1 Conduction 2010-2011

MECH 3495 ThermoFluids Heat Transfer 1
Z:\mecheng\teaching\mech3495\heat transfer\lecture notes\1_Conduction_2010-2011.doc

SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF LEEDS
MECH 3495 ThermoFluids
Heat Transfer
Email: j.l.summers@leeds.ac.uk (Original notes by Dr Lawes)
Teaching Methods: 10 Lectures.
Reading list: Lecture notes plus
Incropera and DeWitt, Fundamentals of heat and mass transfer, New York, John Wiley
& Sons, 1990 (or similar later works by the same authors).
Objectives
On completion of this unit, students will have a basic understanding of heat transfer. They will be able to make
considered judgements regarding the most significant mechanisms of heat transfer in a given situation. They
will be able to quantify the effects of heat transfer in several typical conductive, convective and radiative
situations. They will be able to apply the fundamental concepts to practical situations such as shell and tube
heat exchangers.
DESCRIPTION
Section 1 Conduction
1 Introduction to the modes of heat transfer: conduction, convection and radiation. Conduction in
solids, liquids and gases. Thermal conductivity, Fouriers Law in one dimension. Conduction
through composite flat plates. Convective heat transfer coefficient.
2 Conduction through composite cylinder walls.
3
4
The three dimensional conduction equation. Plane walls and cylinders with internal heat
generation. Two dimensional heat conduction.
Section 2 Radiation
5 Radiation, electromagnetic spectrum, absorption, transmission and emission; black body, grey
body, Stefan-Boltzmann and Kirchoffs Laws, emissivities of various materials
6 Radiation transfer between two grey surfaces. View factor. Combined radiation and convective
heat transfer coefficient.
Section 3 Convective heat transfer
7 The thermal boundary layer. Relationships between mass and heat transport. Pr, Nu,St.
8 Dimensionless heat transfer relationships - Free (Gr) and forced convection, laminar and turbulent
flows in various situations
Section 4 Heat exchangers
9 Concentric tube heat exchangers. Parallel and counter flow types. Log mean temperature
difference.
10 Shell and tube heat exchangers. Effectiveness.
CONDUCTION
1 Introduction
Heat transfers are energy exchanges between bodies that occur by virtue of temperature differences. There are
three basic mechanisms for such energy transfer - conduction, convection and radiation.
1.1 Conduction
Conduction is a mode of heat transfer in which heat is transferred from a higher to a lower temperature level as
a result of molecular activity within the substance.
a) Solids
Energy transfers occurring in solid matter under the action of a temperature gradient result from two
mechanisms. One mechanism involves vibrations transmitted by the structure (lattice) of the solid, the
other results from energy carried through the material by highly mobile free electrons. In metals at
ambient temperatures, the electron contribution to energy (heat) transfer is two orders of magnitude
greater than the vibrational mechanism. It is therefore not surprising that pure metals, having many free
electrons, transfer heat more readily than those materials that do not conduct electricity. These
mechanisms of heat transfer are termed thermal conduction.
b) Liquids and Gases
Conduction depends upon the rapid transmission of energy through the molecules themselves.
Although the mobility of individual molecules of gases is greater than that of liquids, the conductivity is
usually lower because of the longer mean free path and the comparatively infrequent impact between
molecules
1.2 Convection
In gases and liquids, the molecules are much freer than in solids. Therefore, the greater part of any heat transfer
in these is due to molecular translation. Convection occurs when there is a temperature difference between a
fluid and a solid boundary. Heat is transferred from the hotter to the colder medium, partly due to conduction
and partly due to the fluid motion.
a) Natural or Free Convection
This occurs where the motion of the fluid is due to density gradients caused by temperature gradients.
b) Forced Convection
This occurs when the fluid is forced over the solid boundary, e.g. when a fluid is pumped through the
tubes of a heat exchanger
1.3 Radiation
This mode is independent of an intervening medium: it may take place in a vacuum or between two surfaces that
are both at a higher temperature than the intervening medium. All matter, if above absolute zero, emits energy
in the form of electro-magnetic waves. These waves are commonly termed infra-red, light, heat, etc. These are
merely arbitrary classifications deriving from the senses detecting them.
Bodies are capable of receiving as well as of emitting radiation. Gases at low pressure emit waves at
frequencies which are the natural frequencies of vibration of the molecules. In gases at high pressure, liquids
and solids, the molecular vibrations are more damped and the emission of energy is over a wide frequency band.
2 One dimensional Conduction
2.1 One Dimensional Conduction in Solids
Consider the conduction of energy (heat) through the prism of material shown in Fig. 2.1.
T
1 T
2
Q
.
X
Cross sectional area, A
Fig. 2.1 Thermal Conduction
The rate of heat transfer is given by Fouriers law of conduction:
( ) Q k
A
x
T T =
2 1
(2.1)
where

