1hree LeLLers lrom 1eddy

by LllzabeLh Sllance 8allard

!ean 1hompson sLood ln fronL of her flfLhgrade class on LhaL flrsL day of school ln Lhe lall and Lold Lhe chlldren a lle

Llke mosL Leachers she looked aL her puplls saylng she loved each of Lhem Lhe same LhaL she would LreaL Lhem all allke 8uL
LhaL was lmposslble for Lhere ln fronL of her slumped ln hls Lhlrd row seaL was a llLLle boy named 1eddy SLoddard

Mrs 1hompson had waLched 1eddy Lhe year before and noLlced he dldn'L play well wlLh Lhe oLher chlldren LhaL hls cloLhes
were unkempL and LhaL he consLanLly needed a baLh And 1eddy was unpleasanL lL goL Lo Lhe polnL durlng Lhe flrsL few monLhs
LhaL she would acLually Lake dellghL ln marklng hls papers wlLh a broad red pen maklng bold x's and Lhen hlghllghLlng Lhe l aL
Lhe Lop of Lhe paper

8ecause 1eddy was a sullen llLLle boy no one else seemed Lo en[oy hlm elLher AL Lhe school where Mrs 1hompson LaughL she
was requlred Lo revlew each chlld's records and delayed 1eddy's unLll lasL She opened hls flle and found a surprlse

Pls flrsLgrade Leacher had wrlLLen and l quoLe 1eddy ls a brlghL lnqulslLlve chlld wlLh a ready laugh Pe does hls work neaLly
and has good manners Pe ls a [oy Lo be around

Pls secondgrade Leacher had penned 1eddy ls an excellenL sLudenL wellllked by all hls classmaLes buL he ls Lroubled
because hls moLher has a Lermlnal lllness and llfe aL home musL be a sLruggle

Pls Lhlrdgrade Leacher had noLed 1eddy conLlnues Lo work hard buL hls moLher's deaLh has been hard on hlm Pe Lrles Lo do
hls besL buL hls faLher doesn'L show much lnLeresL and hls home llfe wlll soon affecL hlm lf some sLeps aren'L Laken

1eddy's fourLhgrade Leacher had commenLed 1eddy ls wlLhdrawn and doesn'L show much lnLeresL ln school Pe doesn'L have
many frlends and ofLen falls asleep ln class Pe ls Lardy and could become a more serlous problem

8y now Mrs 1hompson reallzed Lhe exLenL of Lhe problem buL ChrlsLmas was comlng fasL lL was all she could do wlLh Lhe
school play and all unLll Lhe day before Lhe holldays began and she was suddenly forced Lo focus agaln on 1eddy SLoddard

Per chlldren broughL her presenLs all ln beauLlful rlbbon and brlghL paper excepL 1eddy's whlch was clumslly wrapped ln Lhe
heavy brown paper of a sclssored grocery bag

Mrs 1hompson Look palns Lo open lL ln Lhe mlddle of Lhe oLher presenLs Some of Lhe chlldren sLarLed Lo laugh when she found
a rhlnesLone braceleL wlLh some of Lhe sLones mlsslng and a boLLle LhaL was onequarLer full of cologne She sLlfled Lhe
chlldren's laughLer as she exclalmed how preLLy Lhe braceleL was puLLlng lL on and dabblng some of Lhe perfume behlnd her
wrlsL

1eddy SLoddard sLayed behlnd afLer class [usL long enough Lo say Mrs 1hompson Loday you smelled [usL llke my mom used
Lo

AfLer Lhe chlldren lefL she crled for aL leasL an hour Cn LhaL very day she qulL Leachlng 8eadlng WrlLlng and Speaklng
lnsLead she began Lo Leach Chlldren !ean 1hompson pald very parLlcular aLLenLlon Lo one Lhey all called 1eddy As she
worked wlLh hlm hls mlnd seemed Lo come allve 1he more she encouraged hlm Lhe fasLer he responded Cn Lhe days when
Lhere would be an lmporLanL LesL Mrs 1hompson would remember LhaL cologne

8y Lhe end of Lhe year he had become one of Lhe hlghesL achlevlng chlldren ln Lhe class and well he had also somewhaL
become Lhe peL of LhaL Leacher who had once vowed Lo love all of her chlldren exacLly Lhe same

A year laLer she found a noLe under her door from 1eddy Lelllng her LhaL of all Lhe Leachers he'd had ln elemenLary school she
was hls favorlLe

Slx years wenL by before she goL anoLher noLe from 1eddy Pe Lhen wroLe LhaL he had flnlshed hlgh school Lhlrd ln hls class
and she was sLlll hls favorlLe Leacher of all Llme

lour years laLer she goL anoLher leLLer saylng LhaL whlle Lhlngs had been Lough aL Llmes he'd sLayed ln school had sLuck wlLh
lL and would graduaLe from college wlLh Lhe hlghesL of honorsPe assured Mrs 1hompson she was sLlll hls favorlLe Leacher

lour more years passed and yeL anoLher leLLer came 1hls Llme he explalned LhaL afLer he goL hls bachelor's degree he declded
Lo go a llLLle furLher 1he leLLer explalned LhaL she was sLlll hls favorlLe Leacher buL LhaL now hls name was a llLLle longer 1he
leLLer was slgned 1heodore l SLoddard Mu

1he sLory doesn'L end Lhere lor Lhere was yeL anoLher leLLer LhaL sprlng 1eddy sald he'd meL Lhls glrl and was Lo be marrled
Pe explalned LhaL hls faLher had dled a couple of years ago and he was wonderlng lf Mrs1hompson mlghL agree Lo slL ln Lhe
pew usually reserved for Lhe moLher of Lhe groom

And on LhaL speclal day !ean 1hompson wore LhaL braceleL Lhe one wlLh Lhe rhlnesLones mlsslng And on LhaL speclal day !ean
1hompson smelled Lhe way 1eddy remembered hls moLher smelllng on Lhelr lasL ChrlsLmas LogeLher

1hey hugged each oLher and ur SLoddard whlspered ln Mrs 1hompson's ear 1hank you Mrs 1hompson for bellevlng ln me
1hank you so much for maklng me feel lmporLanL and showlng me LhaL l could make a dlfference

Mrs 1hompson wlLh Lears ln her eyes whlspered back She sald 1eddy you have lL all wrong ?ou were Lhe one who LaughL
me LhaL l could make a dlfference l dldn'L know how Lo Leach unLll l meL you

