Eects of depositional and diagenetic characteristics on carbonate reservoir quality: a case study from the South Pars gas

eld in the Persian Gulf

B. Esrali-Dizaji and H. Rahimpour-Bonab*
Department of Geology, University of Tehran, Tehran, 14155-6455, Iran * Corresponding author (e-mail: rahimpor@khayam.ut.ac.ir)
ABSTRACT: The largest non-associated gas reserve of the world is hosted by the Upper DalanKangan (Upper Khuff equivalent) Permo-Triassic carbonate evaporite successions. Detailed characterization of these strata in the South Pars eld has shown that the reservoir properties are a function of both sedimentary and diagenetic processes at the eld scale. Facies analysis of the studied units indicates that the sediments were deposited in the inner regions of a homoclinal carbonate ramp and were subsequently subjected to shallow diagenesis and minor burial. The vertical distribution of the facies shows cyclic patterns that impact reservoir quality. The rock type classes have been grouped on the basis of the dominant pore spaces, and have enabled distinct elds to be identied. This approach has demonstrated a relationship between poroperm values and rock type groups. Diagenetic overprinting has signicantly affected the reservoir properties. Although the original poroperm heterogeneities in the studied reservoir are inherited from the Upper DalanKangan palaeoplatform, they have been modied strongly by diagenetic overprinting. Consequently, tentative correlation may be possible between facies types and reservoir properties based on diagenetic effects. Therefore, for precise characterization of the Upper DalanKangan reservoir properties it has been necessary to integrate both the depositional history and diagenetic features. KEYWORDS: carbonate reservoir heterogeneity, diagenesis, Persian Gulf, South Pars eld, Khu reservoirs, Dalan and Kangan Formations
INTRODUCTION Numerous giant gas and condensate elds have been discovered in the Persian Gulf Basin since the 1970s. Most of these elds produce from the Permian Dalan and Triassic Kangan formations (Stratigraphic Committee of Iran 1976; Szabo & Kheradpir 1978), or Khuff carbonates. According to our estimates, this interval in the Persian Gulf states holds between a quarter and a third of the total proven world gas reserves. In this gas prospective region, also known as the Khuff reservoir province, there are more than 80 non-associated gas elds. The organic-rich Silurian Hot Shale (Sarchahan Fm. and/or Qusaiba member) is considered the hydrocarbon source rock for these reservoirs (Bordenave 2008). The reservoir rocks are regionally extensive in the subsurface Arabian plate and crop out in the Zagros Mountains, Central Arabian Arch, and the central and northern Oman Mountains. This potential reservoir is still relatively underexplored in the Persian Gulf countries (Iran, Qatar, Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Oman and Kuwait). Sediments tend to thicken northwards, away from the Arabian Shelf, suggesting that there was a deep basin in the interior of
Petroleum Geoscience, Vol. 15 2009, pp. 325344 DOI 10.1144/1354-079309-817

what is now Iran and a regional shallowing trend towards the west and SE of the Gulf (Kash 1992). The impermeable anhydrite and shale succession of the Triassic Dashtak Formation (and its lateral equivalent Sudair Formation) provides the seal for the reservoirs. Gas and condensate in this petroleum system are trapped in: (1) north-trending large, gentle anticlines formed from reactivated basement fault blocks (i.e. Qatar Arch); (2) salt domes that resulted from halokinesis; or (3) the NWSE trending structural traps that result from Zagros folding (Pollastro 2003; Al-Jallal & Alsharhan 2005). The combination of these regionally extensive, exceptional petroleum system elements (source, reservoir, seal and overburden rocks) and the formation of the large subtle structural closures prior to or contemporaneous with the peak of gas generation and migration, have produced these important gas elds (Pollastro 2003; Bordenave 2008). The Upper DalanKangan successions (Upper Khuff equivalent) host the giant gas reserve in the Qatar Arch structure. The northern extension of the Qatari North eld (or North Dome) in Iran is known as the South Pars eld (Fig. 1). The North and South Pars elds were discovered in 1971 and 1990, respectively and nearly 200 wells have been drilled there.
1354-0793/09/$15.00  2009 EAGE/Geological Society of London

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Fig. 1. Right: Location of the South Pars and North elds in the Persian Gulf Basin. The Upper DalanKangan hosts the worlds largest gas reserve in these elds. Left: Location of some wells in these elds. This article focuses on information provided by ten boreholes of the South Pars eld.

During the last four decades, following its discovery, the geological parameters controlling reservoir quality and its characteristics have not been documented widely. There are no detailed publications regarding the geology of the North Field in Qatar. However, published studies of the Iranian part of this reservoir revealed that its rocks are extremely heterogeneous on a vertical scale (Ehrenberg 2006; Rahimpour-Bonab 2007; Rahimpour-Bonab et al. 2009). The main aim of this study is to discuss the depositional and diagenetic characteristics of these carbonate formations and their controls on the reservoir quality. The results of this study can be extended to the Qatari part (North Field). In addition, these results may affect the reservoir characterizations and predictions in the other Khuff reservoirs elsewhere in the Persian Gulf Basin. GEOLOGICAL SETTING The Persian Gulf Basin comprises several NWSE-trending geotectonic units, such as the Arabian Platform, and a zone of marginal troughs, including the Zagros Fold Belt, limited to the NE by the Main Zagros Reverse Fault (Edgell 1996). The Khuff gas and Arab oil accumulations are situated in the Gulf Basin (Ehrenberg et al. 2007). This basin is one of the worlds richest oil and gas provinces, containing 5568% of the worlds recoverable oil reserves and more than 40% of its gas reserves (Konyuhov & Maleki 2006). Several important northsouth structures, such as the major QatarKazerun lineament (Qatar Arch), cross the region. The geological history, sedimentary formations and petroleum potential of this basin have been reviewed by many authors