Q is the rate of heat transfer (Units, Js
-1
or W) and k is termed the thermal conductivity (Units, Wm
-1
K
-1
)
of the material. The negative sign is introduced such that the positive direction of heat transfer is from the
hotter to the cooler body. Values of conductivity for a number of materials are given in Table 2.1. Thermal
conductivities vary with temperature, but may usually be considered constant over moderate ranges of
temperature.
The Fourier equation is often expressed in differential form,
Q
A
q k
dT
dx
= = (2.2)
where the heat flux, q (Wm
-2
), is the heat transfer rate in the x direction per unit area perpendicular to the
direction of transfer.
T (K) 250 300 400 500 600 800
Aluminium 208 202 209 222 234 277
Copper 393 386 377 372 367 357
Steel (0.5% C) 57 55 52 48 45 38
Glass 0.8-1.1
Building brick 0.35-0.7
Concrete 0.9-1.4
Asbestos 0.163 0.194 0.206
Mercury,
liquid
7.5 8.1 9.4 10.7 12.8 13.7
Sodium, liquid 135 (sol.) 135 (sol.) 86 80 74 6.3
Water (sat.) 2.22 (ice) 0.614 0.687 0.642
Steam (sat.) 0.0184 0.0275 0.0432
Hydrogen 0.0156 0.182 0.228 0.272 0.315 0.402
Air 0.0223 0.0262 0.0337 0.0404 0.0466 0.0577
Table 2.1 Values of thermal conductivity, k, (Wm
-1
K
-1
)
2.2 Composite plane wall
For a plane wall of thickness, x, and wall temperatures, T
1
and T
2
, Eq. (2.1) applies. Now consider the flow of
energy through a composite wall comprising layers of materials o, |, and as shown in Fig. 2.2. For reasons of
continuity, the heat flow through successive layers must be the same. Applying Fouriers law:
( )
( )
( )
Q k
A
x
T T
k
A
x
T T
k
A
x
T T
=
=
=
o
o
|
|
2 1
3 2
4 3
(2.3)
These expressions are often inconvenient for determining

Q since the intermediate temperatures are unknown.
Indeed, it is more usual to invoke Eq. (2.3) in order to find intermediate temperatures for a known

Q , T
1
and
T
4.
A more useful expression may be obtained by noting:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) = T T T T T T T T
2 1 3 2 4 3 4 1
(2.4)
Therefore
( ) T T
Q
A
x
k
x
k
x
k
Q
x
kA
4 1
=
|
\
|
.
|
+
|
\
|
.
|
+
|
\
|
.
|
=
|
\
|
.
|
o |
(2.5)
or re-arranging,
( )
Q
T T
x
kA
=

|
\
|
.
|
4 1
(2.6)
This expression enables the heat transfer rate to be calculated from a knowledge of the two outer wall
temperatures and the properties of the materials involved.
The term
x
kA
(Units, K W
-1
) is often called the thermal resistance and Eq. (2.6) is analogous to Ohms law
(I=V/R). In the present case, three resistances are in series. The electrical analogy can be used to solve more
complex problems involving both series and parallel thermal resistances provided that the heat flow can be
assumed to be one dimensional.
Q
.
k k k
T T T T
1 2 3 4
o |

x x
x
o |

Fig. 2.2 Composite Wall
2.3 The Fluid/Solid Boundary layer
Frequently, it is required to calculate the heat
flow through a wall separating two fluids of
known temperature when the surface
temperatures of the wall are unknown. The
temperature distribution near the boundary
between the wall and the fluid is shown in Fig.
2.3. Most of the temperature drop occurs in the
fluid boundary layer close to the wall. The actual
distribution depends on convection heat transfer
and is a function of the flow field.
Details of convection and the thermal boundary
layer are discussed later. At present, we
introduce Newtons law of cooling to express the
overall effect of convection.
( )
( )
Q hA T T
q h T T
w
w
=
=
or
(2.7)
where h (Units, Wm
-2
K
-1
) is the heat transfer coefficient or film coefficient, T
w
is the wall temperature and T
is the ambient fluid temperature (assumed < T

