SmartandJustGrids:OpportunitiesforsubSaharanAfrica

MorganBaziliana,ManuelWelscha1,DeepakDivanb,DavidElzingac,GoranStrbacd,MarkHowellse,Lawrence Jonesf,AndrewKeaneg,DolfGielenh,V.S.K.MurthyBalijepallii,AbeekuBrewHammondj,andKandeh Yumkellaa

UnitedNationsIndustrialDevelopmentOrganization,Vienna,Austria GeorgiaInstituteofTechnology,Atlanta,USA c InternationalEnergyAgency,Paris,France d ImperialCollegeLondon,London,UK e KTH,RoyalInstituteofTechnology,Stockholm,Sweden f ALSTOMGrid,WashingtonDC,USA g UniversityCollegeDublin,Dublin,Ireland h InternationalRenewableEnergyAgency,AbuDhabi,UAE i IndianInstituteofTechnology,Bombay,India j KwameNkrumahUniversityofScienceandTechnology,Kumasi,Ghana
b

Correspondingauthors:manuel.welsch@gmx.at,m.bazilian@unido.org

Forward

Whilstthereisaclearfocustodayonimprovingtheenergysecurityand sustainabilityofestablishedeconomiesinEurope,JapanandNorthAmerica,for example,aswellasrapidlygrowingeconomiessuchasChina,wemustnotforget thatenergysecuritymeanssomethingverydifferenttothemanymillionsof peoplewhohavenoaccesstoelectricityofanykind. ThispaperSmartandJustGrids:opportunitiesforsubSaharanAfricatacklesthis veryimportantissue,settingoutthecurrentchallengesandhighlightingtherole thattherapidlyevolvingtechnologicalandcommercialconceptofsmartgrids couldplayinensuringareliableandsecureelectricitysupplyfortheregion. Thepaperisessentialreadingforanyoneinterestedintheprovisionofenergyinasustainable,secureand affordablewayindevelopingeconomies,andintherolethatsmartgridscanplayintransformingenergy supplyinfrastructuresandassociatedbusinessmodels. EnergyisastrategicresearchpriorityatImperialCollegeLondon,andwearecommittedtodelivering solutionstotheglobalenergychallenge.Afterreadingthispaper,Ihopeyouaretoo.

ProfessorNigelBrandonFREng Director,EnergyFuturesLab ImperialCollegeLondon

Preamble
In2009,anestimated585millionpeoplehadnoaccesstoelectricityinsubSaharanAfrica.Unlikemany otherregionsoftheworld,undercurrentassumptions,thatfigureisexpectedtorisesignificantlyby2030 toabout652millionanunsustainableandunacceptablesituation.Nationalgovernmentsandregional organisationshaveidentifiedtheurgentneedforacceleratedelectrificationrates.Respondingtothisneed willrequireinnovativeandeffectiveenergypolicies.Thewayfuturepowersystemsareplanned,designed, constructed,financedandoperatedwillhaveasignificantimpactonhoweffectivelytheseaspirationsare delivered. Someofthewellknownandemergingconcepts,systemsandtechnologiesofSmartGridsmayofferan importantcontributiontouniversalaccesstoelectricityinsubSaharanAfrica.WearguethattheseSmart GridadvancesmayenablesubSaharanAfricancountriestoleapfrogelementsoftraditionalpowersystems intermsofbothtechnologyandregulation.Thiscouldacceleratenationalandregionalelectrification timeframes,improvingservicedelivery,minimizingcostsandreducingenvironmentalimpact. WeintroducethenotionofJustGridstoreflecttheneedforpowersystemstocontributetowards equitableandinclusiveglobal,economicandsocialdevelopment.WhileSmartGridsmayprovidean efficientmechanismtoaddressthemassiveelectricityinfrastructurebuildingrequirements,JustGridswill helpguaranteeaccesstomodernenergyserviceswithoutmarginalizingthepoor.Thispaperpresentsthe conceptofSmartandJustGrids,andconsidersspecificprioritiesthatcouldusefullybeimplementedinsub SaharanAfricaintheshortterm.Itreviewstheliterature,providesafoundationforpolicydevelopment, andsuggestsareasforfurther,moredetailedresearch.
Disclaimer: Theviewsexpressedhereinarethoseoftheauthor(s)anddonotnecessarilyreflecttheviewsoftheirrespective institutions.Thedesignationsemployedandthepresentationofthematerialinthisdocumentdonotimplythe expressionofanyopinionwhatsoeverconcerningthelegalstatusofanycountry,territory,cityorareaorofits authorities,orconcerningthedelimitationofitsfrontiersorboundaries,oritseconomicsystemordegreeof development.Designationssuchasdeveloped,industrializedanddevelopingareintendedforstatistical convenienceanddonotnecessarilyexpressajudgmentaboutthestagereachedbyaparticularcountryorareainthe developmentprocess.Mentionoffirmnamesorcommercialproductsdoesnotconstituteanendorsementbythe respectiveinstitutions.

Contents

Preamble 1. Introduction 1.1ElectricityinsubSaharanAfrica 1.2Regionalandnationalinitiatives 1.3Regionalpowerpoolsandregulatoryauthorities 2. ASmartGridapproach 2.1Definingtheterm 2.2Technologies 2.3Costsandbenefits 3. SmartandJustGridsforsubSaharanAfrica 3.1Redefiningtheconcept 3.2Opportunitiesforleapfrogging 3.2.1TheICTprecedent 3.3Effectsonenergyplanning 3.4Effectsonregulationanddesignpractices 3.5Effectsonoverallmarketdesign 3.6Transmissionanddistributionsystems 4. Neartermconsiderations 4.1Applyingtheconcept 4.2Ensuringcoordinatedaction 5. Conclusion Acknowledgements References

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1. Introduction
AccordingtotheInternationalEnergyAgency(IEA)referencescenario,Africasfinalelectricityconsumption isexpectedtodoublebetween2007and2030from505to1012TWh(IEA2009).Overthesametime period,theUnitedNations(UN)SecretaryGeneralsAdvisoryGrouponEnergyandClimateChange (AGECC)hasproposedthattheUNSystemandMemberStatescommittoensuringuniversalaccessto reliable,affordableandsustainablemodernenergyservicesby2030(AGECC2010).Tomeetthisgoal, massiveelectricityinfrastructure2developmentwillberequiredintheshortandmediumterm. TheIEA(2010)estimatesthatachievinguniversalaccesstoelectricityby2030willrequireadditional powersectorinvestmentofUSD33billionperannumonaverage,muchofwhichisneededinsubSaharan Africa.Efficiencyimprovements,demandmanagement,optimalgenerationplanning,improvedgrid operationandincreasedelectricitytradeacrosssubSaharanAfricancountrieswillbeessentialfor minimizingthevolumeofinvestmentsneeded(UNEnergyAfrica2008).Weproposethatspecificelements ofcurrentandemergingSmartGrid3concepts,systemsandtechnologiesmaymakeanimportant contributiontoimprovingequitableandjustaccesstoelectricityservicesinsubSaharanAfrica(Bazilian, Sagar,etal.2010). ThispaperfirstbrieflydescribestheelectricitysectorinsubSaharanAfrica,includingregionalinitiatives, powerpoolsandregulatoryauthorities(Section1).Section2reviewscurrentSmartGridconcepts, technologiesandrelatedcostsandbenefits.Section3placestheSmartGridsconceptinthecontextofsub SaharanAfrican,shiftingthefocustowardsthefacilitationofjustaccess.Itillustratespotential opportunitiesforleapfroggingelementsoftraditionalpowersystems,theroleofenergyplanning,and effectsonregulationandmarketdesign.Finally,Section4offersthoughtsonhowtoapplyspecific conceptsintheshortterm,andsuggestsareasforinternationalcooperationtocomplementongoingand plannedregionalandnationalinitiativesinsubSaharanAfrica.Thispaperrepresentsonlyaninitial foundationforpolicydesignandfurther,moredetailedresearch.