A|ternat|ve educat|on also known as nontrad|t|ona| educat|on or educat|ona| a|ternat|ve lncludes a number of approaches
LoLeachlng and learnlng oLher Lhan malnsLream or LradlLlonal educaLlon LducaLlonal alLernaLlves are ofLen rooLed ln
varlous phllosophles LhaL are fundamenLally dlfferenL from Lhose of malnsLream or LradlLlonal educaLlon Whlle some have
sLrong pollLlcal scholarly or phllosophlcalorlenLaLlons oLhers are more lnformal assoclaLlons of Leachers and sLudenLs
dlssaLlsfled wlLh some aspecL of malnsLream or LradlLlonal educaLlon LducaLlonal alLernaLlves whlch lnclude charLer
schools alLernaLlve schools lndependenL schools and homebased learnlng vary wldely buL ofLen emphaslze Lhe value of small
class slze close relaLlonshlps beLween sLudenLs and Leachers and a sense of communlLy A|ternat|ve educat|on also known
as nontrad|t|ona| educat|on or educat|ona| a|ternat|ve lncludes a number of approaches LoLeachlng and learnlng oLher Lhan
malnsLream or LradlLlonal educaLlon LducaLlonal alLernaLlves are ofLen rooLed ln varlous phllosophles LhaL are fundamenLally
dlfferenL from Lhose of malnsLream or LradlLlonal educaLlon Whlle some have sLrong pollLlcal scholarly
or phllosophlcalorlenLaLlons oLhers are more lnformal assoclaLlons of Leachers and sLudenLs dlssaLlsfled wlLh some aspecL of
malnsLream or LradlLlonal educaLlon LducaLlonal alLernaLlves whlch lnclude charLer schools alLernaLlve schools lndependenL
schools and homebased learnlng vary wldely buL ofLen emphaslze Lhe value of small class slze close relaLlonshlps beLween
sLudenLs and Leachers and a sense of communlLy A|ternat|ve educat|on also known as nontrad|t|ona|
educat|on or educat|ona| a|ternat|ve lncludes a number of approaches LoLeachlng and learnlng oLher Lhan malnsLream
or LradlLlonal educaLlon LducaLlonal alLernaLlves are ofLen rooLed ln varlous phllosophles LhaL are fundamenLally dlfferenL from
Lhose of malnsLream or LradlLlonal educaLlon Whlle some have sLrong pollLlcal scholarly or phllosophlcalorlenLaLlons oLhers
are more lnformal assoclaLlons of Leachers and sLudenLs dlssaLlsfled wlLh some aspecL of malnsLream or LradlLlonal educaLlon
LducaLlonal alLernaLlves whlch lnclude charLer schools alLernaLlve schools lndependenL schools and homebased
learnlng vary wldely buL ofLen emphaslze Lhe value of small class slze close relaLlonshlps beLween sLudenLs and Leachers and
a sense of communlLy

1ermlnology
CLher words used ln place of oltetootlve by many educaLlonal professlonals lnclude ooottoJltloool ooocooveotloool or ooo
stooJotJlzeJ alLhough Lhese Lerms are used somewhaL less frequenLly and may have negaLlve connoLaLlons and mulLlple
meanlngs 1hose lnvolved ln forms of educaLlon whlch dlffer ln Lhelr educaLlonal phllosophy (as opposed Lo Lhelr lnLended pupll
base) ofLen use words such as ootbeotlc bollstlc and ptoqtesslve as well Powever Lhese words each have dlfferenL meanlngs
whlch are more speclflc or more amblguous Lhan Lhe Lermoltetootlve
edlLCrlglns
Whlle pedagoglcal conLroversy ls very old alLernaLlve educaLlon presupposes some klnd of orLhodoxy Lo whlch Lhe
alLernaLlve ls opposed ln general Lhls llmlLs Lhe Lerm Lo Lhe lasL Lwo or perhaps Lhree cenLurles wlLh Lhe rlse of sLandardlzed
and laLer compulsory educaLlon aL Lhe prlmary and secondary levels Many crlLlcs ln Lhls perlod have suggesLed LhaL Lhe
educaLlon of young people should be underLaken ln radlcally dlfferenL ways Lhan ones ln pracLlce ln Lhe 19Lh cenLury
Lhe Swlss humanlLarlan !ohann Pelnrlch esLalozzl Lhe AmerlcanLranscendenLallsLs Amos 8ronson AlcoLL 8alph Waldo
Lmerson and Penry uavld 1horeau Lhe founders of progresslve educaLlon !ohn uewey and lrancls arker and educaLlonal
ploneers such as lrledrlch lrbel Marla MonLessorl and 8udolf SLelner (founder of Lhe Waldorf schools) among oLhers all
lnslsLed LhaL educaLlon should be undersLood as Lhe arL of culLlvaLlng Lhe moral emoLlonal physlcalpsychologlcal
and splrlLual aspecLs of Lhe developlng chlld AnarchlsLs such as Leo 1olsLoy and lranclsco lerrer y Cuardla emphaslzed
educaLlon as a force for pollLlcal llberaLlon secularlsm and ellmlnaLlon of class dlsLlncLlons AfLer World War ll Lhe 8egglo
Lmllla approachwas developed ln lLaly ln Lhe Lown of LhaL name
More recenLly soclal crlLlcs such as !ohn Caldwell PolL aul Coodman lrederlck Mayer Ceorge uennlson and lvan llllch have
examlned educaLlon from more lndlvlduallsL anarchlsL and llberLarlan perspecLlves LhaL ls crlLlques of Lhe ways LhaL Lhey feel
convenLlonal educaLlon subverLs democracy by moldlng young peoples undersLandlngs
cltotloo oeeJeJ
CLher wrlLers from Lhe
revoluLlonary aulo lrelre Lo Amerlcan educaLors llke PerberL kohl and !onaLhan kozol have crlLlclzed malnsLream WesLern
educaLlon from Lhe vlewpolnL of Lhelr varled lefLllberaland radlcal pollLlcs 8on Mlller has ldenLlfled flve core elemenLs
common Lo many conLemporary educaLlonal alLernaLlves
1

8especL for every person
8alance
uecenLrallzaLlon of auLhorlLy
nonlnLerference beLween pollLlcal economlc and culLural spheres of socleLy
A hollsLlc worldvlew
edlLModern forms
A wlde varleLy of educaLlonal alLernaLlves exlsL aL Lhe elemenLary secondary and LerLlary levels of educaLlon 1hese generally
fall lnLo four ma[or caLegorles school cholce alLernaLlve school lndependenL school and homebased educaLlon 1hese
general caLegorles can be furLher broken down lnLo more speclflc pracLlces and meLhodologles
edlLchoo| cho|ce
,olo ottlcle 5cbool cbolce
1he publlc school opLlons lnclude enLlrely separaLe schools ln Lhelr own seLLlngs as well as classes programs and even seml
auLonomous schools wlLhln schools ubllc school cholce opLlons are open Lo all sLudenLs ln Lhelr communlLles Lhough some
have walLlng llsLs Among Lhese are charLer schools comblnlng prlvaLe lnlLlaLlves and sLaLe fundlng and magneL schools whlch
aLLracL sLudenLs Lo parLlcular Lhemes such as performlng arLs
edlLA|ternat|ve schoo|
,olo ottlcle Altetootlve scbool
An alLernaLlve school ls an educaLlonal esLabllshmenL wlLh a currlculum and meLhods LhaL are nonLradlLlonal
2

