What is Motivation?

Motivation The processes that account for an individuals intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal Implications Associated with This Definition

Motivation

Behavior is purposive rather than random - People exhibit both positive (work done on time) and negative (arrive late for work) behavior for a reason Motivation arouses people to do something - People are unlikely to change a behavior or do something different unless they are motivated to do so Motivation causes people to focus on a desired end-result or goal Motivation fuels the persistence needed to exhibit sustained effort on a task

What is motivation to work?

Motivators
Intrinsic Motivation, attitudes, knowledge/skills/abilities (KSAs) Extrinsic External environment (economic conditions, laws and regulations, etc.) Work environment (supervision, organization, coworkers, outcomes of performance)

Direction. An individuals choice when presented with a

number of possible alternatives.

Level. The amount of effort a person puts forth. Persistence. The length of time a person stays with a given

action.

The Basic Motivation Behavior Sequence

The Motivation Process

Need Deficiency Search for potential need-satisfying goal Perception of potential needsatisfying goal Attempt to Attain Goal Goal Attainment or Frustration

Needs Theories of Motivation (Content)

Basic idea: Individuals have needs that, when unsatisfied, will result in motivation Maslows Hierarchy of Needs Alderfers ERG theory Motivation-Hygiene theory McClellands Theory of Needs

Process Theories of Motivation

Look at the actual process of motivation Expectancy theory Goal-setting theory

Responses to the Reward System

Equity Theory Fair Process
to hi

SA
rd e gh e st o Lo w es t r

Esteem

Affiliation (Social) Safety & Security Physiological

Motivational Theories X & Y

Theory Y - a set of assumptions of how to manage individuals motivated by higher order needs Theory X - a set of assumptions of how to manage individuals motivated by lower order needs

Evaluation of Maslows Hierarchy

Lacks research support Not intended as a work motivation theory More of a life-stages approach One need, a given point in time will dominate Actually may be a more flexible hierarchy of lower order needs and higher order needs. Needs vary according to: A persons career stage Organizational size Geographic location

SA Esteem Love (Social) Safety & Security Physiological

 Alderfers ERG theory postulates that people have three basic need sets Existence needs - material and physiological desires Relatedness needs - involve relationships with other people Growth needs - motivate people to productivity or creativity postulates that several different needs can be operating at once has greater scientific support than Maslows hierarchy both theories remind managers of the types of reinforcers or rewards that can be used to motivate people

Comparison Of Maslows Need Hierarchy And ERG Theory

S actu elfaliz atio n

th Grow
s edne Relat s

Ego

Soc ial
Safe Phy
Mas low

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ence Exist

siolo g

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Alderfers ERG Theory

Herzbergs Motivation-Hygiene Theory
Need Progression

Growth Needs

Need Regression

Two independent scales: Satisfaction and No Satisfaction These are the motivators

Relatedness Needs

Dissatisfaction and No Dissatisfaction Hygiene or maintenance factors

Existence Needs

Herzbergs Motivation-Hygiene Theory

Hygiene factors - necessary, but not sufficient, for healthy adjustment Extrinsic factors; context of work Motivators - the sources of satisfaction Intrinsic factors; content of work

Motivator Factors No Satisfaction Satisfaction Jobs that do not offer Jobs offering achievement, achievement, recognition, recognition, stimulating stimulating work, work, responsibility and responsibility and advancement advancement Hygiene Factors Dissatisfaction Jobs with poor company policies, and administration, technical supervision, salary, interpersonal relationships with supervisors, and working conditions No Dissatisfaction Jobs with good company policies, and administration, technical supervision, salary, interpersonal relationships with supervisors, and working conditions

McClellands Needs Theory

The need for Achievement: is the drive to accomplish challenging goals. The need for Power: is the desire to control others; to influence others behavior according to ones wishes. The need for Affiliation: is the desire for close relationships with others. nPow

nAch

nAff

Matching Achievers and Jobs

Summarizing the Various Needs Theories

Maslow Self-Actualization Growth Esteem Need for Power Affiliation Relatedness Hygiene Security Existence Physiological Factors Need for Affiliation Motivators Need for Achievement Alderfer Herzberg McClelland

Managerial Applications

Content theories Focus on individual physiological and

psychological needs.
Managers job is to create a work environment

Promote a healthy workforce Provide financial security Provide opportunities to socialize Recognize employees accomplishments

that responds positively to individual needs.

Caveat Emptor: Apply Motivation Theories Wisely

Motivation Theories Are Culture-Bound Canada and US rely on extrinsic rewards more than other countries. Japan and Germany rarely use individual incentives. China is more likely to give bonuses to everyone.