1.1ELECTRICITYINSUBSAHARANAFRICA
TheenergysectorinsubSaharanAfricaischaracterisedbysignificantchallengesincluding:lowenergy accessrates,electricitycostsashighasUSD0.50/kWh,insufficientgenerationcapacitytomeetrapidly risingdemand,andpoorreliabilityofsupply(WB2008).Theestimatedeconomicvalueofpoweroutagesin Africaamountstoasmuchas2%ofGDP,and616%inlostturnoverforenterprises(WB2009). In2009,around585millionpeopleinsubSaharanAfrica(about70%ofthepopulation)hadnoaccessto electricity(IEA2010).Thisfigureisexpectedtorisesignificantlytoabout652millionpeopleby2030.Urban centresinsubSaharanAfricaarecoveredbyvaryingelectricityqualitylevelsfromnationalandregional
We use the term electricity infrastructure or power systems to encompass the entirety of the system, from generationthroughtransmissionanddistributiontocustomerservicesandassociatedoperations.
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Itremainsthecasethatmodernpowersystemplanningandoperationaltoolsandsystemscurrentlyemployedin theOECDalsohavemuchtoofferdevelopingcountries.

grids,butruralcoverageisparticularlyunevenandinadequate(Parshalletal.2009)80%ofthosewithout accesstoelectricityliveinruralareas(IEA2010). In2007,subSaharanAfricaproduced390TWhofelectricity,ofwhichSouthAfricaaloneproducedalmost 70%(AfDB,AU,andUNECA2010)4.Forasenseofscale,with68GW,theentiregenerationcapacityofsub SaharanAfricaisnomorethanthatofSpain5.Inaddition,subSaharanAfricasaveragegenerationcapacity wasonlyabout110MWpermillioninhabitantsin2007,rangingfromlessthan15MWpermillion inhabitantsinGuineaBissauandTogo,to880inSouthAfrica,andupto1,110intheSeychelles(EIA2010). Bycomparison,thegenerationcapacityintheEuropeanUnionisabout1,650MWpermillioninhabitants, andintheU.S.itis3,320. AfricasenergyresourcesarecharacterisedbyoilandgasreservesinNorthandWestAfrica,hydroelectric potentialinCentralandEasternAfrica,andcoalinSouthernAfrica.HydropowerinsubSaharanAfricahas anenormousexploitablepotential(WEC2005):itcurrentlyaccountsfor45%ofsubSaharanAfricas currentelectricitypowergeneration(AfDB2008)6,whichrepresentsonlyafractionofthecommercially exploitablepotential.Inaddition,subSaharanAfricahasabundantsolarpotential(Huldetal.2005),and biomassisusedextensivelyforhouseholduse,withprospectsforincreasedcommercialexploitationand electricityproduction(UNIDO2009). Expandingaccesstonationalelectricitygridsoftenconstitutesthecheapestoptionforprovidingservices. However,decentralizedpower,oftenbasedonrenewableenergysources,islikelytobeanimportant componentofanysignificantexpansioninelectricityaccess,especiallyforruralandremoteareas (Deichmannetal.2010).BothsystemtypescanbenefitfromaspectsofSmartGridtechnologies7.

1.2REGIONALANDNATIONALINITIATIVES
Thesignificantneedforacceleratedelectrificationrateshasbeenidentifiedbyregionaleconomic communitiesandnationalgovernments8.In2007,theAfricaEUEnergyPartnershipwaslaunched(AUCand EC2008;AUCandEC2007)tosupportregionalenergystrategies,policiesandtargets.Theseregional
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RefertoNiez(2010)formoredetailsonSouthAfricaselectricitysectorandpolicies.

WithoutSouthAfrica,thiscapacitygoesdownto28GW,25%ofwhichiscurrentlynotavailableforgenerationdue to,amongstothers,agingplantsandlackofmaintenance(Eberhardetal.2008).

Selectedelectricitysupplyinformation:WestAfrican(ECOWAS)region:64%thermalpower,31%hydropower(GTZ 2009a).EastAfrican(EAC)region:65%hydropower,28%thermalpower(GTZ2009b).SouthAfrica:94%thermal power(AfDB,AU,andUNECA2010). 7 We do not make a judgement on the issue of one type as superior to another, but rather consider how modern powersystemtoolscanbenefitbothaswellas,insomecases,facilitatetheconnectionofoneintotheother. Suchas:TheForumofEnergyMinistersofAfricas(FEMA)PositionPaperonEnergyandtheMDGs(WHOandUNDP 2009);TheSouthernAfricanDevelopmentCommunitys(SADC)ProtocolonEnergy(L.KritzingervanNiekerkandE. Pinto Moreira 2002) and its Regional Indicative Strategic Development Plan (RISDP) (SADC 2003); The Economic Community Of West African States (ECOWAS) Energy Protocol (ECOWAS 2003) and its White Paper for a Regional Policy (ECOWAS 2006); The Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africas (COMESA) Energy Programme (COMESA 2009a); The East African Communitys (EAC) Regional Strategy on Scalingup Access to Modern Energy Services (EAC 2009) and its Power Master Plan Study (BKS Acres 2005); The Treaty Establishing the Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS n.d.); The Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africas (CEMAC)EnergyActionplanwithenergyandelectricityaccessgoals(WHOandUNDP2009).
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ambitionsarelargelyunderpinnedbynationalelectrificationpolicies,withmorethan75%ofsubSaharan countrieshavingdefinedtargetsforelectricityaccess(WHOandUNDP2009).Theimportanceofregional andnationalelectrificationinitiativesisclearlyunderstoodatthepolicylevel.Thepriorityistotranslate thisunderstandingintoprovisionofelectricityservicesontheground.

1.3REGIONALPOWERPOOLSANDREGULATORYAUTHORITIES
Inadditiontoregionaleconomiccommunitiesandnationalgovernments,themainactorsforimplementing electrificationplansaretheregionalpowerpoolsandutilities.Regionalpowerpoolswereestablished undertheauspicesofRegionalEconomicCommunitiestocreatecompetitivemarketsandimprovedelivery servicestocustomers(L.MusabaandP.Naidoo2005).TheycomprisetheSouthern,West,EastandCentral AfricanPowerPools(theSAPP,WAPP,EAPPandCAPP,respectively),allatdifferentstagesofdevelopment (IEA2008a). TheSAPPprovidesthemostadvancedexampleofaregionalpowerpool(Gnansounouetal.2007)9insub SaharanAfrica:itwascreatedin1995asaresultofelectricitytradinginSouthernAfrica,whichbeganin theearly1960s(SebitosiandOkou2009;SAPP2008).ThecreationoftheWAPPfollowedin1999(ECOWAS 1999;ECOWAS2007),withtheCAPPin2003(L.MusabaandP.Naidoo2005)andtheEAPPin2006 (COMESA2009b)10.Aftertheregionalpowerpoolswerecreated,regionalelectricityregulatorswere establishedbytheSouthernAfricanDevelopmentCommunity(SADC),theEconomicCommunityofWest AfricanStates(ECOWAS)andtheCommonMarketforEasternandSouthernAfricaregion(COMESA)11. Figure1providesanoverviewofthegridextensionsforeseenbytheregionalpowerpoolsandutilities, withproposedprojectsshowingthescaleofopportunityforoptimizinginfrastructuredesignanddelivery. ItisclearthatsubSaharanAfricasnationalgridsarenotwellinterconnected12.

EachSAPPmembercountryoperatesitsownnationalutility(Bowen,Sparrow,andYu1999).

10

BKSAcres(2005)suggeststheintegrationoftheEAPPintotheSAPPiftheZambiaTanzaniaKenyainterconnection istobebuild.