Many such schools were founded ln Lhe unlLed SLaLes ln Lhe 1970s as an alLernaLlve Lo malnsLream or LradlLlonal classroom
sLrucLure
3
A wlde range of phllosophles and Leachlng meLhods are offered by alLernaLlve schools some have sLrong pollLlcal
scholarly or phllosophlcal orlenLaLlons whlle oLhers are more oJboc assemblles of Leachers and sLudenLs dlssaLlsfled wlLh
some aspecL of malnsLream or LradlLlonal educaLlon ln 2003 Lhere were approxlmaLely 70 alLernaLlve schools ln Lhe unlLed
klngdom ln Lhe uk publlc fundlng ls noL avallable for alLernaLlve schools and Lherefore alLernaLlve schools are usually fee
paylng lnsLlLuLlons
4
ln Lhe uSA an lncreaslng number of publlc school sysLems are offerlng alLernaLlve sLreams (language
lmmerslon MonLessorl Waldorf) buL Lhe ma[orlLy of alLernaLlve schools are sLlll lndependenL and Lhus wlLhouL flnanclal
supporL from Lhe governmenL
ln addlLlon Lo schools provldlng an academlc alLernaLlve some sLaLes ln Lhe uS have esLabllshed alLernaLlve schools for
sLudenLs who have had dlsclpllnary or soclal challenges ln some sLaLes such schools are organlzed Lo have a sLrong punlLlve
aspecL emphaslzlng dlsclpllne and provlde a greaLly lnferlor educaLlon lL ls common ln Lhose sLaLes for chlldren found Lo be
dellnquenL by courLs Lo be senLenced Lo alLernaLlve school as a punlshmenL
3
lL ls also common ln Lhe unlLed SLaLes for publlc
school sysLems Lo operaLe alLernaLlve schools as a place Lo segregaLe speclal needs sLudenLs such as sLudenLs wlLh emoLlonal
dlsablllLles ln such cases Lhey are ofLen mlxed wlLh dellnquenLs
CerLaln alLernaLlve educaLlon lnlLlaLlves have been creaLed for AlLernaLlve Schools Lo help sLudenLs achleve 1hese programs are
found ln elLher separaLe alLernaLlve schools enLlrely or a separaLe school program wlLhln a malnsLream school
edlLA|ternat|ve Lducat|on of Atk|sk tudents and Drop Cut revent|on
AdvocaLes of programs deslgned Lo prevenL or dlscourage sLudenLs from leavlng school before Lhey graduaLe (usually from hlgh
school) belleve LhaL leavlng school wlLhouL a dlploma negaLlvely lmpacLs Lhe llves of lndlvlduals boLh Lhelr professlonal and
personal llves
rofesslonally lncome ls a dlrecL reflecLlon of educaLlonal aLLalnmenL and Lhe dlfference beLween Lhose who have obLalned a
dlploma or degree and Lhose who have noL ls large 1he average annual lncome of hlgh school dropouLs ln 2007 was $8338
whlle sLudenLs wlLh a hlgh school dlploma earned $14601 and Lhose wlLh a college degree accrued close Lo Lhree Llmes as
much ($24797)
6

1helr personal llves are also ln [eopardy because dropplng ouL of hlgh school correlaLes wlLh lncarceraLlon raLes When focuslng
on black males ln parLlcular around one ln 10 hlgh school dropouLs enLer Lhe prlson sysLem As a whole hlgh school dropouLs
were 63 Llmes more llkely Lo be lnsLlLuLlonallzed Lhan fouryear college graduaLes ln 20062007
7

AdvocaLes also argue LhaL lL has a negaLlve socleLal lmpacL 1he uS ls loslng economlc vlablllLy from havlng fewer educaLed
clLlzens lor example looklng aL a slngle sLaLe lmpacL Ceorgla loslng a LoLal of nearly $16 bllllon of llfeLlme earnlngs solely
from Lhe 61300 sLudenLs who dld noL graduaLe ln 2010
8

edlLoss|b|e Causes for Dropp|ng Cut
uaLa on deLermlnlng rlsk facLors can serve as predlcLlng varlables for sLudenLs dropplng ouL Moreover hlgh rlsk sLudenLs ln
alLernaLlve schools encounLer formldable challenges LhaL can furLher lncrease Lhelr rlsk llnn dlscusses rlsk facLors ln hls 1989
work WlLhdrawlng from School (as clLed by uynarskl Cleason 2002) Pe creaLes Lwo LheoreLlcal models ln hls aLLempL Lo
examlne Lhe reasons sLudenLs leave school wlLhouL hlgh school dlplomas ln hls frusLraLlonselfesLeem model" poor pasL
academlc performance leads Lo an lmpalred selfvlew" and negaLlve emoLlons caused by Lhls evenLually cause Lhe sLudenL
Lo leave school (uynarskl Cleason 2002 p 43)
CLher posslble causes have been examlned ln varlous sLudles Cleason and uynarksl clLed sLudles flndlng LhaL a sLudenL's famlly
lncomesocloeconomlc sLaLus and parenLal level of schoollng are correlaLed wlLh early school wlLhdrawal LlmlLed Lngllsh
ablllLy membershlp Lo a famlly whlch recelves welfare neglecL havlng careglvers wlLh drug addlcLlons oLher famlly members
dropplng ouL of school needlng Lo supporL famlly and personal safeLy lssues may also be correlaLed wlLh Lhe acL of leavlng
school wlLhouL a dlploma nonproflL organlzaLlons llke Lhe AssoclaLlon for Plgh School lnnovaLlon orlglnally Lhe AlLernaLlve
Plgh School lnlLlaLlve and ulploma lus lnc have developed as a response Lo Lhe growlng naLlonal Lrend of dlmlnlshlng
graduaLlon raLes especlally as Lhey lmpacLed Lhe unlLed SLaLes low lncome mlnorlLy youLh
edlLDrop Cut revent|on Methods
lndlvldual schools ln Lhe uS have Lrled Lo Lackle Lhe problem Lhrough Lhelr own program lnlLlaLlves 1hree LhaL have been used
and sLudled for success are Lhe Check ConnecL program Lhe Career Academles lnlLlaLlve and Lhe 1alenL uevelopmenL Plgh
School model