w
) and the negative sign is again invoked for a positive hot to
cold body energy transfer. Typical values of heat transfer coefficient. are given in Table 2.2.
Fluid
h (Wm
-2
K
-1
)
Flowing air 10 - 300
Flowing water 600 - 6000
Boiling water 3000 - 6000
Condensing water vapour 6000 -30000
Table 2.2 Typical values of heat transfer coefficient
2.4 Composite plane wall with thermal boundary layers
Consider the composite plane wall of Fig. 2.2 but with the inclusion of thermal boundary layers as shown in
Fig. 2.4. An example of this would be the flow of heat from the air in a warm room through a composite wall of
plaster, insulation and brick to cooler external air. At either side of the wall would be a fluid film with an
associated heat transfer coefficient (h). Equation (2.3)
becomes
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
Q h A T T
k
A
x
T T
k
A
x
T T
k
A
x
T T
h A T T
a a
b b
=
=
=
=
=
1
2 1
3 2
4 3
4
o
o
|
|
(2.8)
A h A k
x
A k
x
A k
x
A h
b a
1 1
|
|
o
o
Fig. 2.3 Convective boundary layer
Q
.
k k k
T T T T
1 2 3 4
o |

h
a
h
b
T
b
T
a
Equations (2.5) and (2.6) becomes
( ) T T
Q
A h
x
k
x
k
x
k h
Q
x
kA hA
b a
a b
= +
|
\
|
.
|
+
|
\
|
.
|
+
|
\
|
.
|
+
=
|
\
|
.
|
+

`
)

1 1 1
o |
(2.9)
and
( )
Q
T T
x
kA hA
b a
=

|
\
|
.
|
+

`
)

1
(2.10)
This expression enables the heat transfer rate to be calculated from a knowledge of the two bulk fluid
temperatures and the properties of the materials involved.
1
hA
is a convection thermal resistance in series

with resistances due to conduction. Equation (2.10) is often written as
( )
Q UA T T
b a
= (2.11)
where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient, given by
1 1
U h
x
k
= +

(2.12)
and the overall thermal resistance is given by
1 1
UA hA
x
kA
= +

(2.13)
2.5 Heat transfer through cylindrical tubes
Consider the heat transfer in the radial direction through the tube shown in Fig. 2.5.
T
2
T
1
Q
.
dr
r
2
r
1
dT
L
For an element, dr, at radius r, by Fouriers Law,
( )
Q k A
dT
dr
k r
dT
dr
=
= 2t
(2.14)
Therefore, for the whole cylinder
Q
dr
r
k dT
r
r
T
T
1
2
1
2
2
} }
= t
or

( )
ln( / )
Q
k T T
r r
=
2
2 1
2 1
t
(2.15)
Note: a thin walled tube may be treated as a case of plane heat conduction, ( )
Q k
r
r
T T =
2
2 1
t
A
2.6 Composite tube with thermal boundary
layer
The heat transfer through a composite tube, e.g. a tube with an
insulating wrapper, may be considered in similar fashion to that in
Section 2.4. Consider the composite tube shown in Fig. 2.6.
From Eq. (2.15)
( )
ln( / )
Q
k T T
r r
=

=
2
2 1
2 1
t
o

etc.
similarly for a thin boundary layer,
( )
Q h r T T
a a
= = 2
1 1
t etc.
hence
T T
Q
r h
r r
k
r r
k r h
b a
a b
= + + +
ln( / ) ln( / )
1
2 2 2
1
2
1
2 1 3 2
3
t t t t
o |
(2.16)
or ( )
' Q U T T
b a
= (2.17)
where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient per unit length of tube, as given by
( ) 1 1
2 2 U rh
r r
k
o i
'
ln
= +

t t
where r
o
, r
i
are the outer and inner radii of each layer of the tube/lagging.
r
1
r
2 r
3
h
i
h
o
T
o
T
i
T
i
T
1
T
2 T
3
T
o
Summary
Conduction Convection
dx
dT
A k Q =
( )
w
T T hA Q =

resistance thermal Total

difference e Temperatur
= Q
kA
dx
dT
Q =
( )
1
hA
T T
Q
w
Note: You will not be given the above equations on the examination
________________________________________________________
Composite walls Composite cylinders
( )
Q
T T
x
kA hA
b a
=

|
\
|
.
|
+

`
)