TheRegionalElectricityRegulatorsAssociationofSouthernAfrica(RERA)wasestablishedbySADCin2002to facilitateharmonisationandeffectivecooperation(RERA2010).In2008,ECOWASestablisheditsRegionalElectricity RegulationAuthority(ERERA)toregulateelectricityexchangesbetweenstates,andtosupportnationalregulatory entities(ERERA2009).In2009,energyregulatorsfromCOMESAcountriesformedtheRegionalAssociationofEnergy RegulatorsforEasternandSouthernAfrica(RAERESA)(COMESA2009a). 12 TypicaltransmissionvoltagesusedinAfricasgridsarementionedinESMAP(2007).

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Figure1:PowerpoolsinsubSaharanAfrica[NEPAD2008,asshownin(IEA2008a)]13

2. ASmartGridapproach
SmartGridscombinearangeofinnovativetoolsandpracticessupportedbynovelbusinessmodelsand regulatoryframeworkstohelpensureareliable,secureandefficientsupplyofelectricityservices.While thereisstrongconsensusonthisoverallobjective,theprecisescopeofthetermSmartGridsisinterpreted differentlyaccordingtoperspectiveandenvironment14anditcontinuestoevolve.Acommonfunctional andtechnicaldefinitionhasyettoemerge(Brown,Technol,andRaleigh2008).Forourpurposes,Smart Gridsisabroadconceptthatcoverstheentireelectricitysupplychainandischaracterisedbytheuseof technologiestointelligentlyintegratethegeneration,transmissionandconsumptionofelectricity(MEF 2009).Thus,theelementsofSmartGridsarepartofacontinuumofpowersectortoolsandtechnologies. InthisSectionwedrawfromtheliteraturetohighlightspecificaspectsfromthegeneralSmartGrids discourseinindustrialisedcountries,someofwhichweexplorefurtherinSection3fortheirshortterm applicabilitytosubSaharanAfrica.
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The difficulties in accessing the original source of this figure are representative for the overall time and effort requiredtoaccessregionaldataandinformationonthestatusofelectricityinfrastructureinAfrica.

Forexample,accordingtoJ.Antonoff,theU.S.focusesontechnologieswhiletheEUprioritisespoliciesand strategies,assumingthattechnologieswillfollow(Asmus2006).

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2.1DEFININGTHETERM
TheElectricPowerResearchInstitute(EPRI2009)definesSmartGridas,amodernizationoftheelectricity deliverysystemsoitmonitors,protectsandautomaticallyoptimizestheoperationofitsinterconnected elementsfromthecentralanddistributedgeneratorthroughthehighvoltagenetworkanddistribution system,toindustrialusersandbuildingautomationsystems,toenergystorageinstallationsandtoenduse consumersandtheirdevices.Zibelman(2007)describesSmartGridsasanevolutionofconventional gridsinareassuchas: Transitioningthegridfromamostlyunidirectionalradialdistributionsystemtoamultidirectional grid Convertingfromanelectromechanicalsystemtoaprimarilydigitalone Movingtoaninteractivegridthatactivelyinvolvesendusers(oratleastimprovesdataand flexibilityofendusers)15 MuchoftheliteraturefocusesonhowSmartGridscanhelpestablishatwowayflowofinformation betweensupplierandusertoincreasetheefficiencyofnetworkoperations(ETPSmartGrids2006;DOE 2008;Larsen2009;ROA2009;Battaglinietal.2009;Willrich2009;Doranetal.2010).TheEuropean TechnologyPlatform(ETP)outlinedthenotionofSmartGrids(ETPSmartGrids2010)inasimilarmanner throughthefollowingelements:optimizinggridoperation,useandinfrastructure;integratinglargescale intermittentgeneration;informationandcommunicationtechnology;activedistributionnetworks;and newmarketplaces,usersandenergyefficiency.TheU.S.EnergyIndependenceandSecurityAct(2007) emphasised:fullcybersecurity,smarttechnologiesandappliances16,timelyconsumerinformationand control,andstandardsforcommunicationandinteroperability17.Itisthusclearthatwellinformedand robustregulationisakeyfoundationforallaspectsofSmartGrids.

2.2TECHNOLOGIES
WhileSmartGridsarecomposedofcomplexandintegratedsystems,theyoftenbuildonprovenadvanced technologies18.Relatedtechnologiescangenerallybedividedintothoselinkedtophysicalpower,data transportandcontrol,andapplications(Larsen2009).TheNationalEnergyTechnologyLaboratoryhas identifiedandgroupedmanySmartGridtechnologycomponents(NETL2007;NETL2009)19:
Conventionalgridsusuallyprovidedetailedcontrolattransmissionlevelandgoodcontrolatdistributionlevel,but mostlydonotgobeyondthattocontrolelementssuchasdistributedenergysourcesoruserappliances(Balijepalli, Khaparde,andGupta2009). Thisreferstorealtime,automated,interactivetechnologiesthatoptimizetheoperationofappliancesformetering, communications, and distribution automation, as well as peakshaving technologies such as electric vehicles and thermalstorageairconditioning. Ina2008surveyfocusingonNorthAmerica,respondentsrankedtheimportanceofSmartGridfeaturesasfollows: optimisingdistributedassets,incorporatingdistributedenergysources,integratingmassivelydeployedsensorsand smartmeters,activeconsumerparticipation,selfhealing technologies,advancedtools,smartappliancesanddevices and,leastimportantly,islandingabilitytheabilityofdistributedgenerationtocontinuegeneratingpowerevenwhen powerfromautilityisabsent(Brown,Technol,andRaleigh2008). 18 Additionally,severalpromisingtechnologiesonthehorizonmayalsoformpartoffuturegrids,including:high temperaturesuperconductingmaterials,advancedelectricstoragesystemssuchasflowbatteriesorflywheels,and powerelectronicsdevicesforACDCconversion(DOE2003). 19 AnalternativegroupingofSmartGridtechnologyareascanbefoundin(IEA2010).
17 16 15

Integratedcommunications20,includingBroadbandoverPowerLine(BPL),digitalwireless communicationsorhybridfibrecoax; Sensingandmeasurement,includingadvancedprotectionsystems,wireless,intelligentsystem sensorsforconditioninformationongridassetsandsystemstatus,andAdvancedMetering Infrastructure(AMI); Advancedcomponents,basedonfundamentalresearchanddevelopment,includingUnifiedPower FlowControllers(UPFC),PluginHybridElectricVehiclesandDirectCurrentmicrogrids; Advancedcontrolmethods,toensurehighqualitysupply,includingadvancedSupervisoryControl andDataAcquisition(SCADA)systems,loadandshorttermweatherforecasting,anddistributed intelligentcontrolsystemsforSmartGridstobecomeselfhealing; Improvedinterfacesanddecisionsupport,toreducesignificantamountsofdatatoactionable information,includingonlinetransmissionoptimisationsoftware,enhancedGISmappingsoftware andsupporttoolstoincreasesituationalawareness.

ManycountriesareengagedinpilotprojectstotestsuchSmartGridtechnologies21,forexample:theisland ofJeju,SouthKorea(Baker&McKenzieandAustrade2010;KSGI2010);Yangzhou,China(Xuetal.2010); Yokohama,Japan(Hosaka2010);Boulder,Colorado,U.S.(Battaglinietal.2009);theTWENTIES(EC2010) andEcoGridEUprojectsintheEuropeanUnion(DanishTechnologicalInstitute2009;EcoGridEU2010); andplannedsmartgridapplicationsforMasdarCity,UnitedArabEmirates(Masdar2010)22. Duetotheirstrongrelianceoncommunicationprotocols,SmartGridsneedlogical(computer)securityas wellasthephysicalsecurityrequiredbyconventionalgrids,whichpreviouslyconstitutedthemainsecurity concern(Doranetal.2010).Thiswillprovideobstaclestoallcountries,butespeciallythosewithoutstrong governancesystemsinplace.