1he Check Connect rogram
1hls alLernaLlve ls a dropouL prevenLlon model LhaL was developed ln MlnnesoLa Lhrough a parLnershlp wlLh Lhe unlverslLy of
MlnnesoLa Lhe local publlc schools and communlLy servlce organlzaLlons lL was used ln Lhe Mlnneapolls publlc schools
speclflcally focuslng ln on sLudenLs wlLh learnlng emoLlonal and behavloral dlsablllLles
9
1he Check" porLlon palrs each
sLudenL wlLh a menLor deemed a monlLor" 1hls menLor flgure assesses aLLendance academlcs and overall performance wlLh
regular dlscusslons abouL Lwlce a monLh 1he ConnecL" aspecL uLlllzes Lhls lndlvlduallzed aLLenLlon Lo connecL Lhls sLudenL wlLh
school personnel famlly and communlLy servlce provlders LhaL can lnLervene Lo keep Lhe sLudenL on Lrack
10

ectlveoess A 1998 sLudy conducLed by Slnclalr and colleagues shows overall poslLlve effecLs on 94 hlgh school sLudenLs from
Mlnneapolls publlc schools ln Lhe Check ConnecL program 1he sLudy found LhaL sLudenLs enrolled ln Lhe program were
slgnlflcanLly less llkely Lo have dropped ouL of school afLer Lhe end of freshman year (9 compared wlLh 30) 1hls poslLlve
ouLcome remalned afLer Lhe flnal checkup aL Lhe end of senlor year39 of sLudenLs enrolled dropped ouL of hlgh school
compared Lo 38 of Lhose noL enrolled ln addlLlon Lo acLually sLaylng ln school Lhe sLudy also found Lhe sLudenLs' progress ln
school Lo be poslLlve as well Check ConnecL sLudenLs earned more course credlLs ln Lhelr nlghLgrade year Lhan non
lnLervenLlon sLudenLs
11

cost lcleocy Accordlng Lo Lhe uakoLa CounLy schools ln MlnnesoLa Lhe cosL of lmplemenLlng Lhe Check ConnecL program
ls around $1400 per sLudenL ln 20012002
12
1hls model ls very cosLlnefflclenL and now ln 2011 Lhe LoLal may even be
cosLller

1he Career Academ|es In|t|at|ve
1hls alLernaLlve lnLervenes Lo LargeL Lhe mosL aLrlsk sLudenLs 1he Career Academles ls a schoolwlLhlnaschool model wlLh a
careerLhemed approach Lo learnlng ueveloped 33 years ago Lhls alLernaLlve has evolved and around 2300 academles are
operaLed naLlonwlde
13
lL Lends Lo be found ln larger hlgh schools and helps creaLe a smaller communlLy by keeplng sLudenLs
wlLh Lhe same Leachers for Lhree or fours years of hlgh school 1he program requlres sLudenLs Lo Lake Lhe careerrelaLed
courses wlLh Lhe Academy" ln sub[ecLs such as flnance or Lechnology and even parLners wlLh local employers Lo offer
lnLernshlp opporLunlLles
14

ectlveoess A 2000 sLudy conducLed by kemple and Snlpes shows overall poslLlve effecLs for 1700 hlgh school sLudenLs ln
nlne dlfferenL Career Academles 1he sLudy found LhaL Lhe mosL aLrlsk sLudenLs parLlclpaLlng ln Lhe program produced
slgnlflcanLly fewer dropouLs (21 compared wlLh 32)
13
When assesslng progress ln school Lhe hlghrlsk sLudenLs earned
more credlLs by Lhelr senlor year and 40 had earned enough credlLs Lo graduaLe as opposed Lo only 23 of nonlnLervenLlon
sLudenLs posLlng poslLlve resulLs for Lhe program
cost lcleocy Accordlng Lo Lhe Callfornla arLnershlp Academles average cosL esLlmaLes for Lhe Career Academles
lnLervenLlon are $600 more per pupll Lhan Lhe average cosL for a nonAcademy sLudenL ln 2004
16
1hls flgure does noL lnclude
addlLlonal cosLs of lnLenslve servlces for hlghrlsk sLudenLs

1he 1a|ent Deve|opment n|gh choo| Mode|
1hls alLernaLlve was developed ln 1994 by 1he CenLer for 8esearch on Lhe LducaLlon of SLudenLs laced aL 8lsk and lnlLlaLed aL
aLLerson Plgh School ln 8alLlmore Maryland 1he 1alenL uevelopmenL Plgh School (1uPS) approach ls an enLlre reform
lnLervenLlon wlLh dropouL prevenLlon as one componenL lL lncludes breaklng Lhe larger hlgh school lnLo smaller learnlng
communlLles llke Career Academles buL ls more exLenslve
17
1here ls a separaLe nlnLh grade academy a career academy for
Lhe upper grades and an addlLlonal 1wlllghL School" afLerschool program for Lhose wlLh chronlc dlsclpllne and aLLendance
lssues 1hls model hones ln on reformlng sLudenLs' low expecLaLlons and schools' poor academlc preparaLlon Lhrough a college
preparaLory sequence ln nlnLh and LenLh grade as well as lncreased focus on Lngllsh and MaLh courses
18

ectlveoess A 2003 sLudy conducLed by kemple Perllhy and SmlLh whlch followed 30 cohorLs of parLlclpanLs for four years
ln hlladelphla ennsylvanla shows poslLlve effecLs of Lhe 1alenL uevelopmenL Plgh School (1uPS) model prlmarlly on
academlc progress 1he sLudy found LhaL sLudenLs uslng Lhls model earned more course credlLs over Lhe flrsL Lwo years of hlgh
school Lhan Lhose noL ln Lhe program (93 credlLs compared wlLh 86 credlLs) 1hese sLudenLs were also more llkely Lo move
onLo Lhe LenLh grade (68 compared wlLh 60)
19

cost lcleocy Accordlng Lo !ohns Popklns unlverslLy s CenLer for Lhe Soclal CrganlzaLlon of Schools (CSCS) Lhe developer of
Lhe lnlLlaLlve average cosLs for a sLudenL parLlclpaLlng ln Lhe 1alenL uevelopmenL Plgh School model run an addlLlonal $330 a
year per sLudenL 1hls esLlmaLe lncludes Lhe cosL of maLerlals and ongolng Lechnlcal asslsLance
20

1hese are [usL Lhree of many posslble alLernaLlve educaLlon models Lo help aLrlsk sLudenLs