(e.g. Alsharhan & Nairn 1997; Pollastro 2003; Al-Jallal & Alsharhan 2005; Konyuhov & Maleki 2006). Tectonic framework Since the Infracambrian, a structural high the Qatar Arch (QA) has divided the Persian Gulf Basin into two troughs: the ESE and the WNW sub-basins. It was particularly prominent during the Infracambrian, Early Silurian, Late Permian, Late Triassic, Late Jurassic and Cenozoic (Murris 1980; Alsharhan & Nairn 1997; Pollastro 2003; Bordenave 2008) (Fig. 2). The QA, which is a NNESSW-trending structural high, has been rejuvenated and uplifted repeatedly since the Infracambrian (Edgell 1996; Al-Husseini 2000) (Fig. 2). It is a regional, gentle and broad anticline or open periclinal structure which has had an important inuence on the history of the Gulf (Alsharhan & Nairn 1997; Konyakhov & Maleki 2006). The QA extension can be divided in two parts, the onshore and offshore Fars provenance of the SE Zagros belt. The onshore extension of the QA in the coastal Fars is known as the Fars Platform. This platform is a structural high bounded by the Nezamabad (NZ) and Razak (RK) faults to the east and west, respectively (Bahroudi & Talbot 2003). Some important elds, such as North Pars, Kangan, Nar, Aghar, Bandubast, Dalan, Asaluyeh, Shanul and Varavi, are among the 15 Dalan Kangan gas elds in this area. In offshore Qatar, the North and South Pars elds are located on the NNE plunge of the Arch. The eastern side is a gently dipping monocline; the western side is bounded by faults (such as the KazerunQatar fault) and a series of steep-sided anticlines, which form the western limb of the structure (Alsharhan & Nairn 1997).

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Fig. 2. After Najd tectonic activities in the Infracambrian, the Qatar Arch high structure separated the Hormuz salt sub-basin in the east from the west. During post-Infracambrian time, these horsts and troughs were repeatedly rejuvenated. The illustrations show the thickness of sediments in these sub-basins (AB cross-sections). Sediment thickness is estimated from regional isopach maps (Permian to Oligo-Miocene data presented by Bahroudi & Talbot (2003) and Silurian data from Bordenave (2008)) that show the tectonic history and also non-depositional and/or erosional events in this region. KZ, Kazerun; NZ, Nezamabad; RK, Razak faults.

Tectonic movements during the Late PrecambrianEarly Cambrian (Najd fault system) in central Saudi Arabia caused reactivation of the older fault systems and resulted in the uplift of this area. This block-faulted QA structure separated the two

Infracambrian (Hormuz) salt basins and has profoundly inuenced structure and sedimentation in the region since Palaeozoic times (Al-Husseini 2000) (Fig. 2). To date, no detailed information about the presence of the Cambro-Ordovician

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Fig. 3. Generalized stratigraphy of the South Pars eld showing formation and erosional surfaces detected from the seismic survey. In addition, four rock groups with eleven megasequences (according to Alavi 2004) are shown (not to scale). There is uncertainty about the presence of Cambro-Ordovician and Silurian sediments in the Qatar Arch. The overall thickness of the stratigraphic column is approximately 4 km. The stratigraphic position of the studied intervals (Upper Dalan and Kangan carbonates) is highlighted.

sediments of the QA has been published. These sub-basins were rejuvenated during the Silurian, resulting in the deposition of thin source-rock intervals to the west and the east of the existing QA (Bordenave 2008). Some workers consider that the thinning of the Permian sediments indicate the existence of a syn-depositional structural high in this region (Edgell 1977; Kash 1992). There was no sedimentation during Triassic to Middle Jurassic times due to end-Triassic tectonic activity and uplift in the QA (Murris 1980). This non-depositional event is recorded as an erosional surface on the seismic data. The QA was a positive structure during Late Jurassic times, separating the Gutnia platform into two sub-basins (the South Persian Gulf and Central Arabia) (Saint-Marc 1978; Pollastro 2003). Sediment thinning over the crests of the QA structure provides evidence for renewed uplift during the Cretaceous. The arch has also been active periodically throughout the Late Cenozoic, when sediments currently exposed on the QA were deposited (Alsharhan & Nairn 1997). The sediment thickness (derived from the regional isopach maps; Bahroudi & Talbot 2003; Bordenave 2008), describes the evolution of the Persian Gulf Basin between the Infracambrian and Cenozoic (Fig. 2). Arch reactivation has controlled sedimentary cover thickness and distribution. Thus, the reduced thickness of the sedimentary cover over the QA (some 4 km) compared with adjacent areas (e.g. 714 km in Zagros fold belt), provides evidence for its activity and presence as a palaeohigh during a long period of geological time.

Stratigraphic setting Stratigraphic successions in the subsurface of the QA consist of (Fig. 3): + the post-Precambrian to the pre-Permian clastic sediments (including Silurian sediments as source rocks); + the Permo-Triassic sequences of thick limestones, dolomites and anhydrites, (Khuff equivalents) in the Arabian Plate (as reservoir rocks); + the post-Triassic section, predominantly marine sequences of limestones, dolomites, shales and evaporites with local sandy clastic sequences. Four major tectono-sedimentary units can be observed in the area of the Zagros and QA; these have been divided into 11 megasequences by Alavi (2004) (Fig. 3). (a) Post-Precambrian to pre-Permian unit: during the Palaeozoic (Late NeoproterozoicCarboniferous), the Persian Gulf Basin was a zone of steady subsidence. Basement rocks in most regions of the Arabian Plate are covered by sandstones of different ages, which overlie the Late Precambrian or Early Cambrian Hormuz Salt (except in the QA) and limestones (Al-Husseini 2000; Sharland et al. 2001). In the South Pars eld, no wells have been drilled deep enough to penetrate the pre-Permian sediments, or Lower Silurian source rocks. Consequently, there is no evidence regarding the nature of the Cambro-Ordovician sequences in the area (equivalent of megasequences (I), (II); Alavi 2004).

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Table 1. Available data in each well of the South Pars eld Data and methods Core material (core analysis) Polarizing microscope (thin section study) Well log data (GR, ROHB) Petrophysical data (core poroperm data) Geochemical data ( 18O and 13C) Digital point counting (image analysis) Well locations are shown in Figure 1. A, A, A, A, E, A B, B, B, B, J C, D, D, E, C, D, C, D, Wells E, F, G, H, I, J J E, F, G, H, I, J E, F, G, H, I, J