2.3COSTSANDBENEFITS
Thescaleofinvestmentrequiredtoenhancetodaysgridstomeetthedemandsoffuturepowersystemsis considerable23.BasedontheIEAsNewPoliciesScenario,totalinvestmentintransmissionanddistribution isexpectedtoreachUSD7.0trillion(inyear2009dollars)fortheperiod20102035(IEA2009)24.According totheBrattleGroup(2008),theU.S.electricutilityindustryisexpectedtoinvestUSD1.52.0trillionin infrastructurewithinthenext20years25.Likewise,inEastAfricaalone,billionsofdollarsarerequiredfor supplyandtransmissioninfrastructureoverthenexttwodecades(BKSAcres2005).
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InteroperabilityofequipmentisakeyrequirementofSmartGrids.

India actively supports Smart Grid developments through the restructured accelerated power development and reformsprogramme(RAPDRP)(Balijepalli,Khaparde,andGupta2009). ForfurtherinformationonpilotprojectsandpoliciesrefertoDoranetal.(2010).ForaU.S.focusandinformation on dynamic pricing and pilot design principles refer to Faruqui et al. (2009). The consumer response to smart appliancescombinedwithpricingsignalswasassessedinaprojectdescribedinChassinD.P.(2010).
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Forcontext,overalltotalcostsforprovidingenergyaccessinsubSaharanAfricaareestimatedtobeapproximately USD25billionperannum(Bazilian&Nussbaumer,etal.2010). BarrierstosmartgridinvestmentsarelistedinMEF(2009).

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Forcomparison,thetotalassetvalueoftheelectricitysectorintheU.S.isestimatedtoexceedUSD800billion,with 30%indistributionand10%intransmissionfacilities(DOE2003).

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InOECDcountries,asignificantshareoftheseinvestmentsisexpectedtotargettheimplementationand deploymentofSmartGrids.However,thedetailedmonetaryimplicationsarenotyetfullyunderstood(IEA 2010)andcannotsolelybereducedtoinfrastructureinvestments.SmartGridsredefinetherolesofpower sectorstakeholders.Developingtherequiredhumanandinstitutionalcapacitiestobestrespondto stakeholderneedsandresponsibilities26willbeessentialfortheirsuccessfulimplementation. SmartGridshelptodynamicallybalanceandoptimizegeneration,deliveryassetsandloads.Associatedkey technicalbenefitsinclude:improvedreliabilityandresilience,costeffectiveintegrationofvariable resourcesandloads,increasedefficiencyofsystemoperation,andoptimisedutilisationofbothgeneration andgridprimaryassets27.SmartGridsmaydeliverthesebenefitsatpotentiallyloweroverallcostthan wouldbepossibleunderbusinessasusualassumptions.Inmoredetail,someofthebenefitsinclude: Lossreduction:Incurrenttransmissionanddistributionsystems,lossesamounttoapproximately9%ofthe electricityproducedworldwide28(IEA2008b;IEA2010).WhileAfricasaveragelossesof11%arecloseto theglobalaverage(IEA2010),manycountriesinsubSaharanAfricaarecharacterizedbymuchhigher systemlossesofupto41%,includingnontechnicallosses(UNEnergyAfrica2008).Highertechnicallosses areduetolessefficientandpoorlymaintainedequipment;highernontechnicallossesareduetotheft(IEA 2003). SmartGridtechnologiescanhelpminimisetechnicallossesintransmissionbyfacilitatingmoreeffective reactivepowercompensation29andvoltagecontrol,forexample.Theycanaddressdistributionlosses30 throughadaptivevoltagecontrolatsubstationsandlinedropcompensationtolevelizefeedervoltages basedonload(EPRI2008).Nontechnicallossessuchaspowertheftcanbepartiallyaddressedwiththe helpofsmartmeteringinfrastructure(M.Scott2009)31,32.
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AdescriptionoftheseneedsandresponsibilitiescanbefoundinETPSmartGrids(2006).

Basedlargelyonimprovedcommunicationandincreasedinteroperabilityatallgridlevels(FitzPatrickandWollman 2010).

Rangesvaryfrom,forexample,5%inJapan(IEA2008b)and6%intheU.S.(EIA2010)to26%inIndia(IEA2010). Distribution losses usually account for the largest share of total power delivery losses (ESMAP 2007). Substation transformershavebeencitedasthesourceofupto40%oftotalgridlosses(SCE2010). For example, DCtoAC currentcontrolled inverters can both supply and absorb reactive power only and do not participateinresonances,ascapacitorsdo(Doranetal.2010). IncreasingtheefficiencyofEuropeandistributiontransformersby0.33%wouldhavereducedlossesbymorethan 100 TWh in 2000 and would result in savings of 200 TWh in 2030 (IEA 2003). For a sense of scale, the electricity generationofAustraliain2009was232TWh(EIA2010). ThiswasreportedasoneofthereasonsforItalysinitiativetofitsmartmetersin85%ofItalianhomes(M.Scott 2009).TheItalianutilityEnelreportsannualcostsavingsofUSD750millionfromtheirinvestmentsinthesmartmeter technologies, which were characterized by a payback period of technology, allowing it to recoup the infrastructure investmentinjustfouryears. Additionally,monitoringoftransformerloadingandthirdpartyassessmentsofpotentialmisusewillhelptackle suchpowertheft,whichisoftendifficulttodetermineindevelopingcountriesasitcaninvolvecollusionwith linesmenandmeterreaders.
32 31 30 29

28

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Peakdemandreduction:Activemanagementofconsumerdemandthroughsmartappliancesand equipmentwillreducetheneedforspinningreserve(DOE2003)andexpensiveelectricitysupplytosatisfy peakdemand(GridWiseAlliance2010).Thiscouldbeachievedusingdemandresponseprogrammes (Medina,Muller,andRoytelman2010).Areductionof1%inpeakdemandcouldresultincostreductionsof 4%,equallingbillionsofdollarsatsystemlevel(Doranetal.2010). Qualityofsupply:SmartGridscansignificantlycontributetoreducingcostsofgridcongestion,power outagesandpowerqualitydisturbances33.Theydothisbyincreasingthereliabilityandqualityofsupplyfor consumerswithhighrequirements34,whileprovidinglessreliableandlowerqualitypoweratreducedcosts forconsumerswithlowerrequirements(IEA2010).Increasinglyefficientautomatedoperationswillalso helpaddressandanticipatedisruptions(GridWiseAlliance2010). Latentnetworkcapacity:Agreaterrolefordemand,andmoresophisticatedassetmanagementand operation,canhelpenablethereleaseoflatentnetworkcapacitybybuildingonadvancesinequipment monitoringanddiagnosticsaswellassupportivestandards35(U.K.HouseofCommons2010).Technologies suchaspowerflowcontrolcanhaveahugeimpactontheeffectiveutilizationofnetworkcapacityunder normalandcontingencyconditions. Inadditiontotechnicalbenefits,potentialbenefitsfortheoveralleconomyinclude: Climatechangemitigation:DirectandindirectbenefitsofSmartGridsofferthepotentialforyearly emissionreductionsof0.92.2GtCO2peryearby2050(IEA2010).Directbenefitsincludereducedlosses, accelerateddeploymentofenergyefficiencyprogrammesanddirectfeedbackonenergyusage.Indirect benefitsincludegreaterintegrationofrenewableenergyandfacilitationofelectricvehicles36. Jobcreation:SmartGridsshouldhelptriggernewinvestmentsandcreatenewjobs.McNamara(2009) estimatesthatSmartGridincentivesworthUSD16billionintheU.S.couldtriggerassociatedprojects amountingtoUSD64billion.Thiswouldresultinthedirectcreationofapproximately280,000positions andtheindirectcreationofasubstantiallylargernumberofjobs. ManyofthesepotentialSmartGridbenefitswouldbevalidforsubSaharanAfrica,yettheconceptand associatedpoliciesrequirerefinementtooptimisethecost/benefitbalanceinasustainablemanner.

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IntheU.S.,thesecostsareestimatedtobeintherangefromUSD2580billionannually(Willrich2009).

Thiswouldrequireutilitiestoprioritizethereliabilityofservicesdependentupontargetgroup,suchasemergency services,financialinstitutions,industries,consumers,andindustry(Doranetal.2010).