1he maLLer has also galned naLlonal aLLenLlon Cn March 1 2010 resldenL 8arack Cbama called on sLaLes Lo ldenLlfy and focus
on schools wlLh graduaLlon raLes below 60 percenL 1hose dlsLrlcLs could be ellglble for federal ald as hls budgeL proposal
lncludes $900 mllllon ln school Lurnaround granLs on Lop of $33 bllllon ln federal dollars Lhe admlnlsLraLlon has commlLLed Lo
perslsLenLly lowperformlng schools WlLh respecL Lo keeplng sLudenLs engaged and onLrack Lo graduaLlon speclflcally he
commlLLed $30 mllllon Lo Lhe CraduaLlon romlse lund
21

opu|ar educat|on
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conLlnued LhroughouL Lhe 20Lh cenLury such as Lhe folk hlgh schools ln Scandlnavlan counLrles or Lhe popular unlverslLles ln
lrance
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lndependenL or prlvaLe schools have more flexlblllLy ln sLaff selecLlon and educaLlonal approach 1he mosL plenLlful of Lhese
are MonLessorl schools Waldorf schools (Lhe laLLer are also called SLelner schools afLer Lhelr founder) and lrlends schools
CLher lndependenL schools lnclude democraLlc or free schools such as Sands School Summerhlll School and Sudbury valley
School krlshnamurLl schools open classroom schools Lhose based on experlenLlal educaLlon as well as schools whlch Leach
uslng lnLernaLlonal currlculum such as LhelnLernaLlonal 8accalaureaLe and 8ound Square schools An lncreaslng number of
LradlLlonally lndependenL school forms now also exlsL wlLhln sLaLerun publlc educaLlon Lhls ls especlally Lrue of
Lhe Waldorf and MonLessorl schools 1he ma[orlLy of lndependenL schools offer aL leasL parLlal scholarshlps
5ee olso llst o ltleoJs 5cbools llst o 5oJboty scbools ooJ llst o wolJot 5cbools
nomeschoo||ng
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lamllles who seek alLernaLlves based on educaLlonal phllosophlcal or rellglous reasons or lf Lhere appears Lo be no nearby
educaLlonal alLernaLlve can declde Lo have homebased educaLlon Some call Lhemselves unschoolers for Lhey follow an
approach based on lnLeresL raLher Lhan a seL currlculum CLhers enroll ln umbrella schools whlch provlde a currlculum Lo
follow Many choose Lhls alLernaLlve for rellglousbased reasons buL pracLlLloners of homebased educaLlon are of all
backgrounds and phllosophles
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Lhey meeL as ofLen as flve or more days a week buL Lhelr members all conslder Lhemselves homeeducaLed ln some sLaLes
publlcly run school dlsLrlcLshave seL up programs for homeschoolers whereby Lhey are consldered enrolled and have access Lo
school resources and faclllLles
cltotloo oeeJeJ

Also many LradlLlonal schools have lncorporaLed meLhods orlglnally found only ln alLernaLlve educaLlon lnLo Lhelr general
approach so Lhe llne beLween alLernaLlve and malnsLream educaLlon ls conLlnually becomlng more blurred

AlLernaLlve LducaLlon rograms
Contact Us
Chelsle Mann
Lmall cmann[doelngov
hone 3172329137
AlLernaLlve LducaLlon ls deslgned Lo meeL Lhe needs of aLrlsk sLudenLs who are noL succeedlng ln Lhe LradlLlonal seLLlng
SLudenLs are provlded wlLh a varleLy of opLlons LhaL can lead Lo graduaLlon and are supporLed by servlces for Lhe sLudenL and
Lhelr lmmedlaLe famlly LhaL are essenLlal Lo success Whlle each of lndlana's alLernaLlve educaLlon programs ls unlque Lhey
share characLerlsLlcs ldenLlfled ln Lhe research as common Lo successful alLernaLlve schools
Maxlmum Leacher/sLudenL raLlo of 113
Small sLudenL base
Clearly sLaLed mlsslon and dlsclpllne code
Carlng faculLy wlLh conLlnual sLaff developmenL
School sLaff havlng hlgh expecLaLlons for sLudenL achlevemenL
Learnlng program speclflc Lo Lhe sLudenLs expecLaLlons and learnlng sLyle
llexlble school schedule wlLh communlLy lnvolvemenL and supporL
1oLal commlLmenL Lo have each sLudenL be a success
AlLernaLlve educaLlon Lypes lnclude buL are noL llmlLed Lo alLernaLlve classrooms schoolwlLhlnaschool programmlng
separaLe alLernaLlve schools and second or lasLchance schools for dlsrupLlve sLudenLs !usL as Lhere are many Lypes and
seLLlngs for alLernaLlve schools Lhere are many dellvery models based on Lhe programs' phllosophy and Lhe needs of Lhe
sLudenLs Lhey serve Some follow a school communlLy parLnershlp model LhaL feaLures collaboraLlon wlLh Lhe larger
communlLy CLhers may comblne academlcs wlLh a vocaLlonal lnLervenLlon LhaL focuses on maklng school meanlngful whlle
preparlng sLudenLs for Lhe workforce SLlll oLhers employ a behavloral lnLervenLlon model ln lndlana Lhe programs and models
deslgned Lo meeL Lhe needs of dlsaffecLed youLh are as dlverse as Lhe sLudenLs Lhemselves uesplLe Lhls dlverslLy however all
alLernaLlve educaLlon programs are held accounLable for helplng sLudenLs masLer Lhe lndlana Academlc SLandards and musL
comply wlLh educaLlonal laws and rules or seek approprlaLe walvers ln 1997 Lhe leglslaLure passed alLernaLlve educaLlon
leglslaLlon and funded lL so LhaL school corporaLlons could obLaln up Lo $730 per fullLlme equlvalenL sLudenL Lo cover
addlLlonal expenses lnherenL ln alLernaLlve educaLlon 1o quallfy as an alLernaLlve educaLlon program Lhe program musL be an
educaLlonal program for ellglble sLudenLs LhaL lnsLrucLs Lhe ellglble sLudenLs ln a dlfferenL manner Lhan Lhe manner of
lnsLrucLlon avallable ln a LradlLlonal school seLLlng 1o obLaln alLernaLlve educaLlon fundlng based on Lhe formula esLabllshed
ln Lhe leglslaLlon publlc school corporaLlons musL
SubmlL an approved granL for an lndlvldual or [olnL program
Serve ellglble sLudenLs Lllglble sLudenLs are sLudenLs who
lnLend Lo wlLhdraw or havewlLhdrawn from school before graduaLlon
Pave falled Lo comply academlcally and would beneflL from lnsLrucLlon offered ln a manner dlfferenL from Lhe manner of
lnsLrucLlon avallable ln a LradlLlonal school
SLudenL ls a parenL or an expecLanL parenL and ls unable Lo regularly aLLend Lhe LradlLlonal school program
SLudenL ls employed and Lhe employmenL ls necessary for supporL and lnLerferes wlLh a parL of sLudenLs lnsLrucLlonal day
SLudenL ls dlsrupLlve (as deflned ln lC 201014616)
uevelop wrlLLen lndlvldual servlce plans
Lmploy Lhe Leachers provldlng Lhe academlc lnsLrucLlon
ConducL program sesslons for a mlnlmum of Lwo hours