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There are different opinions regarding the presence (e.g. Konert et al. 2001) or absence (e.g. Bordenave 2008) of Silurian source rocks in the QA. (b) Permo-Triassic unit: two megasequences, III and IV (including Faraghan, Dalan, Kangan and Dashtak formations), were deposited in the newly opened ocean (Neotethys). The Dalan and Kangan Fm. are conformably overlain by rustybrown or variegated Aghar Shales at the base of the Dashtak Formation, which acts as a regional seal for the QA petroleum system (Bordenave 2008). (c) JurassicCretaceous unit: during the JurassicCretaceous, vast epicontinental seas developed, which led to the accumulation of four marine carbonate megasequences (V, VI, VII and VIII). These extended over most of the peripheral parts of the Persian Gulf area (Alsharhan & Nairn 1997; Alavi 2004; Farzadi 2006). Erosion and non-deposition in the Triassic to Jurassic transition was caused by structural uplift combined with a lowstand in sea-level in the Arch (Murris 1980; Ziegler 2001). The Post-Turonian erosion, which removed parts of the sedimentary cover in the Arch area and Zagros belt, separates the third and fourth rock units (Murris 1980; Alavi 2004). (d) Late CretaceousRecent rock unit: the uppermost megasequences (IX, X, XI), which are Early Senonian to Recent, were deposited following the onset of the Zagros orogeny, resulting from the progressive closure of Neotethys in the region (Murris 1980; Sharland et al. 2001). This fourth important tectonic stage in the evolution of the QA and adjacent area is associated with mostly carbonate deposition (Sachun, Jahrum, Asmari, Gachsarana and Mishan Fms) (Alavi 2004; Konyakhov & Maleki 2006). DATABASE AND METHODS In this study, cores, thin sections, isotope data ( 18OPDB and 13 CPDB ), logs, core plugs and petrophysical analyses from ten wells, drilled in the Upper DalanKangan formations, were used (Table 1). Thus, our study is based mainly on examinations of the subsurface data across the Iranian domain of the South Pars eld. In these wells, where samples were available, there were log data (gamma ray (GR), density) for reconstruction of uncored intervals. Core and thin-section analysis were combined to identify facies types and their related diagenetic alteration, with special regard to the porosity evolution. A total of 850 petrographic thin sections stained with Alizarin Red-S were used for carbonate mineralogy determination. Stable 13 isotope ratios 18OPDB and CPDB were determined by standard methods in 112 whole samples. GENERAL RESERVOIR CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SOUTH PARS FIELD The Upper DalanKangan strata in the South Pars eld (and also in the North eld) include four reservoir units K1, K2, K3 and K4 with increasing depth (from 2750 m to 3200 m;

Fig. 4). Generally, the average thickness of the reservoir units reduces from the South Pars (some 450 m) to the North eld (385 m). The reservoir successions are composed mainly, from the base upwards, of ne- to medium-crystalline dolomite, with a few intervals of limestone and anhydrite. K4, the deepest interval, has an average gross thickness of about 165 m with high porosity. Some 5560% of the K4 units are dolomitic carbonate that overlies the Nar anhydrite member (the possible equivalent of Middle Anhydrite in Qatar). K3 has an average gross thickness of 121 m, comprising more than 70% dolomite. Thick intervals of anhydrite and anhydritic carbonate (up to 50 m), recognized as a permeability barrier in the lower part of K3, separate this unit from K4 (Rahimpour-Bonab 2007). Apparently, this barrier interval is equivalent to the dense Upper Anhydrite unit (UA) in the North eld. The K2 limestone interval is about 42 m thick and is currently the most important productive zone. However, both porosity and permeability values show rapid vertical variations; for example, the porosity ranges from 035% and the permeability from zero to 1000 mD over an interval of just 1 m. The base of K2 is dened by the Permo-Triassic boundary and the rst appearance of a thick bed of tight thrombolite facies. Insalaco et al. (2006) reported that there is no major unconformity between the K2 and K3 units, but a recent detailed study (Rahimpour-Bonab et al. 2009) of this boundary (using sedimentology, geochemistry, petrophysics and biostratigraphy) indicates an important unconformity at this time interval in this eld. The K1 interval (about 111 m thick) generally shows higher porosity but lower permeability. Lithologically, this interval consists of 7080% dolomite. Thick anhydrite and anhydritic carbonates separate these units at the basal part of the K1 and the top of K2. The contact between the Dashtak (cap rock) and Kangan formations (K1 unit) is recognized by the high GR log response and the beginning of shale facies (Aghar shale member of the Dashtak Fm.). The reservoir properties of these units in ten wells of the eld are illustrated in Figure 4. In these reservoir units, porosity and permeability vary widely from near zero to 36% and 0.001 to >3000 mD, respectively. On the whole, based on these data, reservoir quality of the K4 and K2 units is better than the K3 and K1 units. Gross reservoir quality is around 9.7% porosity and 26.8 mD permeability (arithmetic mean; 5.46% porosity and 1.44 mD permeability, geometric mean). However, net pay may be signicantly less than the gross pay in all reservoir units. As discussed by Ehrenberg (2006) and Rahimpour-Bonab (2007), the reservoir rocks of this eld are heterogeneous at a variety of scales (particularly in vertical intervals). DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENT AND ITS CONTROLS ON RESERVOIR PROPERTIES Facies analysis For facies analysis, core examinations and detailed thin section studies were combined. Based on the textures, grains size and type (such as ooids, peloids, shells and other diagnostic allochems), lithology, sedimentary structures and other features, 14 facies were documented in the Upper DalanKangan reservoir in the South Pars eld (Figs 5 and 6). To evaluate their depositional settings, these facies were compared with modern and ancient analogues that are well documented in the literature. Five facies assemblages indicative of deposition within supratidal, intertidal, lagoon, shoal and off-shoal environments were identied (Figs 5 and 6).

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Fig. 4. Comparison of thickness, lithology, porosity, water saturation and other reservoir characteristics in the studied reservoir units in ten wells of the South Pars eld. As illustrated by these parameters and scatter plots of the porosity vs. permeability (right), the reservoir qualities of K2 and K4 units are higher than those of the K3 and K1 units.

Datasheets combining all the available information were prepared for each well (e.g. Fig. 7). Facies F1 and F2, dense anhydrite and anhydritic dolomite sediments (c. 2.73 g cm 3 ), in which anhydrite occurs either as a nodular fabric (chicken wire) or as massive and layered

anhydrite. Warren & Kendall (1985) and Warren (2006) proposed evaporative sabkhas of the Trucial Coast as a modern analogue for these facies. Facies F3 and F4, dolomite lithology with mudstone texture, are massive and homogeneous. Facies F3 can be distinguished

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Fig. 5. Field-scale facies model reconstructed for the Upper DalanKangan carbonates system in the South Pars eld. Fourteen facies types are recognized in this environment that juxtaposed along the peritidal to off-shoal settings. Within the shallower part of this carbonate ramp, ve main facies belts can be distinguished. The whole depositional realm was clearly above the fair weather wave base. Also shown is the schematic depositional facies model, based on the cores and thin sections, together with the idealized sequences for this environment.

from F4 by its anhydrite (rhombs) and gypsum crystals. These facies are associated with F1 and F2. Modern analogues for these facies are peritidal environments (particularly from intertidal ponds) (Tucker & Wright 1990; Flgel 2004).