35

Forexample,throughweatherrelatedoperationalsecuritystandards,whichreleaselatentnetworkcapacityunder specificweatherconditions(U.K.HouseofCommons2010).

36

Shiftingdemand,forexamplethroughelectricvehicles,mayinfactincreaseCO2emissionsinsystemswherebase loadismetwithmoreCO2intensivegenerationthanpeakload(Doranetal.2010).

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3. SmartandJustGridsforsubSaharanAfrica
EmployingasubsetoftheadvancesinpowersystemsprovidedbySmartGridsmayenablesubSaharan Africancountriestoleapfrogtraditionalpowersystemstoreachmoreeffectivesolutions.Thiscould acceleratenationalandregionalelectrificationtimeframes,whileimprovingserviceandminimisingcosts andenvironmentalimpact.WeintroducethetermJustGridstoreflecttheneedforpowersystemsto contributetowardsequitableandinclusiveglobaleconomicandsocialdevelopment.Giventhespecific needsofsubSaharanAfrica,itisobviousthataSmartGridapproachforthisregioncannotsimplybea copyofpracticesinindustrialisedcountriesthestartingpoint,challengesandopportunitiesaretoo different.WeconsiderhowaredefinedSmartGridconceptmightusefullybeimplementedinsubSaharan Africa.

3.1REDEFININGTHECONCEPT
WebroadlydefinetheconceptofSmartandJustGridsforsubSaharanAfricaasonethatembracesall measuresinsupportofimmediateandfutureintegrationofadvancedtwowaycommunication, automationandcontroltechnologiesintolocal,nationalorregionalelectricityinfrastructure.Theconcept aimstooptimisegridsystemsandtheiroperation,integratehighlevelsofrenewableenergypenetration, andimprovethereliabilityandefficiencyofelectricitysupply.Inadditiontobeingsmart,sociallyjust37 powersystemsarerequiredinsubSaharanAfricainordertoguaranteeaccesstomodernenergyservices withoutmarginalizingthepoor38. Inthefuture,SmartandJustGridsforsubSaharanAfricacouldprovidesimilarfunctionalitytoSmartGrids inindustrialisedcountriesatfulldeployment,eventhoughtheyarelikelytofollowadifferentpathwayand timeframe.ThediversityoftheelectrificationstatusinsubSaharanAfrica39,40meansthatlessonslearned fromotherregionsmaybedirectlyappliedincertainareas,whiletailoredsolutionswillberequiredfor others.Constraintssuchas:alackofgoodgovernance,limitedinvestmentcapital,largelyinadequate infrastructure,andagapinwelltrainedpowersectorpersonnelarelikelystiflinginnovativepracticesthat couldalreadybeoccurringorganically41.WhilethecostsformassivelyupgradingexistinggridstoSmart Gridsmaynotbejustifiable,thebusinesscasewheninvestinginnewinfrastructureissignificantlybetter, offeringsignificantpotentialopportunitiesforsubSaharanAfrica.Itwillthereforebeessentialtoprioritise
AccordingtoZajda,Majhanovich,andRust(2006),socialjusticegenerallyrefersto,anegalitariansocietythatis basedontheprinciplesofequalityandsolidarity,thatunderstandsandvalueshumanrights,andthatrecognizesthe dignityofeveryhumanbeing. 38 Similarly,UNEP(2008)callsforajusttransitiontoasustainable,lowcarboneconomytoensurethatsocialaspects are equitably integrated into economic and environmental considerations, and that emerging opportunities are adequatelysharedamongstakeholders.
39 37

Wide variations in the energy sector can be demonstrated by per capita energy consumption, which varies from some20kgoeinBurundito860kgoeinZimbabwe,correlatingwellwithrespectiveGNPpercapita(Karekezi2002).

ThisdiversityiscomparabletoIndia,whichmayofferasignificantpotentialtolearnfromitsSmartGrid developments.RefertoBalijepalli,Khaparde,andGupta(2009)andBalijepallietal.(2010)forafocusonIndias relatedendeavours. 41 Forexample,theelectrificationofNewYorkstartedwithThomasEdisonsefforttodevelopasuccessfulbusiness, coveringthecompletesystemofelectricgeneration,distributionandappliances(thelightbulb)(Brooks,Milford,and Schumacher2004;ConEdison2010).

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specificsmartsolutionsbasedonclearlydefinedfunctionalitiesthathelpreducecosts,promoteeconomic growthandimprovelongtermsustainability. WenextcharacterisetheapproachtorealisingaSmartandJustGridsystemintoseveralelementsand attempttoconceiveoftheirapplicationinsubSaharanAfrica. Smartpolicies:Simplifyingrequirementsforruralelectrificationschemes,definingcommongroundrules forintegratingtechnologiesandbusinesspractices,balancingcostrecoverymechanismsforutilities, identifyingbetterwaystosupporteffectivedemandsidemanagement,anddevelopingnewpoliciesto supporttheintegrationofdistributedgeneration.Allsuchpolicieswouldneedtobeunderpinnedbywell definedperformancegoalsandtransparentmetricstoensureeffectivemonitoringofanticipatedbenefits. FocusforsubSaharanAfrica:LeveraginginternationalSmartGridframeworks,legislation, regulationandstandards,andadjustingthemtothesubSaharanAfricancontext42willbeessential. Newpoliciesmayneedtodivergefrominternationalprecedent,inordertoprioritizeaccessto affordableelectricityservicesforthepoor,respondtorapiddemandgrowthandurbanisation,and reducetheftofelectricityandutilityassets.Suchpoliciesshouldenableaccessthroughflexible,no regretelectrificationstrategiesthataccommodateexpansionsofstandalonesystems,miniand nationalgrids,andthatsupporttheirintegration43. Smartplanning:Adjustingthegridtolocalcircumstancesanddevelopingdesignprinciplesthatensurean effectiveinteroperabilityofexistingandnewgrids,leadingtoevensmarternetworksovertime. FocusforsubSaharanAfrica:Abalancedapproachbetweenregionalgridintegration,nationalgrid enhancementsanddecentralisedminigridsisrequired.Whilesmartminigrids,suchasthose describedin(KatiraeiandIravani2006),mayprovideashorttermsolutiontoruralelectrification needs,theirfutureintegrationintonationalandregionalgridsandviceversaneedstobean integralconsiderationofpowersystemplanning44. Smartsystemsandoperations:Guaranteeingthesecurityandqualityofsupplythroughsmartautomation andcontrolarrangements,buildingonloadmanagementandintegrationofdistributedenergysources,for mini,nationalandregionalgrids,asshowninRuizet al.(2009). FocusforsubSaharanAfrica:Countryandlocallyappropriatesupplyqualitystandardswillneedto bederived.Thesemayinitiallybelessstringentthancurrentpracticesinindustrialisedcountries andmayvarybyclassofservice.Increasingthegridsloadfactorthroughdemandside
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RefertoSchwartz(2010)forfurtherinformationonpolicysupportrequiredtodeliverSmartGridbenefits.

Forexample,inremoteareasphotovoltaic(PV)panelscanprovidealimitedand,thusattimes,limitingquantumof electricityforcustomers.Atpresent,suchcustomersareconsideredelectrified.Inthecaseofminiornationalgrid extensionswithbetterpowerquality,suchcustomersmayeithernotbetargetedorthephotovoltaicsystemleft unused,ascurrentsystemsareoftennotdesignedtointegratesuchhomecircuitsorlocalgrids. 44 For example, the Tres Amigas SuperStation in New Mexico, USA, will serve to improve grid reliability and solve voltageandstabilityissuesbylinkingthethreeprimaryU.S.electricitytransmissiongridsthroughhighvoltagedirect currentconvertertechnology(Alstom2010).