The Nature of the Learning Process
Dear Folks,
Our reading project continues with the pamphlet The Nature of the Learning Process.
"Human intelligence consists oI an ability to respond to each new environmental
situation with a new precise response, Iormulated Irom the similarities and diIIerences
oI the present situation to and Irom past experiences, and to Iile the new inIormation
Irom the present event in a Iorm usable Ior evaluating and responding to Iuture
events." From The Nature of the Learning Process. By Harvey Jackins.
Reclaiming our complete intelligence is a central issue Ior every co-counsellor and is
certainly achievable with discharge.
The Nature of the Learning Process can be used in at least two signiIicant ways to
remind us oI how naturally intelligent we all are and to encourage us to discharge the
distress that is in our way oI noticing this and acting on it. We also get to remember
the brilliance oI our students and the nature oI how we learn as we plan and teach our
RC Iundamentals and on-going classes.
Some suggestions Ior minis/think and listens as we read The Nature of the Learning
Process in our groups are:
O Scanning pleasant memories oI school and learning
O %hings we learned well when we were young
O %imes when we were supported to learn
O %hings we wanted our teachers to do that would have made learning easier
and/or more Iun
O &nderstatements that remind you oI your complete brilliance or ability to learn
anything you want to learn

What is meant by the phrase the learner is an embodied spirit?
All the progeny of God the Father are intelligences endowed with a spirit body that serves as a means of enabling
the intelligence to progress in the acquisition of knowledge, intelligence and experience while living in the direct
presence of our Heavenly Father. The spirit family of man as well as the family of man in the flesh are so
constructed that obedience to the Law of Eternal Progression (elaborated above) while not effortless is a natural
part of our existence. This spirit body is composed of a material so refined that the spirit body is an eternal body
and incorruptible. It was necessary to acquire this body so that the intelligence that possessed it could exist in the
presence of The Father and His Beloved Son and make progress in that sphere. There came a point in our life there
that each of us could not progress further unless we took upon us a body of flesh and blood and came to Earth to
experience mortality with all its joy, love, challenges, disappointments, etc. That is, life in the mortal sphere tests
us against adversity in a way that cannot be accomplished in any other way. Thus, an embodied spirit is an
intelligence that possesses both a spirit body and a mortal body of flesh and blood. Because the mortal body is
made of the "dust of the earth", it is corruptible, I.e., sooner or later it will be no longer able to sustain life and it
will, "crumble to its Mother Earth (Physical Death) and return to the dust as it decays, while the spirit goes back to
God the Father and Jesus Christ where a partial judgment is rendered and that spirit, if righteous is sent to
paradise and if not to Spirit prison to continue to make choices and progress. Thus a disembodied spirit is an
intelligence which possesses a spirit body with no mortal body and therefore because of a of lack of a mortal body
it cannot access anything in the physical world. Because of this, lacking a physical body results in the disembodied
spirit having far fewer choices available compared to the embodied spirit. It is also much easier to repent of your
sins when you are in possession of the physical body. However, both types of beings are capable of learning in the
respective spheres in which they exist.
The followers of Satan (one-third of Heavenly Father's spirit children) were cast out of heaven down to earth
without mortal bodies; therefore they are all disembodied spirits. They will never have the opportunity to possess
mortal bodies and their reward for not following God's Plan of Happiness from the beginning is that they will have
no claim at all on salvation to any degree and therefore will be cast into Outer Darkness in the end. At present they
exist all around us to tempt us and to try us which is part of the purpose of mortality, that is, to see if we will keep
God's commandments while living away from His direct presence.

Diversity of Learners' Ways of Knowing
Learners in any one of the three research settings in which we gathered data (see page 3 for a description of the
study) were primarily of similar age and oriented to a common and particular social role (e.g., at one site, all
participants were parents, at another, all participants were workers). We nevertheless discovered a diversity in
learners' ways of knowing in each site. At the same time, the learners demonstrated a range of ways of knowing
similar to the range found in previous studies with samples of native English-speaking adults with similarly
widespread socioeconomic status (see e.g., Kegan, 1994). For example, at each of our research sites, an
Instrumental way of knowing was dominant for at least one learner. At each of the sites, Self-Authoring ways of
knowing were dominant for several learners. At all three sites, the majority of learners demonstrated some degree
of a Socializing way of knowing (a person can have two ways of knowing operating at the same time). Instrumental
knowers tend toward a concrete, external, and transactive orientation to the world; Socializing knowers identify
self through its relation to other persons or ideas; and Self-Authoring knowers take responsibility for and
ownership of their own internal authority. The differences in complexity of learners' ways of knowing were not
highly associated with level of formal education. That is, some learners with limited formal education nonetheless
demonstrated developmentally complex ways of knowing.
Interesting similarities and patterns emerged both within and across sites that illuminate how learners bound by a
particular way of knowing commonly understood their program learning experiences, themselves as students,
teacher expectations, and their social roles. Adults of markedly different ages, from very different cultures, and
from different parts of the world shared these commonalities. Furthermore, people of similar ages or from similar
cultural backgrounds were sometimes differentiated by very different ways of knowing. Hence a "new pluralism"
of significance for the teacher emerges: that of developmental level. %ables1 and 2 illustrate how, across all
three sites, learners who shared a way of knowing demonstrated similar understanding in their conceptions of good
students and good teachers.
Implications
Our findings teach us that ABE and English for speakers of other languages (ESOL) classrooms are likely to be
populated by adults with a range of qualitatively different ways of making sense of their experiences. Therefore,
teachers and programs that recognize students' developmental diversity and support their growth accordingly will
be especially effective. Attention paid to development may allow ABE and ESOL programs to better scaffold
students who have a diversity of learning needs and ways of knowing.
In our study, we found that participants' experiences varied across different ways of knowing, and that there were
intriguing commonalities among the experiences of learners who shared a particular way of knowing. This less
visible form of diversity in adults' ways of knowing is one aspect of what we call a "new pluralism." The diversity of
learners' ways of knowing that will likely exist in any ABE or ESOL classroom calls for what constitutes the second
aspect of our new pluralism. Educators need to be mindful of and orient toward this new variable by including a
variety - or plurality - of pedagogical approaches in their classroom practice.
A final aspect of our new pluralism is that a person's way of knowing can become more complex (i.e., change)
if she or he is provided with developmentally appropriate supports and challenges. Attending to the diversity of
ways in which adults interpret and make sense of their experience - in addition to other more visible types of
diversity - can provide new and important insights into learners' experiences.
To return to our opening question, familiarity with learners' different ways of knowing may help to explain how the
very same curriculum, classroom activities, or teaching behaviors can leave some learners feeling excited and their
needs well-met while others feel deserted or lost. In such cases, teachers may unknowingly be using materials or
teaching strategies attuned to one way of knowing while neglecting others. For example, asking one student to
critique another student's idea may be threatening to a Socializing knower, who depends on feeling a sense of
empathy and agreement with her peers. Teaching the English language only as a collection of specific and concrete
rules to be learned may leave both Socializing and Self-Authoring learners feeling frustrated, while an Instrumental
learner may feel comfortable. A teacher's enhanced capacity to support all students in a class, across a range of
ways of knowing, can increase the chances of more students feeling recognized and valued for the meanings they
bring to their learning. Students who are adequately and appropriately supported and challenged academically are
more likely to learn more.
Conclusion
Our findings suggest that a new definition of the "resource-rich" classroom is needed including good pedagogical
matches to a wide variety of adults' learning needs and ways of knowing. Thus, our study suggests that ABE and
ESOL practitioners develop an understanding of this new variable - a diversity of learners' ways of knowing - as it
expresses itself in the ABE or ESOL setting. By extension, we point to the need for educators to use a diversity of
approaches in meeting and supporting learners with a diversity of learning needs and ways of knowing. Adult
learners inevitably differ in ways that are less immediately apparent than that of more familiar pluralisms of race,
gender, or age.
What kinds oI learners? What kinds oI teachers?