1
( )
+
|
.
|
\
|

=

hA k
r
r
T T
Q
i
o
i o
1
2
ln
, ,
t
Note: You will not be given the left hand equation on the examination. The right hand equation will either be
given, or you will be asked to derive it.
3 General three dimensional heat-conduction equation
In previous sections, only one-dimensional heat transfer was considered. The temperature was assumed to vary
only in the direction of heat flow. In many situations, heat flows in three dimensions and unsteady conditions
may apply. (e.g. the heat transfer in the corner of a furnace wall during warm up.). In these situations, we wish
to know the temperature distribution. Once this distribution is known, the heat flux at any point in the medium
may be computed from Fouriers law.
Consider the volume element (dx, dy, dz) in
Cartesian co-ordinates shown in Fig. 3.1. The
flow of heat into this volume will be considered
as well as internal heat generation due to , for
example, an electric current or nuclear reaction.
Energy conservation demands that
dQ dQ dQ
s c g

= + (3.1)
where dQ
s
is the rate of heat stored (enthalpy

change) as a result of a temperature rise, dQ
c
is
the rate of heat conducted into the element and
dQ
g
is the rate of heat generated within.

a) conduction
The rate of heat inflow in the x direction, that is,
through the left-hand face (dy, dz) is ( ) dQ dy dz k
T
x
x
=
|
\
|
.
|
c
c
(3.2)
and the outflow from the right-hand face is
( ) dQ dy dz k
T
x x
k
T
x
dx
x dx
+
= +
|
\
|
.
|

`
)
c
c
c
c
c
c
(3.3)
(Note: the expression for the derivative at x + dx has been written in the form of a Taylor-series expansion with
only the first two terms of the series employed for the development). Similar equations can be obtained for the
y and z directions. Thus:
( ) dQ dx dz k
T
y
y
=
|
\
|
.
|
c
c
(3.4)
( ) dQ dx dz k
T
y y
k
T
y
dy
y dy
+
= +
|
\
|
.
|

`
)
c
c
c
c
c
c
(3.5)
( ) dQ dx dy k
T
z
z
=
|
\
|
.
|
c
c
(3.6)
( ) dQ dx dy k
T
z z
k
T
z
dz
z dz
+
= +
|
\
|
.
|

`
)
c
c
c
c
c
c
(3.7)
Therefore, the net rate of inflow by conduction is
( ) ( ) ( )
dQ dQ dQ dQ dQ dQ dQ
c x x dx y y dy z z dz

= + +
+ + +
(3.8)
Substituting Eqs. (3.2) to (3.7) into (3.8) gives
( ) dQ
x
k
T
x y
k
T
y z
k
T
z
dx dy dz
c
=
|
\
|
.
|
+
|
\
|
.
|
+
|
\
|
.
|

`
)
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
(3.9)
b) Heat generated within
If q
g
is the rate of heat generated per unit volume, the total heat generated in the volume element is
( ) dQ q dx dy dz
g g
= (3.10)
c) Stored energy
Finally, the rate of increase of stored energy is given by
( ) ( ) dQ c dx dy dz
T
t
c
k
k dx dy dz
T
t
s p
p
=
|
\
|
.
| =
|
\
|
.
|
|
\
|
.
|
c
c

c
c
(3.11)
Substituting (3.9) (3.10) and (3.11) into (3.1) gives
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
k
k
T
t x
k
T
x y
k
T
y z
k
T
z
q
p
g
|
\
|
.
|
|
\
|
.
| =
|
\
|
.
| +
|
\
|
.
| +
|
\
|
.
|
+ (3.12)
For constant thermal conductivity Eq. (3.12) is written
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
o
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
T
t
T
x
T
y
T
z
q
k
g |
\
|
.
|
= + + +