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managementmayalsosignificantlyhelpreducecosts,especiallyforruralelectrificationschemes (Matly2010). Smarttechnologies:Deployingprovensmarttechnologies,optimisinginteroperabilitywithemerging technologies,anddevelopingfuturesolutionstobestaddresselectrificationneeds(Massoudand Wollenberg2005;Youetal.2002). FocusforsubSaharanAfrica:Thetechnologydeploymentpathwillvarywidelyatregionaland countrylevelsduetodiverseneedsandgoalsofdifferentsocietiesandmarkets.Definingthese technologypathwaysandmarketsandverifyingthemthroughpilotprojectswillbeimportantfirst steps. Smartpeople:Buildingstakeholdercapacity45tofacilitatethetransitiontoSmartGrids,tooperatethe grids,andtoattractandactivelyengagetheprivatesectorandconsumerssothatasmanypeopleas possibleprofitfromthetransition. FocusforsubSaharanAfrica:EducatingconsumersinsubSaharanAfricaaboutefficientelectricity usewhilstmovingtowardsSmartGridswillbeessential,especiallyforthosewhopreviouslyhadno access.Trainingtoolsandmaterialsaboutstateoftheartpowersystemswillalsoneedtobe widelydisseminated.Specificattentionneedstobepaidtothetrainingofoffgridcommunitiesso theycanmanageandmaintainminigridsystemsinasustainablefashion. Responsibilityforensuringthatgridsaresmartandjustfallsmainlyongovernmentsandutilitiesasapublic good.ThefollowingJustGridcharacteristicsareespeciallyrelevanttosubSaharanAfrica: Justaccess:Ensuringuniversalaccesstoelectricityby: Encouragingelectricitytobetappedofffromlargergridextensionprojectstolocalcustomersen route.Connectionsforlargeconsumersareoftentheprimarydriverforgridextensions.Such extensionsmayofferagreatopportunitytoconnecttheunderservedatthesametime; Usinggridtechnologiesthatcancopewithfluctuatingsupplyanddemandinruralareasandthus increasesupplyqualityofsupply,forexamplebybuildingonstrategicloadcontroland managementinsteadofconventionalloadshedding; Focusingonacceleratedaccesstokeyelectricityservicesratherthanjustonaccesstoelectricity. Doingthisinasmartwaymayhelpgovernmentsdeliverontheirdevelopmentagendasmore effectivelyandatlowercost; Expandingservicedeliveryunderresourceconstraintsbyincreasingtheefficiencyofelectricity supplyanduse; Creatingadditionalrevenuesforutilitiesthroughhigherpaymentdiscipline,whichwouldalso encouragethemtoextendservicestonewcustomers. Justbillingandsubsidies:Creatingflexibletariffstructuresandpaymentschemestoensureaffordableand sustainableaccesstoelectricityservices46,by:
45

Thisincludespolicymakers,governmentagencies,regulators,electricitynetworkandservicecompanies,traders, generators,financeinstitutions,technologyproviders,researchersandusers.

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RealisingthepotentialofSmartGridstohelplowerprices47ofelectricityservicesbyoptimizingthe utilizationofgridassets,segmentingelectricitymarketsaccordingtoreliabilityandquality requirements,minimisingtechnicalandnontechnicallossesbypromotingsmartandefficient appliances,andincreasingcosteffectiveintegrationofrenewableenergyinremoteareas48; Providingadditionalsupportprogrammestoidentifyandfosterproductiveusesofelectricityto helpensurethatlowincomeconsumerscanpay; Allowingfortargetedsubsidiesthroughintegratedsmartbillingtosupportbasicservicessuchas foodrefrigeration,asopposedtoluxuryservices,liketelevision.

ThereisclearlyavastarrayofSmartGridelementsavailabletosupportourredefinedconcept.Theyare notallimmediatelyrelevant,however,andsomeareeithernotdevelopedenoughortooexpensivetobe usefullydeployedinthesubSaharanAfricancontextintheshorttomediumterm49.Incorporating promisingelementsoffutureSmartandJustGridsinsubSaharanAfricawillrequiremorethanimproved functionality,ashasbeenobservedwiththeadoptionofotherdisruptiveinnovations(Christensenand Raynor2003).Acommerciallysuccessfulbusinessmodelincludingpricing,coststructureandsalesprocess iskeyforasuccessfultransition(Anthony2004).

3.2OPPORTUNITIESFORLEAPFROGGING
TheopportunityforSmartandJustGridstoleapfrog50traditionalpowersystemsmaymeanthattheycan offerevenmoreexcitingopportunitiestodevelopingcountriesthantoindustrialisedones.Whilesome componentsofSmartGridsareagoodbasisforleapfroggingintheshortterm,otherswillbeessentialfor settingthepreconditionsrequiredtodayforenablingatransitiontosmarternetworksasthetechnologies matureinthefuture51.Avoidingtechnologylockinwillbecrucial,astheeconomiclifetimeofelectric powerequipmentcanbelongerthan50years(DOE2003;ESMAP2007).Thus,thefasterthetransitionto therequiredenablingenvironments,thebetter.
46

Refer to Kammen (in press) for energy pricing policies for consumers and producers aiming at the promotion of renewableenergyandenergyefficiency.

ThefuturepriceperkWhofelectricitycannotbepredictedwithhighcertaintybecauseelectricitygenerationrelies on various commodities traded on international markets. Smart Grids, however, can provide tools to enable consumerstomanageelectricityservicenetcosts. This is especially true when diesel power generators are used: renewable energy provides a costcompetitive alternative,asfueltransportcoststoprovidedieseltoremotelocationsinAfricaaresignificantlyhigherthaninmost industrialisedcountries(TeravaninthornandRaballand2009).CostsfordieselpowergenerationcanrangefromUSD 0.35perkWhinAfricatomorethanUSD1perkWhforPacificislandsandremotecontinentallocations(UNIDO2010). The use of locally available renewable resources increases supply security both in physical terms and in terms of pricing.Thisisespeciallyimportantforsupportinggrowthofelectricitydependentsmallandmediumenterprisesand industrialcustomers. Wedohoweverunderlinetheimportanceofavoidingtechnologylockin,toensurethatconditionssettodaywill allowupgradingtofutureelementswhentheopportunityarises. 50 AdefinitionoftechnologyleapfroggingcanbefoundinDavisonetal.(2000).Examplesofleapfroggingin developingcountriesinthefieldofenergyarementionedinGoldemberg(1998). 51 Forexample,latestconductortechnologyandcontrolscouldbeusedforcurrentgreenfielddevelopmentstoensure longtermflexibilityforintegratingenergysources(IEA2010).
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3.2.1THEICTPRECEDENT
Intheshortterm,weexpectleapfroggingtooccurmainlyforthecomponentsbasedoninformationand communicationtechnologies(ICT),whichformanintegralpartofmanySmartGridsystems.Africahas alreadyhadsomeexcellentexperiencesinleapfroggingtomoreefficientICTsolutions.Althoughnota perfectanalogy,theinformationrevolution52ofthemid1990sinsubSaharanAfricalinkedtotheuseof mobilephonesofferssomeusefullessons,becauseitgavepeopleaccesstomodernformsof communicationwithoutdetouringviaextensiveconventionaltelephonenetworks. Africabecametheworldsfastestgrowingcellphonemarket(LaFraniere2005)withgrowthratesinthe orderof300%perannumincountrieslikeKenyaandCameroon(SebitosiandOkou2009).Within10years, thenumberofmobilephonesubscriptionsinsubSaharanAfricashotupfromoneper100peopleto33in 2008(WB2010).Theactualnumberofusersisexpectedtobemuchhigherstill,duetopeoplesharingtheir mobilephones,especiallyinpoorcommunities53(JamesandVersteeg2007;N.Scottetal.2004). Onereasonforthemobilesectorsgreatsuccesswasthefailureofconventionaltelecommunication systemstomeetconsumerdemand,bothintermsofnumberofconnectionsandquality(WilsonIIIand Wong2003).ThisconstitutesaparalleltothefailureofcurrentelectricitynetworksinsubSaharanAfricato meettheneedsofmillionsofAfricans.Anotherreasonfortherapiddiffusionofmobilephoneswasthe lackofredtapeinvolvedinregisteringfortheprepaidservicesthatareusedby90%ofmobilesubscribers insubSaharanAfrica(JamesandVersteeg2007)54.Prepaidsubscriptionsaddressespeciallytheneedsof peoplewithlowerorirregularincomes,asnobankaccount,mailaddress,orfixedmonthlyfeearerequired (Gillwald2005).SmartandJustGridscouldtakeadvantageofICTinfrastructuretoimplementsimilar paymentschemes. Inadditiontotechnologicalreasonsforleapfrogging,marketmodelsthataccompaniedthemobilephone revolutionsuchassharingphonesmayserveasaprecedentforSmartGrids.Othersuccessfactors,which maynottranslateasseamlesslytoSmartGrids,weretherelativelylowinitialinvestmentsandthequick installationofredeployableassets,makingassetslessdependentoninstitutionalframeworksandinvestor protection(Andonova2006).