Are all language learners the same? Are all language teachers the same? No. Of course, not. Clearly
there are different kinds of language learners and different ways of being a language teacher. Today we
will explore some of the ways that learners, as well as teachers, differ from one another.

LEARNERS vs. STUDENTS
The word "learner is much better than "student for several reasons:

1. First, the word "student is an institutional identity. t really only has meaning in contrast to
"teacher. t's like the identity pairs son/father, patient/doctor, worker/boss. n this relationship the
teacher identity has the power.
. As teachers we should be interested in "learning and not just "studying. What is the difference
between learning and studying? Consider these sentences:

O studied for 3 hours.
O learned for 3 hours This sentence doesn't sound right.

O studied the information (but still don't understand)
O learned the information (so now understand)

3. People often "learn a language without a teacher. But they rarely "study a language without a
teacher.

MAJOR DIFFERENCES IN LEARNERS

O Age
O Level
O Learning skills
O Motivation

AGE
Language learners are often described in terms of age. And there are good reasons for doing this. Some
researchers claim that the brains of young children are physically different than the brains of adolescents
and adults. But even if this is not true, you can't treat a 50-year old the same way you would treat a 6-
year old.

1. Young children.
2. Adolescents
. Adult learners

LANGUAGE LEVEL
Another very common way to describe learners is by their approximate language levels. Learners are
often called beginners, intermediate, or advanced. You also hear the terms Iower-
intermediate and upper intermediate. n reality, though, none of these terms mean very much. A
beginner in one country (or one school) might be more like an intermediate learner in another country (or
school). Another problem with then labels is that they imply that a learner's level is flat and even like a
soccer field. But, learners may be advanced in some respects and almost beginners in other respects.

O Absolute beginners
O False beginners

LEARNING SKILLS
O Innate aptitude. Some people just seem to be better language learners than
others. Researchers used to think that intelligence was an important factor. n other words,
"smart learners learned better and faster. But remember that you don't have to be intelligent to
learn a language of the world's 6 billion people almost all of them end up speaking one
language or another. Still, some researchers suggest that good language learners have a special
sort of "verbal memory.
O Traits of a good Iearner. n the school systems found in the US, UK, and Europe (for example),
good learners...

1. ...are creative
2. ...make guesses
. ...can Iearn on their own
4. ...make opportunities to practice
5. ...use errors to Iearn
6. ...don't worry if they don't understand everything

owever, not all cultures are the same and not all school systems are the same. For example,
in many parts of the world, a good student is one who can memorize huge quantities of
information, even if they don't understand it.
O Language Iearning styIes. Today educators understand that different learners learn in different
ways. Some language learners learn best when presented with formal structure, for example,
grammar rules. Other learners learn best by actually getting to use the language (or perhaps
listening to proficient speakers using the language). Some students may prefer a teacher to
guide them. Other student may prefer to work on their own.
O IndividuaI variation and muItipIe inteIIigences. Learners can differ not just in how they learn
language but also in their basic learning abilities. Research, oward Gardner, proposed that
these are at least eight kinds of intelligence:

1. Musical/Rhythmic
2. Verbal/Linguistic
. Visual/Spatial
4. Bodily/Kinaesthetic
5. Logical/Mathematical
6. ntrapersonal
7. nterpersonal
8. Naturalistic

Since your students may have different ways of learning and different sorts of "intelligences it is
important for you to do different sorts of things in your lessons so that each learner will have a
chance to use his or her skills

MOTIVATION
Learners have to want to learn. This is called "motivation. Different learners can have very different
motivations for learning language. Think about why you, personally, want to learn English.

O Extrinsic motivation (from "outside the learner)
O ntrinsic motivation (from inside the learner)

One of the most important sources of motivation to learn a language is the attitude of society towards that
language. For example, many Americans do not see learning a foreign language as valuable. Or there
might be a societal bias against learning a "minority language (such as Korean here in Japan). n many
countries knowing English will be the key to having a high paying job. What are the attitudes towards
English here in Japan?

Another important source of motivation are the people close to the learner. This might include their family
members, friends, and perhaps even a boyfriend/girlfriend or husband/wife. Marrying a Mexican was
certainly a big motivation for me to learn Spanish!

But perhaps most important of all are the sources of motivation in the classroom. The three main sources
are the teacher, the other students, and the method used. Obviously, learners will not be motivated by a
teacher who they don't like or don't respect. Motivation tends to spread from learner to learner like a fire
in a good classroom environment. owever, a bad environment can de-motivate an entire class of
learners. Finally, if learners don't like, are uncomfortable with, or don't understand the teaching
methodology being used, they can "turn off.