Facies F5 is a thrombolite/stromatolite boundstone characterized by a laminated/layered fabric. This thrombolite is well developed just after the Permo-Triassic boundary as a post-mass extinction facies (710 m thick in reservoir rocks). Microbial

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Fig. 6. Diagrammatic cross-section through the carbonate ramp illustrating the distribution of the 14 main facies types, based on their small-scale cycles. Photomicrographs of six important facies types, characteristic of their depositional environment, are also shown.

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Fig. 7. Datasheet example. Data from each studied borehole core (here: well A in the South Pars eld) are combined in a datasheet for interpretation. These datasheets contain gamma-ray, density and sedimentological logs and poroperm values. The graphic well logs indicate that the Upper DalanKangan reservoir intervals are mud-dominated (low-energy) and dolomitized. The reservoir rocks show changes in the depositional realm from supratidal to an open-marine environment. Based on the integration of sedimentological criteria and well-log signatures, the Upper DalanKangan carbonates in the South Pars eld are subdivided (from the base to the top) into four depositional sequences. The relationship between these sequences and reservoir characteristics (also reservoir intervals) is shown. Diagenetic effects within the reservoir rocks prevent generalizations from being made about reservoir quality.

laminates with abundant fenestrate and laminated structures are typical features of the intertidal environments described from both modern (Persian Gulf, Florida and the Bahamas) and ancient tidal at systems (e.g. Shinn 1983; Flgel 2004). Fenestral dolomudstones (Facies F6) have a fenestral fabric, muddy (mudstone and wackstone) texture with ostracod shells

and dolomite lithology. This facies type is interpreted as an intertidal deposit. The ostracod wackestone, with characteristic birds-eye porosity, is also indicative of an intertidal environment close to supratidal ats (e.g. Shinn 1983; Wright 1984). Facies F7 consists of peloid/intraclast grain-dominated textures, with grain grading and commonly massive structure.

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associations reect an ideal shallowing-upward sequence. Facies analysis shows gradational transitional boundaries within the facies associations, suggesting that they are genetically related and demonstrating a very low depositional gradient and morphology. Similar interpretations have been reported for the Khuff Formation (equivalent of Upper DalanKangan formations) (e.g. Al-Aswad 1997; Alsharhan 2006). We have reconstructed the depositional system of the Upper DalanKangan in the South Pars eld on the shallow parts of a homoclinal carbonate ramp (Figs 5 and 6). This interpretation is based on the facies characteristics, their lateral and vertical relationships, the presence of a thick succession of shallow deposits (relatively high proportion of peritidal and lagoon versus open-marine facies), the absence of reef and mass ow deposits (re-sedimented deposits) associated with a shelf break (margin) and the low diversity of facies types (Ahr 1973; Read, 1985; Burchette & Wright 1992; Avrell et al. 1998). At the regional scale, facies types and assemblages of the Upper DalanKangan successions represent a shallow-marine carbonate system of epiric or ramp-like environment (Al-Aswad 1997; Insalaco et al. 2006). This depositional environment is closely comparable to the present-day Persian Gulf carbonate system, which is well known and well documented (Alsharhan & Kendall 2003). Seemingly, the strata in this study were deposited over the inner part of such a carbonate system. Regionally, juxtaposition of different depositional facies indicates a change from the offshore to the onshore setting (Zagros outcrops), where more supratidal-dominated conditions replaced the open-marine environment. Small uctuations in the sea-level in this environment resulted in considerable shifts in the location of the ancient shoreline (Alsharhan & Nairn 1997; Insalaco et al. 2006). Based on the integration of sedimentological criteria and well-log signatures, the Upper DalanKangan carbonates in the South Pars eld have been subdivided (from the base to top) into four depositional sequences (Fig. 7). The characteristic sequence of this interval is reconstructed in Figure 5. Facies, rock types and reservoir quality The importance of palaeoenvironmental controls on the poroperm values of the studied units can be deduced by examining the relationships between depositional facies and reservoir properties. In general, scatter plots for the core poroperm values versus depositional facies suggest that graindominated subtidal facies (Type B facies group) have the best reservoir quality (Fig. 8 and Table 2). In general, the range of poroperm values corresponds to the environmental energy gradient which increased from land to the high-energy shoal setting and decreased in the off-shoal facies. Thus, there is a direct relationship between the distribution of the reservoir properties and the facies heterogeneities in the studied reservoir. The mass extinction at the PermianTriassic boundary can be recognized in the reservoir units. Following the mass extinction, primitive groups of microbial communities emerged from the stressed palaeoenvironment. As documented on the broad Tethyan carbonate platform, they re-colonized normal marine settings during a very rapid and large-scale platform ooding event (earliest Triassic) (Baud et al. 2005; Insalaco et al. 2006). The important shift from skeletal to non-skeletal carbonate factory, due to the Permo-Triassic extinction, is recorded in the reservoir rocks of this eld (Facies F5). This end-Permian to basal-Triassic thrombolitic zone (710 m thick) has inuenced the reservoir quality and other physicochemical properties of the underlying reservoir units (Fig. 9). In addition,

