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Topic Highlighted
Fly Ash
Introduction
Production
Classification
Advantages
Disadvantages
Introduction
Classification
GGBFS Production Growth
Advantages
Disadvantages
Silica Fume
Introduction
World demand for silica fume
Advantages
Disadvantages
Natural Pozzolans
Introduction
Metakaolin
Rice Husk
ACI Documents
ASTM Documents
British Standards
AUTHOR: AU YONG THEAN SENG
www.madisonvelocity.blogspot.com
Concrete is a mixture of cement, sand, coarse aggregate and water. The key to
concrete’s success is its versatility and no other sector of the construction
industry utilizes this attribute more than the manufactured concrete products
industry. Concrete can be designed to withstand the harshest environments while
taking on the most inspirational forms. Engineers are continually pushing the
limits with the help of innovative chemical admixtures and supplementary
cementitious materials.
The use of SCMs dates back to the ancient Greeks who incorporated volcanic
ash with hydraulic lime to create a cementitious mortar. The Greeks passed this
knowledge on to the Romans, who constructed such engineering marvels as the
Roman aqueducts and the Coliseum, which still stand today. Early SCMs
consisted of natural, readily available materials such as volcanic ash or
diatomaceous earth.
The SCMs can be divided into two categories based on their type of reaction:
hydraulic or pozzolanic. Hydraulic materials react directly with water to form
cementitious compounds, while pozzolanic materials which by themselves do not
have any cementitious property but when used with Portland cement, react to
form cementitious combination. It chemically reacts with calcium hydroxide (CH),
AUTHOR: AU YONG THEAN SENG
www.madisonvelocity.blogspot.com
Fly Ash
Introduction
Fly ash was first used in large-mass concrete structures such as dams to reduce
cost and minimize the heat of hydration. Additional research revealed property-
enhancing benefits of fly ash, including resistance to certain harmful chemicals,
sulfate attack and alkali silica reaction (ASR). The oil crisis during the 1970s also
led to the construction of additional coal-burning power plants throughout the
United States creating an abundance of fly ash. Fly ash is a variable material and
its composition is determined by the chemical composition of the coal used by
the power plant. As a byproduct of coal combustion, it would be a waste product
to be disposed of at great cost, if we don’t make good use of it. By utilizing its
cementitious properties, we are adding value to it as we “beneficiate” it as a
major aspect of green building construction.
Besides that, fly ash has an adverse effect on maintaining a stable air-void
system, especially for higher carbon content like Class F fly ashes. The carbon
content of fly ash is often given by the Loss on Ignition Value (LOI) shown on
the material certification report. This value is obtained by drying the sample of
ash and then massing it. The sample is then ignited at 750 oC in a muffle
furnace. The loss in weight represents the quantity of unburnt carbon present in
the material and is often a good indication of how it will affect the air content of
the concrete.
Trial batches should always be cast prior to using a new material. The air content
of the concrete should be measured regularly when using a fly ash with a LOI
value greater than 3 percent. Either type of fly ash can be used as a cement
replacement to reduce production costs. Class F fly ashes have also been
found to improve sulfate resistance better than Class C fly ashes. However,
some ashes with high alumina contents are not as effective in improving sulfate
resistance.
AUTHOR: AU YONG THEAN SENG
www.madisonvelocity.blogspot.com
Production
As shown in graph below, the utilization rates vary greatly from country to
country, from as low as 3.5% for India to as high as 93.7% for Hong Kong. The
relatively low rate of 13.5% in the US is an indication that there is a lot of room
for progress.
100.0 91.1
90.0
80.0
Weight (Tonne)
70.0 62.0
60.0
60.0 57.0
Utilized
50.0 Produced
40.0
30.0
20.0 13.8
8.1
10.0 0.4 1.3 0.6 0.6 2.0 2.8
4.7 4.3
0.0
China Denmark Hong Kong India Japan Russia USA
Country
The following chart shows the global production and utilization of fly ash based
on data from the Minerals Yearbook (MYB). For the year 2002, data were
recorded from Coal Ash Association’s 2002 Coal Combustion Product (CCP)
80,000,000
70,000,000
60,000,000
50,000,000
TONNE
Ultilization
40,000,000
Production
30,000,000
20,000,000
10,000,000
0
1997 1998 1999 2000 2002
YEAR
AUTHOR: AU YONG THEAN SENG
www.madisonvelocity.blogspot.com
Classification
The four main constituents are silicon dioxide (SiO2), aluminum oxide (Al2O3),
iron oxide (Fe2O3) and calcium oxide (CaO). ASTM C 618 classifies fly ash
based on the sum of the first three constituents (SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3). When
this sum exceeds 70 percent the Class F designation is given to the material
while their sum must exceed only 50 percent to be classified as a Class C fly
ash. Class C fly ashes also contain higher levels of calcium oxide usually
exceeding 20 percent. Class F fly ashes are pozzolanic in nature while Class C
fly ashes react both pozzolanically and hydraulically. Class F fly ashes have
lower calcium contents and are typically derived from higher-ranked coals
containing clayey mineral impurities.