3.3EFFECTSONENERGYPLANNING
TheconceptofSmartandJustGridsneedstobewellintegratedintonationalandregionalenergy planning55inordertotakeadvantageofthepossibleopportunitiesfortechnologicalleapfrogging. Traditionalelectricityplanningtookdemandgrowthasagivenandonlyconsideredsupplysideoptions
WilsonIIIandWong(2003)definedtheinformationrevolutionasaninstitutionalandpolicyrevolution,highlighting theimportanceofprivatesectorparticipation,foreigninvestment,competitionanddecentralisation.
53 52

Grameenphonehas6millionsubscriptionsinBangladesh,3%ofwhichareforvillagephones,whicharesharedby alargenumberofusers,andaccountforonethirdofthetraffic(TheEconomist2006).

Access rates are much higher than subscription rates, reaching almost 100% for some countries. This potential access is not directly beneficial for the large majority of the African people, who still cannot afford to pay for the services(JamesandVersteeg2007). Munasinghe(1988)providesframeworkstoguidesubSaharanAfricasgridplanning.Gridplanningrequirements arementionedinWillrich(2009).AnidealobjectivefunctionisdefinedinBonbright,Danielsen,andKamerschen (1988)andBowen,Sparrow,andYu(1999).
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(Graeber,SpaldingFecher,andGonah2005)56.Thistraditionalpredictandprovide(Strbac2010) approach57predictingelectricityrequirementsanddesigningthepowersystemsaccordinglyisadopted insubSaharanmodelssuchastheSAPPexpansionplan(Bowen,Sparrow,andYu1999)andtheEast AfricanPowerMasterPlanStudy(BKSAcres2005). Developmentisnolongerconsideredtobesolelylinkedtosteadyenergydemandgrowth(COMESA 2009a).Duetosustainabilityconsiderations,energyplanningincreasinglyconsidersdemandsideoptions (ShresthaandMarpaung2006),socialandenvironmentalaspects,andassociatedcosts(WB2008;COMESA 2009a).Thecomplexnatureofmodernelectricityplanningrequiresanapproachthatsatisfiestheseoften conflictinggoals(Swicher,Jannuzzi,andRedlinger1997)aspartofintegratedresourceplanning(IRP)(D'Sa 2005)58. WithaSmartGridapproach,planningincreasesincomplexityasthegridevolvesintoanactivelayer betweensupplyanddemand.Planningforsmartgridsbecomesanintricateexerciseduetouncertainties aboutoffgridanddistributedenergygenerationconnections,aswellasuncertaintiesaboutdemand growth(MEF2009)59.Inadditiontooptimizingelectricitysystemsfromatechnicalperspective,JustGrids needtobeoptimizedfromadevelopmentperspective.Ensuringservicesformarginalizedandrural communitieswilloftennotbethemostcosteffectivesolution,sonewconstraints(ordifferentobjective functions)needtobeaddedtotraditionalleastcostoptimisationmodels. Therequiredexpansionandadaptationofthetraditionalapproachtoenergyplanningneedstoincludea moreactiverolefordemand,linkageswithstorage,andtheintegrationofminigridsintoplansforgrid expansion.AnexampleofthisthoughlimitedispresentedinHowellsetal.(2005)60.Inaddition, modernenergyplanningneedstobalancesustainabledevelopmentplanscarefullywithregionalenergy integrationandnationalandlocalSmartGrids.Theimportanceofcomplexmulticriteriadecisionmaking willconsequentlycontinuetoincrease(MEF2009;Hobbs2000).
Infact,ruralelectrificationinindustrialisedcountriesbasicallyhappenedthroughpubliclysupportedlocalinitiatives andindependentlyofnationalorregionalplanning(Matly2010). Several supportive modelling tools, which (to varying degrees) allow for the exploration of demand side management, are used for this type of analysis (Swicher, Jannuzzi, and Redlinger 1997). WASP, amongst others, constitutesamodelthatisfrequentlyappliedinAfrica(ADICA2001;Covarrubias1979).ToolssuchasMESSAGE(IAEA 2009)andMARKAL(Alfstad2005)arederivedfromtheHfeleManneapproach(HfeleandManne1975)andoften usedtomodelamultiregionalapproach.
58 57 56

DSadefinesintegratedresourceplanning(IRP)forthepowersectorasanapproachthroughwhichtheestimated requirementforelectricityservicesismetwithaleastcostcombinationofsupplyandenduseefficiencymeasures, whileincorporatingconcernssuchasequity,environmentalprotection,reliabilityandothercountryspecificgoals.

Accordingly,advancedsystemlevelmodellingforSmartGridshasbeenidentifiedasoneoftheSmartGridresearch, developmentanddemonstrationpriorities,accordingtotheIEA(2010). HowellsusesatoolbasedonMESSAGE,which,togetherwithWASPandseveralothertools(IAEA2009;HOMER 2010;ETSAP2010)servestoexaminetheexpansionofaccesstoenergyservices.

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3.4EFFECTSONREGULATIONANDDESIGNPRACTICES
Presentregulationoftenrewardsutilitiesfordeliveringnetworkprimaryassetsratherthanimproving performancethroughmoresophisticatedmanagementandadvancednetworktechnologies61.Thus, regulationcanhinderSmartGriddevelopmentsthatdonotfocusoninvestmentsinnetworkassets. MostcurrentnetworkdesignandoperationpracticescentreonthehistoricdeterministicN1approach thatwasdevelopedinthelate1950s(Willis2004).Thishasbroadlyhelpeddeliversecureandreliable electricityservices,alongsidevariousothertraditionallyappliedredundancymeasures.Theseapproaches can,however,imposemajorbarriersforinnovationinnetworkoperationandimplementationof technicallyeffectiveandeconomicallyefficientsolutionsthatenhancetheutilizationofgridassets.Yet,the existingnetworkanditsstandardsarecommonlytakenasgrantedinresearchwork,thusconstrainingthe applicabilityofdivergingapproaches(KhatorandLeung1997). WhilethenaturallawsoftransmissionanddistributiondescribedinWillis(2004)stillapply,thefuture gridsrequiredinsubSaharanAfricamayofferfertilegroundforaradicaldeparturefromsuchtraditional regulation,griddesignandoperationpractices,becauseofthesignificantinfrastructurebuilding requirementsintheregion.Forexample,Divan(2007)demonstratessignificantlyhighernetworkcapacity whilemeetingN1contingencyconstraintsusingeconomicaldistributedpowerflowcontroldevices.Even higherutilisationisrealizediftheN1constraintisdropped.Arelaxationofpowerqualityandreliability standardsbasedontheadvancesofSmartGridsmaythereforeenablesubSaharanAfricatoprofitfrom theassociatedsignificantcostsavingspotential62. Futurenetworkregulationanddesignisthereforerequiredtofacilitatetheimplementationofthe economicallybestsolutions.Thiswilloccurbybalancingassetandperformancebasedoptions63, particularlythosethatinvolveresponsivedemand,generationandadvancednetworkmanagement techniques64.InsubSaharanAfrica,novelregulatoryregimeswillalsoneedtoincentiviseinnovativeways ofenhancingaccesstothegrid.