In this facies, which is associated with the peritidal facies (particularly F5), shell fragments are absent (or rare). Graded peloidal grainstones are described as washover sediments from storm events (Wanless et al. 1988). This facies association is indicative of an intertidal bar and channel depositional environment (Tucker & Wright 1990; Flgel 2004). Peloids are common in facies F8 and F9. Boring and bioturbation, and some restricted marine monospecic fauna (such as gastropod and miliolida) are commonly observed within a lime mud matrix. In modern peritidal carbonate environments, subtidal and lower intertidal zones show intensive bioturbation (Shinn 1983; Flgel 2004) and these features are typical of lagoon (restricted platform) development in the shallow-marine carbonate sequences (e.g. Scholle et al. 1983; Tucker & Wright 1990). Facies 10 is a poorly sorted, bioclastic packstone (limestone or dolomite) with diverse fauna (mixed restricted and openmarine fauna). It is highly bioturbated (massive structure) and contains biomoulds. Green algae and oncoids are common allochems in this facies. According to Wilson (1975), Scholle et al. (1983) and Flgel (2004), these features are typical of open shallow lagoonal and back-bank settings. Oolite-rich facies (F11, F12 and, in some cases, F13) in the reservoir intervals show massive structures (mostly F11 and also F12), cross-bedding or grain-grading and orientation. These are common features of an oolitic shoal complex. Similar oolitic wackestones to grainstones, with comparable texture and spatial distribution, have been described from several modern environments, such as the present-day Persian Gulf. Facies F14 is a dark mudstone with well-preserved laminations and open-marine fauna. It is closely associated with the oolitic shoal complex facies. Wave and current-induced structures are absent, suggesting a subtidal environment below wave base (Keller 1997). This facies is devoid of indigenous benthonic fauna or burrows, which may reect anoxic conditions during deposition (Marquis & Laury 1989). According to many authors, this facies is deposited in the offshoal setting below fair-weather wave base (FWWB). These facies are repeated vertically through the reservoir units. Individual facies may range from decimetres to several metres. By environmentally grouping different facies, two main groups can be recognized. Type A comprises facies F1F8 (supratidal, intertidal and restricted lagoon facies); these are commonly overprinted by dolomitization and anhydritic cementation. More than 70% of the Upper DalanKangan succession in the eld consists of anhydrite- and muddominated sediments (approximately 70% in K4, 85% in K3, 20% in K2 and 88% in K1). This facies group was deposited landward of the studied palaeo-platform under low-energy conditions. Type B comprises facies F9F14, which were deposited in open lagoon, shoal and offshoal settings. This facies group is associated with high-energy conditions situated on the seaward ank of a platform. Some 30% of the reservoir intervals are composed of these sediments (approximately 30% in K4, less than 10% in K3, 80% in K2 and 12% in K1). Regional and eld-scale depositional model The lateral distribution of the documented facies belts, along the carbonate ramp system, were reconstructed (Figs 5 and 6). They extend from the peritidal setting to the shallow subtidal zone through a high-energy shoal facies. The reservoir rocks consistently show gradational changes upwards from shallowto deep-water ramp facies, with thick sections of shallow-water sediments. However, temporal distributions of these facies

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Fig. 8. Porositypermeability cross-plot based on the facies types. As shown, there are strong variations between different types as well as within single types. Comparison of the reservoir properties in various facies indicates that subtidal grain-dominated facies (especially F8, F9, F10, F12 and F13) have better poroperm values than the landward mud-dominated and anhydritic facies.
Table 2. Statistical parameters of each facies according to the means of porosity and permeability Facies type Arithmetic mean Porosity (%) F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7 F8 F9 F10 F11 F12 F13 F14 3.14 7.18 4.79 7.75 7.45 10.23 10.10 10.16 13.00 18.15 15.88 21.98 17.50 19.24 Permeability (mD) 4.75 29.51 2.47 55.55 193.44 28.88 23.45 27.25 20.89 57.98 81.61 50.12 3.79 6.22 Geometric mean Porosity (%) 0.78 3.96 2.17 3.48 3.51 5.58 4.62 6.05 8.49 12.25 14.34 20.42 16.34 19.16 Permeability (mD) 0.17 1.81 0.14 0.77 3.48 1.80 4.21 1.94 2.31 6.61 8.39 5.32 3.52 5.72 0.21 0.27 0.27 0.28 0.32 0.58 0.23 0.57 0.55 0.26 0.36 0.03 0.24 0.11 Coefcient of determination (r2 )

Note: In general, poroperm means increase from supratidal facies to the shoal facies (F1F12) and decrease in the off-shoal facies. These variations in the reservoir quality correspond to the depositional energy conditions.

this zone is inuenced by the extensive meteoric diagenetic overprints. Decrease in the log values (GR and ROHB), poroperm values and isotopic ratios ( 18OPDB and 13CPDB ) are the main features of this interval, which is laterally traceable in all wells (Fig. 9). This thin laterally extensive horizon acted as the main barrier to vertical uid ow. Petrophysical examination of different facies types shows strong variations in the porosity and permeability (Fig. 8). These variations in the pore spaces were caused by depositional conditions and diagenetic overprints. In order to dene petrophysical classes, it was necessary to classify pore spaces. The widely used standard description of carbonate rocks based on the Dunham (1962) classication is insufcient to provide a clear understanding about uid ow and reservoir behaviour (Cantrell & Hagerty 2003; Kostic & Aigner 2004; Ruf & Aigner 2004). In this study, the Ruf & Aigner (2004) approach is used as the rock-typing system for the reservoir rocks. These rock

types exhibit meaningful relationships with the poroperm values (Fig. 10). The standard textural (Dunham 1962) and pore space (Lucia 1995) classications dene four rock type groups (RTG) and 16 rock type classes for these rocks (Fig. 10, left). In this study, reservoir rocks are subdivided by their texture (grainstones, packstones, wackestones and mudstones; abbreviated as G, P, W and M, respectively) and dominant pore spaces (tight, separate vug, touching vug and interparticle; abbreviated as T, SV, TV and IP indices, respectively). Therefore, four RTGs include: rock texture with tight pore spaces or TT (MT, WT, PT, GT ), rock texture with separate vug pore spaces or TSV (MSV, WSV, PSV, GSV ), rock texture with touching vug pore spaces or TTV (MTV, WTV, PTV, GTV ) and rock texture with interparticle pore spaces or TIP (MIP, WIP, PIP, GIP ) (Fig. 10). The main results from the correlations of rock type groups and their poroperm values can be summarized as follows.

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Fig. 9. The basal Triassic thrombolitic zone (Facies F5) in the reservoir units of the South Pars eld and its effects on the well-log values, isotopic signatures and petrophysical properties. Appearance of thrombolites after the Permo-Triassic boundary has an important effect on the vertical heterogeneity of reservoir rocks at the eld scale (with 710 m thick at the base of K2).