The principal reaction product of Class F fly ash is suggested to be more gel-like
and denser than that from Portland cement hydration. Class F fly ashes react
slower than Portland cement, compromising the initial strength gain of the fly ash
concrete. Longer set times can be expected as the quantity of fly ash increases,
therefore finishing operations may need to be delayed. When using fly ash in the
manufactured concrete products industry, accelerated curing methods and
extended moisture curing should be used to initiate the pozzolanic reaction and
improve initial strength gain.
AUTHOR: AU YONG THEAN SENG
www.madisonvelocity.blogspot.com
Advantages
o Fly ash is also widely available, namely wherever coal is being burned.
o Depending on how fine the fly ash and the content of unburnt carbon, the
water reduction can reach up to 6-10 % with a 25 % cement replacement.
Disadvantages
Introduction
Although Portland blast furnace slag cement, which is made by intergrinding the
granulated slag with Portland cement clinker (blended cement), has been used
for more than 60 years, the use of separately ground slag combined with
Portland cement as admixture did not start until late 1970s. For many
applications it is now recommended to use a blend of Portland cement, fly ash,
and GGBFS. Yet, slag is not as widely available as fly ash. The US steel
industry is only a faint image of what it was only a few decades ago, and as a
result, the slag marketed in some East Coast states is being imported from Italy.
Because of its excellent attributes, the cost of slag is comparable to that of
Portland cement, so that there is no advantage in this respect.
GGBFS can be substituted for cement on a 1:1 basis. In the absence of mix
specific data, the substitution of GGBFS should be limited to 50 percent for
areas not exposed to deicing salts and to 25 percent for concretes which
will be exposed to deicing salts. While substitution of GGBFS for up to 70
percent in a mix has been used, there appears to be an optimum substitution
percentage which produces the greatest 28 day strength. This is typically 50
percent of the total cementitious material but depends on the GGBFS used.
Classification
ASTM C 989-82 and AASHTO M 302 were developed to cover ground GGBFS
for use in concrete and mortar. The three grades are 80, 100, and 120. The
grade of a GGBFS is based on its activity index. Activity index is the ratio of
the compressive strength of a mortar cube made with a 50 percent GGBFS-
cement blend to that of a mortar cube made with a reference cement.
For a given mix, the substitution of grade 120 ground granulated blast furnace
slag for up to 50 percent of the cement will generally yield a compressive
strength at 7 days and beyond equivalent to or greater than that of the same
concrete made without GGBFS.
Since the late 1800s, ground granulated blast furnace slag has been used as a
component of blended hydraulic cement. In Europe, typical applications include
traditional structures and those exposed to seawater; in the U.S., its use extends
to general construction. As a result of granulated blast furnace slag's high quality
and the efforts of all manufacturers to conserve energy, the use of blast furnace
slag has grown significantly in the U.S. since the 1970s.
According to the Slag Cement Association, slag cement consumption has almost
tripled since 1996 and is growing faster than any other product in the
cementitious materials industry. Association statistics show that in 2003, 3.1
million metric tons of slag cement was shipped for use in construction
projects. The tonnage is a combination of slag cement shipped as a separate
product (conforming to ASTM C989) and as a component of blended cement
(conforming to ASTM C595). The term slag cement refers to 100% ground
granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) in North America.
Actual ferrous slag production data in the United States do not exist because
the iron and steel industry does not routinely measure slag output. Slag
outputs in iron and steel production are highly variable and depend, for the most
part, on the chemistry of the raw materials and the type of furnace. Typically, for
an ore feed with 60% to 66% iron, blast furnace slag production ranges from
about 220 to 370 kilograms per metric ton of pig iron produced. Steel slag
outputs are approximately 20% by mass of the steel output.