(3.13)
where o = k c
p
/ is called the thermal diffusivity (Units m
2
s
-1
) of the material. The larger the value of o, the
faster heat will diffuse through the material.
Equation (3.13) is the general three dimensional heat-conduction equation. It may be transformed into
cylindrical or spherical co-ordinates by standard calculus techniques. The results are:
Cylindrical Coordinates
k
q
z
T T
r r
T
r t
T g
+ + + =
|
|
.
|
\
|
2
2
2
2
2 2
2
1 1 1
c
c
| c
c
c
c
c
c
o
(3.14)
Spherical Coordinates
( ) 1 1 1 1
2
2 2 2 2
2
2
o
c
c
c
c u
c
cu
u
c
cu u
c
c|
T
t r
rT
r r
T
r
T
q
k
g |
\
|
.
|
= +
|
\
|
.
|
+ +
sin
sin
sin
(3.15)
Analytical solutions of Eqs. (3.13) to (3.15) are available for a number of cases. Two are considered here.
3.1 Flat plate with heat source
Consider a flat of thickness, 2L, shown in Fig. 3.3. Assume that its length and breadth are much larger than its
thickness, such that heat transfer can be considered as one dimensional. The heat generated per unit volume is
q
g
and it is assumed that the thermal conductivity is constant. (This situation might arise by passing an electric
current through a conductor.) For one-dimensional steady state
heat flow, Eq. (3.13) becomes
c
c
2
2
0
T
x
q
k
g
+ =
(3.16)
The general solution to Eq. (3.16) is
T
q
k
x C x C
g
= + +
2
2
1 2
(3.17)
The boundary conditions are:
T = T
w
at x = L (3.18)
therefore C
1
= 0.
Let the centre temperature equal T
o
. Therefore, C
2
= T
o
T T
q
k
x
T T
T T
x
L
g
w
=
=
|
\
|
.
|
0
2
0
0
2
2
or
(3.19)
The centre temperature is obtained from the energy balance: heat generated = heat lost
2 2
(
(
|
\
|
.
| =
=
kA
dT
dx
q A L
x L
g
(3.20)
where A is the cross-sectional area (length times breadth). The temperature gradient at the wall is obtained by
differentiating Eq. (3.19)
( ) ( )
dT
dx
T T
x
L
T T
L
x L
w
x L
w
(
(
=
|
\
|
.
|
(
(
=
= =
0 2 0
2 2
(3.21)
Substitute Eq. (3.21) into (3.20)
( ) = k T T
L
q L
w g 0
2
(3.22)
and
w
g
T
k
L q
T + =
2
2
0
(3.23)
T
0
T
w
T
w
X=0
q
g
2L
.
3.2 Steady-state two-dimensional heat conduction
For steady-state two dimensional heat flow with no internal heat generation, Eq. (3.13) becomes
c
c
c
c
2
2
2
2
0
T
x
T
y
+ = (3.24)
Consider the flat plate shown in Fig. 3.4. Three
sides of the plate are maintained at a constant
temperature T
1
, and the upper side has a sine-
wave distribution with a peak amplitude of T
2
.
We require the temperature distribution within
the plate, T(x,y), but to simplify the solution we
introduce the transformation
u T T
1
(3.25)
Substituting Eq. (3.25) into (3.24) gives
c u
c
c u
c
2
2
2
2
0
x y
+ =
The boundary conditions are
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
|
.
|
\
|
= =
= =
W
x
T W x y L
x y
t
u u
u u
sin , and 0 ,
0 0 , and 0 , 0
2
The solution is derived in the Appendix to Section 4 and is available on the WWW. Prior to substitution of the
final boundary condition, the result is a Fourier series
( )

=
|
.
|
\
|
=
1
sinh sin ,
n
n
L
y n
L
x n
C y x
t t
u (3.33)
To determine C
n
we apply the final boundary condition
( )

=
|
.
|
\
|
= =
1
2
sinh sin sin ,
n
n
L
W n
L
x n
C
L
x
T W x
t t t
u (3.34)
which requires that C
n
= 0 for n > 1 and that C T
n W
L
n
=
|
\
|
.
|
2
sinh
t
for n = 1. The final solution is
L
x
L
W
L
y
T T T
t
t
t
u sin
sinh
sinh
2 1
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
= = (3.35)
W
L
T=T
1
T=T
1
T=T
1
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
L
x
T T T
t
sin
2 1

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MECH 3495 ThermoFluids Heat Transfer 1

Z:\mecheng\teaching\mech3495\heat transfer\lecture notes\1_Conduction_2010-2011.doc

is the ambient fluid temperature (assumed < T

is a convection thermal resistance in series

resistance thermal Total

is the rate of heat stored (enthalpy

is the rate of heat generated within.

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