1. By grouping the rock type classes based on the dominant pore spaces, discrete elds can be distinguished (Fig. 10). With this approach, the reservoir qualities of the Upper DalanKangan reservoir decrease in the following order: TIP, TTV, TSV and TT (Table 3). In addition, the relationship between poroperm values and rock type groups are more obvious (than the facies

types) because depositional facies designation ignores the effects of diagenetic overprinting on reservoir properties (Cantrell & Hagerty 2003; Kostic & Aigner 2004). 2. There is a broad variation of rock type groups with regard to the poroperm values (Fig. 10), indicating that the reservoir quality is not controlled solely by the dominant pore space

Fig. 10. New rock-typing approach used in this study. According to Dunhams (1962) textural classication and Lucias (1995) pore space classication, 16 rock type classes and four rock type groups can be dened (left). Relationships between poroperm values with the rock type groups are more pronounced than the facies types. Correlations of these rock type groups and poroperm values indicate that reservoir quality decreases in the following order: TIP, TTV, TSV and TT (right) (see Table 4).

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Table 3. Statistical parameters of dierent rock type groups according to the porosity and permeability values
Rock type groups Arithmetic mean Porosity (%) TIP TTV TSV TT 15.94 15.06 15.76 3.21 Permeability (mD) 202.26 67.33 12.63 2.03 Geometric mean Porosity (%) 9.74 10.79 11.88 1.89 Permeability (mD) 46.25 18.50 3.17 0.08 0.48 0.20 0.02 0.46

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Coefcient of determination (r2 )

Note: The reservoir quality of the reservoir rocks decreases in the following order: TIP, TTV, TSV and TT.

Table 4. Statistical parameters for dierent lithologies according to the porosity and permeability values (mean values)
Lithology Arithmetic mean Porosity (%) Dolomite Calcite Anhydrite 7.67 13.56 2.58 Permeability (mD) 39.97 17.57 2.98 Geometric mean Porosity (%) 5.36 8.98 2.00 Permeability (mD) 1.06 0.92 0.10 0.12 0.04 0.12 Coefcient of determination (r2 )

Fig. 11. Comparison of different Dunham depositional textures of TSV (left) and TTV (right) with regard to the poroperm values. No well-dened elds could be distinguished between various textural types of each group.

type. Additional coding of the porosity and permeability according to their textural types and parameters (grain size, sorting etc.), in combination with these rock types, may lead to better-dened elds. 3. Grouping and denition of the rock types based on the Dunham (1962) depositional textures, without considering the pore system, may not reveal well-dened elds (Fig. 11). The vertical distributions of the facies in the studied units show cyclical patterns. As discussed, facies types have exerted an important control over the reservoir quality. Thus, it is reasonable to expect that the cyclical patterns of facies distribution have inuenced the poroperm properties. Changes in the vertical successions of facies with downdip position, along with the log data, imply that these strata are composed of several stacked packages, representing depositional cycles. On the basis of the facies systematic arrangement, faciesrelated diagenetic patterns, as well as log data (GR and ROHB), four depositional sequences (third order) are identied, which show distinctive petrophysical properties (Fig. 7). These sequences are bounded by chicken wire and nodular anhydrite and dolomudstones (landward facies) at the top and at the base. Generally, the latter units that separate uid ow units are tight. A general basinward progradation of the platform facies occurred during deposition of the Upper DalanKangan car-

bonates, with tidal-at and lagoonal facies succeeding shoal and subtidal facies. The diagenetic effects on the reservoir rocks prevent us making precise generalizations about relationships between the reservoir quality and sequences. Our results demonstrate that depositional variables exerted primary controls over the reservoir quality and productivity of the Upper DalanKangan units in the South Pars eld. DIAGENESIS AND RESERVOIR QUALITY Diagenetic history and porosity evolution There are a few published detailed diagenetic studies on the reservoir rocks of the Qatar Arch large gas elds (e.g. Ehrenberg 2006; Rahimpour-Bonab et al. 2009). We propose a diagenetic reservoir model for the complex diagenetic history (Fig. 12). The model has four stages and records the succession of the diagenetic environments and processes. Thin-section photomicrographs of some diagenetic features are shown in Figure 13. Two diagenetic regimes were identied. Early diagenesis occurred before the onset of pressure-solution, whereas late diagenesis occurred during and after pressuresolution. Our studies have shown that the diagenesis that improved reservoir characteristics occurred in the meteoric realm, i.e. during shallow burial. Most of the reservoir porosity

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Fig. 12. The diagenetic model for the reservoir units in the South Pars eld has four stages: (1) syn-depositional and marine; (2) hypersaline; (3) meteoric; and (4) burial diagenesis.

is secondary in origin and was formed during diagenesis (Fig. 13). Detailed petrographic study has claried the role of selective diagenesis in the reservoir history. Diagenetic features are heterogeneous in the limestone and dolomite-rich sediments; however, they have strongly inuenced porosity and permeability in both lithologies. The main diagenetic processes affecting the Upper Dalan Kangan reservoir units include: (1) micritization and marine cementation (Fig. 13C, g); (2) formation of anhydrite nodules (Fig. 13H, o, n); (3) early dolomitization and dolomite neomorphism (Fig. 13A, a; 13B, b; 13C, g); (4) dissolution and/or neomorphism of aragonite (generation of secondary porosity) (Fig. 13C); (5) anhydrite and calcite cementation (Fig. 13C, D); (6) mechanical and chemical compaction (Fig. 13D, F, G, H); and (7) minor fracturing. Diagenetic processes of local importance are saddle dolomite precipitation and anhydrite replacement. Many of these effects overlap. Evidence for aragonite dissolution and low Mg-calcite matrix preservation imply evolution of the secondary porosity in these carbonates (Fig. 13C). Although dolomitization, dolomite neomorphism (Fig. 13G) and fracturing have had a minor inuence on porosity generation, in some cases, they have had an important effect on the permeability values (particularly in K4). Diagenesis during burial tended to reduce reservoir quality through physical compaction, anhydrite precipitation and carbonate cementation (There was some porosity generation as a result of dolomite neomorphism, stylolitization and fracturing.) Four stages of diagenetic alteration have affected reservoir quality (Fig. 12). + Stage 1: Syn-depositional and marine diagenesis. This stage displays normal sedimentation conditions in the shallow part of a carbonate ramp system. Formation of anhydrite nodules and early matrix dolomite in the peritidal setting, micritization, bioturbation and marine calcite cementation in the subtidal facies mostly occurred during this stage (Fig. 13C, H). Primary porosity was generated and subsequently modied by these processes (Fig. 12, Stage 1).