%HE NA%&RE OF LEARNING
Again, this is a huge topic. %here is a great deal oI research into how students
learn at the postsecondary level. We particularly recommend the report oI the
National Research Council, as commissioned by the &.S. Department oI
Education's OIIice oI Educational Research and Improvement (OERI). %his
research is documented in How People Learn (Donovan, Bra gap between what is
known about learning processes and how we teach; in other words, between
research and practice. %he authors attempt, in a very practical way, to highlight just
what is going on when people learn well. We share their view that an
understanding oI learning processes should inIorm how we teach, including how
we use technology Ior teaching.
We will just very brieIly introduce some key concepts that need to be explained in
order to show the link between diIIerent understandings oI how students learn and
the design oI technology-based teaching.
%here are many diIIerent theories oI learning. We will look theories, such as
cognitive development, student diIIerences, and motivation and engagement in
learning. %hese themes oI how students learn and what inIluences their learning
will, as with epistemology, recur throughout the book as we examine the role oI
media and technology in teaching and learning, and the planning, design, and
delivery oI technology-based courses.
Behaviorism
Behaviorist psychology arose in the 1920s and 190s Irom an attempt to model the
study oI human behavior on the methods oI the physical sciences. %hereIore it
concentrates attention on aspects oI behavior that are capable oI direct observation
and measurement. At the heart oI behaviorism is the idea that certain behavioral
responses become associated in a mechanistic and invariant way with speciIic
stimuli. Hence a certain stimulus will evoke a particular response. At its simplest,
the response may be a purely physiological reIlex action, like the contraction oI an
iris in the eye when stimulated by bright light.

However, most behavior is more complex. Nevertheless, according to
behaviorists, it is possible to reinIorce through reward or punishment the
association between any particular stimulus or event and a particular
response. %he bond Iormed between a stimulus and a response will depend on the
existence oI an appropriate means oI reinIorcement at the time oI association
between stimulus and response. Behavior thereIore can be modiIied or controlled
by appropriately reinIorcing random behavior (trial and error) as it occurs.

%his is essentially the concept oI operant conditioning, a principle most clearly
developed by Skinner (1969). He showed that pigeons could be trained in quite
complex behavior by rewarding particular, desired response, randomly occurring,
with appropriate stimuli, such as the provision oI Iood pellets. He also Iound that
intervening stimuli to be present, thus linking an initially remote stimulus with a
complex behavior. Furthermore, inappropriate or previously learned behavior
could be extinguished by withdrawing reinIorcement. Skinner also claimed that
rewarding behavior was more eIIective than punishment.

&nderlying this approach is the belieI that learning is governed by invariant
principles, and these principles are independent oI conscious control on the part oI
the learner. Behaviorists attempt to maintain a high degree oI objectivity in how
they view human activity, and they generally reject reIerence to unobservable
states, such as Ieelings, attitudes, and consciousness. Human behavior is above all
seen as predictable and controllable. Behaviorism stems Irom a strongly
objectivist epistemological position.

Skinner's theory led to the development oI teaching machines, measurable learning
objectives, computer-assisted instruction, and multiple choice tests. %here was
also a tendency until recently to see technology, particularly computers, as being
closely associated with behaviorist approaches to learning. %oday there has been a
strong movement away Irom behaviorist approaches to teaching in higher
education, although its inIluence is still strong in corporate and military training
and in some areas oI science, engineering, and medical training.


Behaviorism denies or ignores mental activity as the basis Ior learning. Learning
Ior behaviorists is determined by external environmental structures that lead to
reinIorcement oI behavior, rather than to mental processing or conscious thought
on the part oI Ior human learning. Fontana (1981) Iollows:

are key concepts in cognitive psychology. Cognitive psychology is concerned with
identiIying and describing mental processes. In some ways, basic mental processes
are oIten considered genetic or hard-wired but can be programmed or modiIied by
external Iactors, such as experience.

Cognitive approaches to learning cover a very wide range. On the one hand,
attempts have been made through areas such as artiIicial intelligence to provide
mechanical, electronic, and physical representations oI mental processes, reIlecting
very much as objectivist epistemological position. On the other hand, teachers
who place a strong emphasis personal meaning through reIlection, analysis, and
construction oI knowledge through conscious mental processing would indicate
much more oI a constructivist epistemological position. Cognitive approaches to
learning "with their Iocus on abstraction, generalization, and creative thinking"
seem to Iit much better in higher education.

%he Social Construction oI Knowledge

We have pulled together diIIerent theories oI learning here under the common
theme oI the social construction oI knowledge. Both behaviorist and some
elements oI cognitive theories oI learning are deterministic, in the sense that
behavior and learning are believed to be rule-based and operate under predictable
and constant conditions over which the individual learner has no or little control.

However, the trend these days is to recognize the importance oI consciousness,
Iree will, and social inIluences on learning. Although constructivism has become
the "Ilavor oI the month" in higher education in recent years, the belieI that
humans are essentially active and Iree and strive Ior meaning in personal terms has
been around Ior a long time. Carl Rogers (1969) stated that "every individual exists
in a continually changing world oI experience in which he is the center." %he
external world is interpreted within the context oI that private world.

Individuals consciously strive Ior meaning to make sense oI their environment in
terms oI past experience and their present state. It is an attempt to create order in
their minds out oI disorder, resolve incongruities, and reconcile external realities
with prior experience. %he means by which this is done are complex and
multiIaceted, Irom engaging in personal reIlection to seeking new inIormation to
testing ideas through social contact with others. Problems are resolved, and
incongruities sorted out, through strategies such as seeking relationships between
what was known and what is new, identiIying similarities and diIIerences, and
testing hypotheses. Reality is always tentative and dynamic.

For many educators, the social context oI learning is critical. Ideals are tested not
just on the teacher but also with Iellow students, Iriends, and
colleagues. Furthermore, knowledge is mainly acquired through social processes
or institutions that are socially constructed: schools, universities. What is taken to
be OvaluedO knowledge is also socially constructed. Knowledge is thus not just
about content but also about values.

One set oI values comprises those around the concept oI a liberal
education. According to this notion, one oI the principal aims oI education is to
develop a critical awareness oI the values and ideologies that shape the Iorm oI
received knowledge. %his aim suggests a constant probing and criticism oI
received knowledge.

One consequence oI theories oI social construction oI knowledge is that each
individual is considered unique, because the interaction oI each person's diIIerent
experiences and the search Ior personal meaning result in each person being
diIIerent Irom anyone else. Behavior is thus not predictable or deterministic, at
least not at the individual level (although pollsters will argue that patterns oI group
behavior is predictable).

%he key point here is that learning is seen as essentially a social process, requiring
communication among learner, teacher, and others. %his social process cannot
eIIectively be replaced by technology, although technology may Iacilitate it.