Expectancy Theory
The theory that individuals act depending on whether their effort will lead to good performance, whether good performance will be followed by a given outcome, and whether that outcome is attractive to them. The theory focuses on three relationships: Effort-performance relationship Performance-reward relationship Rewards-personal goals relationship

EXPECTANCY THEORY

How Does Expectancy Theory Work?

Valence
My professor offers me Rs1 million if I memorize the textbook by tomorrow morning.

P Expectancy

Instrumentality or P O Theory

What is the probability What is the probability What value do I place that I can perform at that my good performance on the potential the required level will lead to outcomes? outcomes? (see if I try? next slide)

Expectancy
Effort Performance Link

Instrumentality
Performance Rewards Link

Valence
Rewards Personal Goals Link There are a lot of wonderful things I could do with Rs.1 million

No matter how much effort I put in, probably not possible to memorize the text in 24 hours

My professor does not look like someone who has Rs.1 million I=0

E=0

V=1

Effort

Performance

Outcomes

Conclusion: Though I value the reward, I will not be motivated to do this task.

Steps to Increasing Motivation, Using Expectancy Theory

What do the process theories suggest about individual motivation?

Motivational implications of expectancy

Improving Expectancy
Improve the ability of the individual to perform Make sure employees have skills for the task Provide training Assign reasonable tasks and goals

Improving Instrumentality
Increase the individual s belief that performance will lead to reward Observe and recognize performance Deliver rewards as promised Indicate to employees how previous good performance led to greater rewards

Improving Valence

Make sure that the reward is meaningful to the individual Ask employees what rewards they value Give rewards that are valued

theory. Motivation is sharply reduced when, expectancy, instrumentality or valence approach zero. Motivation is high when expectancy and instrumentality are high and valence is strongly positive.

Implications for Managers

Need to offer employees valued rewards (high valences) Need to insure that if people are willing to put forth effort that you help them succeed. Maintain the E link (Provide tools, info, support) Need to make sure that you follow through with reward system that is tied to performance. Maintain the I link (Differential rewards for performance)

Managerial implications of expectancy theory. Managers should act to maximize expectancies, instrumentalities, and valences that support organizational objectives.

Goal-Setting Theory
The theory that specific and difficult goals lead to higher performance.
Goals tell an employee what needs to be done and how much effort will need to be expended. Specific hard goals produce a higher level of output than does the generalized goal of do your best. Feedback is critical and acts to guide behavior.

Goal Difficulty Goal Acceptance Organizational Support Intrinsic Reward Goal Direct Effort Performance Individual Ability & Training Satisfaction

Goal Specificity

Extrinsic Reward

Goal Commitment

Improving Goal Alignment

Clarify roles and responsibilities Ensure understanding of goal's importance Provide necessary resources Review progress Involve employee in goal setting

Benefits of Employee Involvement

Information exchange Greater goal acceptance More difficult goal chosen Greater goal commitment

Increasing Goal Commitment

Employee involvement in goal setting Positive perceptions of supervisor Reasonable request Authentic concern Trust Extrinsic rewards Intrinsic rewards Competition Expectation of success

Goal Difficulty
Attainable Never impossible Difficult Probability of success between .25 and .75 Easier goals if task is unfamiliar

Goal Setting Process Steps

Specify general objective or tasks Specify means of measurement Specify standard or target Specify time span Prioritize Rate difficulty & importance Optional Determine coordination requirements

Characteristics of Effective Goals

S M A R T

Specific Measurable Assignable Realistically high Time bound

Critical Success Factors

Equity Theory
Main points Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond so as to eliminate any inequities. Equity theory recognizes that individuals are concerned not only with the absolute amount of rewards for their efforts, but also with the relationship of this amount to what others receive.

Support employee Review progress Provide feedback Include development goals Involve employee in goal setting

Equity Theory

Perceived inequity

Tension within the individual

Motivation to reduce tension

Responses

O p : I p Oo : I o

Responses to inequity

Achieving Balance
Responses to inequity Change inputs Change outcomes Cognitively distort own inputs and outcomes Withdrawal Acting on other Cognitively distort inputs and outcomes of other Change reference groups

Evaluations and Implications

Research findings support predictions of equity theory for responses to inequity. Equity theory offers managers three messages: Everyone in the organization needs to understand the bases for rewards. People tend to take a multifaceted view of their rewards; they perceive and experience a variety of rewards, some tangible and others intangible. People base their actions on their perceptions of reality.