+ Stage 2: Hypersaline diagenesis. This stage is characterized by the paragenesis of early dolomitization in sabkha and hypersaline environments with related pore-lling anhydrite cement and widespread anhydrite nodularization processes (Fig. 13A, B, E, H). These processes are associated with the peritidal and restricted lagoon facies and affected products of the earlier stages of diagenesis in an arid climate. Most of the earlier created pore spaces were occluded by anhydrite cementation (Fig. 12, Stage 2). + Stage 3: Meteoric diagenesis. Through sea-level fall, shallow facies belts of this platform were subaerially exposed to the presumably humid climate. The main features of this stage are leaching and neomorphism of unstable grains, as well as later meteoric calcite cementation (Fig. 13C). Seemingly, more than 60% of the reservoir porosity was created through leaching at this stage (Fig. 12, Stage 3). + Stage 4: Burial diagenesis. Dolomite neomorphism, compaction, cementation (anhydrite and calcite), fracturing and saddle dolomite precipitation affected the reservoir units during this stage and reduced the poroperm values (Fig. 13D, F, G, H). Burial diagenesis continued to depths of 2.53.2 km (Fig. 12, Stage 4). Diagenetic controls on the reservoir quality Lithology, dolomitization and poroperm values Calcite, dolomite and anhydrite are three common minerals distinguished by thin section examinations. The eld-scale correlations between core and thin section examinations indicate that the reservoir rocks are composed of dolomite, limestone and anhydrite of some 60%, 30% and 10%, respectively. Approximately 20% of K1, 90% of K2, 30% of K3, and 50% of K4 are of limestone lithology. The comparison of the poroperm values for these lithologies reveal a clear relationship between lithology and the reservoir quality. Generally, dolomitic intervals of the reservoir rocks are more permeable than the limestone and anhydrite

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Fig. 13. Diagenetic aspects of the Upper DalanKangan in thin section photomicrographs in the South Pars eld. (A) Fabric-selective dolomitization pre-dates compaction processes; well-rounded grains (a: ooids) are preserved. (B) Mimic dolomitization in the reservoir rock (b: dolomitized ooid grains; c: non-dolomitized marine isopachous cements; d: pore space generated during dolomitization of grains (?); e: intergrain porosity). (C) Calcite-cemented ooid-grainstone with micritized grains (f) and marine calcite cements (g). (D) Stylolites (h: stylolitic pore spaces). (E) Peloid packstone/wackstone with extensive anhydrite plugging (g: poikilotopic anhydrite). (F) Features of burial diagenetic processes, including concaveconvex boundary between compacted grains (l), microstylolite (j) parallel with the microfractures (k). (G) Ghost of stylolite features (m) is overprinted during dolomite neomorphism. (H) Anhydrite crystals (n) and micro-nodules (o) cross-cut with the stylolites.

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According to this study, reservoir quality has been slightly improved by dolomitization. Dissolution Petrographic observations have shown that dissolution is the most important factor in porosity creation in the South Pars eld (Fig. 13C). This process has been recognized as a key factor in generating reservoir quality in all Khuff reservoirs (Ehrenberg et al. 2007). The digital point counting method was used to differentiate dominant pore types in the studied reservoir rocks (by the Jmicrovision v1.2 Image Analysis Software). More than 600 thin section microphotographs from 68 samples in well A were analysed. The results indicated that there are seven dominant pore types in these reservoir units. The relative abundance of these pore types is presented in Figure 16. The most common pore types (mouldic and solution enlarged, up to 60%) in the reservoir rocks were produced by dissolution of the unstable components. Earlier studies reported that mouldic pores increased the porosity but had little effect on the permeability (e.g. Lucia 1999); however, the association of these pore types with interparticle (shoal complex facies) and touching vugs (e.g. fractures) has increased the poroperm values. This study shows that the best reservoirs are found in grainstone/packstone lithologies with a high mouldic and interparticle porosity and in dolomitic grainstone/packstone sediments (in the rock types GIP, PIP, GTV and PTV ). These reservoir facies formed thick intervals in the lower and middle parts of K2 and middle part of K4 units. Near-surface leaching processes are associated mostly with the limestone intervals (open-marine grainy facies), because early dolomitized sediments were more stable in meteoric conditions than limestone. The fabric-selective dissolution during meteoric diagenesis created solution pores. Cementation Cementation, particularly by anhydrite, is the dominant mechanism of porosity destruction in carbonate reservoirs (e.g. Southwood & Hill 1995). The two main types of cements in the studied intervals are anhydrite and calcite (Fig. 13C, E). In addition, there is minor fracture-lling dolomite cementation (saddle dolomite) during the late stages of diagenesis. Thinsection examination indicates that there is a greater volume of early cements than the late cements. Anhydrite cements are generally associated with the dolomitic intervals (supratidal, intertidal and lagoon facies), whereas calcite cements are associated with the limestone intervals that include openmarine facies (high-energy facies such as F10, F12 and F13). Visual estimations indicate that the most common type of cement in the reservoir intervals is anhydrite. The main porosity occluding cements (calcite and anhydrite) were precipitated early in the diagenetic history. Commonly, cementation has negative effects on poroperm values (Fig. 17). In many cases, pore spaces are completely occluded by cement (in the PT and GT rock types, for example tightly anhydrite cemented lagoonal facies in the middle part of K3) (Fig. 13C, E). The types and effects of cementation on reservoir characteristics were evaluated from visual estimations of cement (according to Cantrell & Hagerty 2003). Facies with more than 10% cement (without considering cement mineralogy) have lower permeability than other facies (Fig. 17a). Presumably, there is a clear relationship between cement type and reservoir quality. In most cases, calcite-cemented facies have better poroperm values than the anhydrite-cemented ones (Fig. 17b).

Fig. 14. Relationship between lithology and poroperm values. Generally, these cross-plots indicate that although dolomitic intervals are slightly more permeable than the limestone and anhydrite, they show similar porosity values.

