a retail application in the United States is for motor fuel. Motor fuel (e.g. gasoline) is generally stored in underground storage tanks. The motorists do not know whether they are buying gasoline off the top or bottom of the tank, nor need they care. Additionally, these storage tanks have a maximum capacity and cannot be overfilled. Finally, the product is expensive. Inventory proportionality is used to balance the inventories of the different grades of motor fuel, each stored in dedicated tanks, in proportion to the sales of each grade. Excess inventory is not seen or valued by the consumer, so it is simply cash sunk (literally) into the ground. Inventory proportionality minimizes the amount of excess inventory carried in underground storage tanks. This application for motor fuel was first developed and implemented by Petrolsoft Corporation in 1990 for Chevron Products Company. Most major oil companies use such systems today