According to statistics reported by the International Iron and Steel Institute (IISI),
Brussels, the U.S. pig iron production was about 53 million and 55 million metric
tons (Mt) in l998 and l997, respectively. Thus, the iron slag production for these
years was about 12.5 and 13 Mt in 1998 and 1997, respectively. United States
steel production for l998 and l997 was reported to be 108 and 107 Mt,
respectively. The expected steel slag production was about 17.2 and 17 Mt in
1998 and 1997, respectively. As with the United States, no data are available on
world slag production. The IISI reported the world pig iron output to be about 544
Mt and crude steel production to be 783 Mt in 1998. The estimated figure for
ferrous slag production from this output was approximately 200 Mt.
AUTHOR: AU YONG THEAN SENG
www.madisonvelocity.blogspot.com
Advantages
o The rate and quantity of bleeding is less because of the relatively higher
fineness of slag.
o Slag unlike fly ash does not contain carbon, which cause instability
and air loss in concrete.
o Helps in the transformation of large pores in the paste into smaller pores,
resulting in decreased permeability of the matrix and of the concrete.
Disadvantages
Silica Fume
Introduction
Silica fume is densified by putting it into a silo and blowing compressed air from
the bottom. The particles tumble and stick together. Densified silica is available in
bags or bulk and mixing times may need to be increased to ensure that the
particles break down adequately. Slurry silica is a water-based material
containing roughly 42 percent to 60 percent by mass of silica fume.
Since silica fume is a pozzolan and consumed roughly 50 percent of the calcium
hydroxide present in the first 28 days when used at a 10 percent replacement
level under normal curing conditions. The pozzolanic reaction is extremely
sensitive to temperature and greatly accelerated by steam curing and other
accelerated curing methods.
Worldwide demand for silica fume was projected to rise 4.1% annually through
2006 to 2.1 billion metric tons, although advances were expected to be less
robust in more developed areas such as the United States, Japan, and Western
Europe.
AUTHOR: AU YONG THEAN SENG
www.madisonvelocity.blogspot.com
Advantages
o Silica fume particles pack around the aggregate more efficiently, modifying
the paste structure and preventing bleeding.
o Silica fume fills the voids between cement particles just as cement fills
the voids between sand and coarse aggregate.
Disadvantages
o Silica fume concrete is slightly darker in color and has been reported
being “sticky” during finishing.
o Due to its small size and high surface area (20,000 m2/kg), silica fume
minimizes bleeding, which may lead to plastic shrinkage cracking.
Natural Pozzolans
Introduction
The ancient Greeks and Romans used a combination of lime and volcanic ash to
make a cementitious mortar to construct many of the impressive monuments
which still stand today. The earliest known use of a pozzolan actually dates back
to about 4500 BC. It consisted of a mixture of lime and diatomaceous earth from
the Persian Gulf. ACI defines natural pozzolans as “either a raw or calcined
natural material that has pozzolanic properties.” Calcining is the process of
altering the composition or physical state by heating a material below the
temperature of fusion. Sources of natural pozzolans that do not require calcining
to increase their reactivity are typically located west of the Mississippi River. The
price and availability of raw or processed natural pozzolans is dependent on the
location of such materials.
Metakaolin
Rice Husk
Rice husk ash (RHA) is a natural byproduct from the processing of paddy rice.
The husks, which are approximately 50 percent cellulose, 30 percent lignin and
20 percent silica, are incinerated by controlled combustion leaving behind an ash
that predominantly consists of amorphous silica. Rice husk ash is highly
pozzolanic due to its extremely high surface area (50,000 to 100,000 m2/kg).
Research has shown that higher compressive strengths, decreased
permeability, resistance to sulfate and acid attack, and resistance to
chloride penetration can all be expected when a high-quality RHA is used in
amounts of 5 percent to 15 percent by mass of cement.
concrete, for use in bridges, marine environments, and nuclear power plants.
This market is currently filled by silica fume. Limited supply and high demand has
pushed the price of silica fume to as much as US$1,000/tonne in some markets.
Rice husk has the potential to generate 16.5 to 22 million tonnes of ash
containing over 90% amorphous silica that could be used as a substitute for
silica fume.
AUTHOR: AU YONG THEAN SENG
www.madisonvelocity.blogspot.com
ACI Documents
ACI 211.1, “Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for Normal, Heavyweight
and Mass Concrete”
ASTM Documents
ASTM C 618, “Standard Specification for Coal Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined
Natural Pozzolans for Use in Concrete”
British Standards