successions (Fig. 14, Table 4). Although, limestone intervals show higher porosity values, they are commonly associated with lower permeability (for example in the middle part of K4). Anhydritic units are mostly associated with non-pay (tight) intervals but, in some cases, the reservoir quality of these units is increased due to fracturing or dissolution. These intervals mainly occur in the lower part of K3, upper part of K2 and lower part of K1. Therefore, a key question relates to the effects of dolomitization on the reservoir quality. In the carbonate reservoirs, the stable carbon and oxygen isotopic compositions of the dolomites may provide insight regarding their genesis and porosity development (i.e. Saller & Henderson 1998). Sedimentological, petrographic and geochemical data indicate that sabkha and reux models are the two main mechanisms for dolomitization in the dolostones of the Upper DalanKangan formations in this eld. Similar dolomitization mechanisms were reported for the Khuff reservoir (Ehrenberg et al. 2007). In general, dolomitization processes have preserved the initial rock fabric and dolomite crystals are ne to medium in size (mimic dolomitization). Based on the petrographic relationships and isotopic compositions, the coarse crystalline dolomite in the K4 interval (several metres) is ascribed to neomorphism (Fig. 13G). The microcrystalline dolomite (commonly F6 and/or WIP, MIP rock types) with high intercrystalline porosity is one of the best reservoir facies in this eld. In the Kangan reservoir (particularly K2), correlation of the petrographic and geochemical values with the poroperm values has indicated that dolomites with heavier 18O values have better reservoir quality in comparison with the limestones. There is a positive correlation between low-poroperm and low-isotopic values (in both 13C and 18O values) (Fig. 15). Poroperm values of dolomites are controlled mostly by the precursor sedimentary fabrics and the original porosity. Although dolomitization does not create signicant pore spaces in the reservoir rock it has positive effects on pore connections.

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Fig. 15. Plot of the poroperm and stable isotope values for the Kangan dolomites and limestones in the South Pars eld. Two typical photomicrographs of K2 dolomite and limestone are also shown. There is a positive correlation between low-poroperm and low-isotope values in dolomite and limestone lithologies (in both 13C and 18O values).

Compaction Thin-section and core examinations all indicate that the reservoir rocks in this eld have been affected by compaction from deposition through to deep burial. Most depositional fabrics show little evidence for compaction prior to dolomitization, suggesting that this process pre-dates compaction (Fig. 13A, B).

Fig. 16. Seven basic pore types are distinguished in the reservoir strata in the South Pars eld. Relative proportions of each pore types are displayed.

As a result of increasing compaction (extensive chemical compaction), solution seams and stylolites are developed. In most cases, stylolites pass through dolomite and anhydrite crystals, but the latter crystals were not observed to grow along the stylolites (Fig. 13H). Most of the stylolites are parallel to the bedding surface and developed between two facies. The spatial distribution of the stylolites is determined by the depositional distribution of clay minerals in the reservoir rocks (Ehrenberg 2006). Therefore, the palaeoenvironmental energy conditions have controlled localization of these compaction features. In most cases, stylolites occur in the mud-dominated facies particularly in the middle and upper part of K3 and also K1 units. In the K4 units, stylolites generally occur in the lower part and also in the lower and upper parts of the K2 unit. The pressure-solution and stylolitization processes supplied the necessary materials for late burial cementation that are associated with the post-compaction cements. This process occludes pore spaces which are generated and preserved during earlier stages of diagenesis (Ehrenberg 2006). To analyse the compaction effects on the reservoir properties, the number of stylolites (per metre) were counted through core examinations. Results of this study indicate that the poroperm values and the reservoir quality decrease with the increase in the stylolite abundance (Fig. 18). In summary, compaction (stylolitization) has a negative effect on both porosity and permeability. Results of this study are supported by Ehrenbergs (2006) ndings in the South Pars eld.

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Fig. 17. Porositypermeability cross-plot illustrating the importance of cement quantity and type in controlling the poroperm values of the reservoir rocks. (a) With an increase in the cement abundance, the poroperm values decrease gradually. (b) The calcite-cemented facies are associated with better poroperm intervals in comparison with the anhydrite-cemented facies.

Fig. 18. Relationships between poroperm values and stylolite frequencies in the reservoir rocks. Three groups are classied based on the stylolite frequencies (per metre). The core sample of each group is also shown. As seen, poroperm values decrease with an increase in the stylolite percentage.

Fracturing Macro- and microfractures occur in the studied reservoir rocks. Their features can be identied in all scales from core samples to borehole electrical images. Fracture pores account for 13% of the reservoir rock porosity. In many cases, these fractures are lled by anhydrite, calcite and saddle dolomite cements (mineralized or closed fractures). Elsewhere, open-fracture systems can connect isolated porosity. However, the precise role of the fracturing and its affect on reservoir quality in this eld is not well understood. Akbar et al. (2000) reported the presence of natural and drilling-induced fractures in these reservoir rocks based on FMI images analysis (Fig. 19). Fractures induced by drilling dominate in most intervals. They are present in K1, K2 and K3 reservoir units and, to a lesser extent, in K4 unit. As a whole, K2 and K3 units contain induced fractures, whereas the natural open fractures are mainly present in a few horizons in K1 and K4. The latter features are very well developed in the brittle dolostones. In some cases, fracturing of dolostones has led to high permeability values with minor inuence on the porosity (Fig. 19). DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION This study in the South Pars eld indicates that the poroperm heterogeneity in the reservoir rocks is controlled by several factors. Facies analysis has identied a depositional setting located along the inner part of a homoclinal carbonate ramp that extended from peritidal to shallow subtidal zones, passing

over a high-energy shoal and off-shoal facies. Generally, correlation between facies types and poroperm values shows an increase in the reservoir quality from shoreface to seawards. The rock type groups and poroperm values show clear relationships with the integration of texture and pore types. They indicate that the reservoir quality in this Permo-Triassic succession is controlled mainly by diagenesis. Four stages of diagenesis were documented in which depositional facies were selectively overprinted by shallow and burial diagenetic processes. However, in terms of origin, all studies show that the reservoir quality resulted primarily from dissolution in the shallow diagenetic settings. In addition to facies and depositional controls, ve main diagenetic factors affected the reservoir quality at eld-scale: lithology, dissolution, cementation, compaction and fracturing. In conclusion, the original poroperm heterogeneities in the Upper DalanKangan reservoir are inherited from their palaeoplatform depositional setting but were modied subsequently during diagenetic processes. Therefore, for precise characterization of the reservoir properties in such a heterogeneous carbonate reservoir, integration of sedimentary and diagenetic features is essential.
The vice-president of Research and Technology of the University of Tehran provided nancial support for this research (grant no. 6105023/1/03), for which the authors are grateful. The authors also extend thanks to the POGC (Pars Oil and Gas Company of Iran) for sponsoring, data preparation and permission to publish this paper. We also thank two anonymous reviews for their invaluable comments and suggestions that highly improved the rst draft of this paper.

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Fig. 19. Interpretation of FMI log together with the summary plots of all planar features in one well of the South Pars eld. Both natural and drilling-induced fractures occur in the reservoir rocks, but the latter is more common.

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Received 17 July 2008; revised typescript accepted 17 February 2009.