3.5EFFECTSONOVERALLMARKETDESIGN
Innovationisrequirednotonlyintechnologiesandregulation,butalsoinmarketmodels.Information systemsinfrastructurewillhelpfacilitateashifttodistributedcontrol,withdemandresponsebecominga keyresourcefordeliveringnetworkflexibilityandcontrol.Thiswillrequiresignificantchangesinelectricity marketdesignprinciples,withamoveawayfromtraditionalsinglesidedcompetitioninlargescale generation.
In subSaharan Africa, laws governing the power sector and at times oversophisticated standards sometimes originatebackfromcolonialtimes(Matly2010). Suchanapproachcouldbesupportedbyarangeofadvancedtechnologiessuchasdynamiclinerating,coordinated specialprotectionschemes,coordinatedcorrectivepowerflowandvoltagecontroltechniques(potentiallysupported bywideareamonitoring,protectionandcontroltechnologies),andapplicationofadvanceddecisionmakingtools. 63 Balijepalli, Khaparde, and Gupta (2009) underline the need for open, performancebased standards to ensure modularityandinteroperability.
64 62 61

AnoverviewofhowstandardscansupportorhamperSmartGridsdevelopmentsisprovidedinEPRI(2009).

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Ultimately,acosteffectivesystemrequiresallplayerstointeractcompetitively,optimisingdemandand supply(Strbac,Ramsay,andMoreno2009).Thiswouldrequireacompetitive,usercentreddistributed energymarketplacebasedonrealtimepricesdesignedtointegratewholesaleandretailenergymarkets. Whilesuchmarketsarestillmostlyconceptual,intime,itwillbeimportanttounderstandandintegrate demandintosystemdesignandoperationforsubSaharanAfrica,supportedbyusercentricmarket models.Thisapproachwillbecriticalforenhancingaccesstoelectricityservices,especiallygiventhe magnitudeoftheeconomicvalueofassociatedbenefitssuchasenhancedassetutilizationandimproved operationalefficiency.

3.6TRANSMISSIONANDDISTRIBUTIONSYSTEMS
Crucialbenefitsofelectricitygridsresultfromadiversificationofbothdemandandsupply.National distributionnetworksofseveralthousandhouseholdsareusuallylargeenoughtoprofitfromdemand diversityandassociatedsignificantsavingsinsupplycapacityrequirements(Strbac,Jenkins,andGreen 2006)65. Largertransmissionnetworksarerequiredtoprofitfromdiversificationofsupply(BazilianandRoques 2008)byexploitingregionalenergyresourcesandinfrastructure66.Transmissionexpansionscan significantlyenhancetheabilityofthesystemtominimisefluctuationsindemandandsupply,increasethe availabilityofbackupcapacity(ECF2010),andminimisetherequiredspinningreserve.Thisisespecially truewhenaccommodatingincreasedlevelsofintermittentrenewablegeneration. CriticalvoiceslikeSebitosi&Okou(2009)howeverregardgrandinfrastructureplanstolinkuptheAfrican continentspowergridsasobsoleteintheageofSmartGrids.Someaspectsofthisviewaremirroredinthe U.S.byCavanagh(2008)67andFoxPenner(2005)68,whoemphasisetheimportanceoffocusingonregional andsubregionalgrids.However,asanexample,highcapacitytransmissioncorridorsarestillexpectedto formthebackboneoftheU.S.gridin2030(DOE2003). Sebitosi&Okou(2009)furthersuspectthatsupergridswouldlargelyservetoextractuntappednatural resourcesfromthelessdevelopedtothemoreindustrializedmembers.Anexampletheycitecomprises highvoltagedirectcurrent(HVDC)linestointegraterenewableenergyfromNorthAfricancountriesinto theEuropeanpowersystem(Battaglinietal.2009;DESERTECFoundation2009).Suchplansseemtobethe mainfocusofcurrentdiscussionsonmoderngridinvestmentsinAfrica.Itremainstobeseentowhat extenttheunderservedinAfricawillprofitfromsuchinitiatives.
Thecapacityofanelectricitysystemsupplyingseveralthousandhouseholdsisonlyabout10%ofthetotalcapacity thatwouldberequiredifeachindividualhouseholdweretobeselfsufficientandprovideitsowngenerationcapacity. Afurtherincreaseinthenumberofhouseholdshoweveronlyresultsinminimalsavings. 66 FortheSouthernAfricanregion,Graeber(2005)identifiedsavingsof$24billionover20years,equaling5%oftotal system costs, when optimizing generation and transmission investments at a regional level. 60% of this savings potentialcanbeattributedtoloweroperationalcosts. CavanaghrecommendsthatestablishingasingleinterconnectednationalgridintheU.S.shouldbelessofagoal thenupgradingthecurrentthreegiantregionalgrids.
68 67 65

FoxPennersuggestssubdividingregionalgridsintosmallergridsbuildingondirectcurrentlinestoavoidcascading failures.

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4. Neartermconsiderations
InlinewithfindingsfromtheETPSmartGrids(2006),implementationofSmartGridsforsubSaharanAfrica will,interalia,require:atoolboxofproventechnicalsolutions,harmonisedregulatoryandcommercial frameworks,sharedtechnicalstandardsandprotocols,andsupportiveICTsystems.Thesuccessful interfacingofnewandolddesignswillbeespeciallyimportantinviewoffutureproofingcurrentgrid infrastructureprojectsinacosteffectiveway,toensurecompatibilitywithfutureplanstoupgradecurrent systemstoSmartGrids.Mostimportantly,SmartGridsrequirethedevelopmentofhumancapacityto implementandmanagethecomplextechnologiesinvolvedandtheenablingenvironmentstoovercome barriers69,triggerrequiredinvestments,andultimatelydemonstratethebenefitsofSmartandJustGrids. AccordingtotheIEA(2010),technicalcapacityhastobedevelopedfromarelativelylowlevelindeveloping countries,lendingfurtherprioritisationtocapacitybuildinginitiatives.

4.1APPLYINGTHECONCEPT
ParticularelementsofSmartandJustGridswilloffertangibleanddirectbenefitsintheshortterm.Their applicationwillservetotestandenhancetheconceptinthesubSaharancontext,andhelpusunderstand howtoexpanditsscopeinthefuture.Theseelementsinclude: Transmissionandsubstationdesign:Especiallyforlongertransmissionlines,thescaleoftechnicallosses canbecomeconsiderable70.SmartGridscanhelpreducesuchlosses,forexamplebyimprovedpowerlines andtransformers,aswellasimplementingregularmaintenanceschemes(Niez2010).Widearea monitoringandcontrol71cansupporttheaccurateinformationrequiredforrealtimedecisionmakingto respondbettertodisturbanceswithinthesystem(SCE2010).Thiswillenhanceutilizationofprimarygrid infrastructureandcontributetoamoreefficientsystemoperation.Someoftherequiredadvanced transmissiontechnologies72maytargetthemoredevelopedexistinggridsinsubSaharanAfrica,andmay bedisproportionateinareaswithlimitedgridcoverage. Distributionsystemdesign:Distributionautomationtechnologiescanhelpimprovepowersystemsby extendingintelligentcontrol(SCE2010).Forexample,smartsensorsandflexibleandintelligentswitches andinterruptersatcriticalpointsondistributioncircuitswillminimizetheextentofoutagesandincrease thespeedofrestoration,whilekeepingcostincreasesataminimum.Smartdistributiontechnologies allowingforincreasedlevelsofdistributedgenerationwillbeespeciallyimportantforaddressingrural electrificationneedsandminimiseconnectioncosts.Theplanninganddesignofthesenetworkswillrequire
69

BarriersfordevelopingSmartGridsinSouthAfricacanbefoundinBipath(2010).Challenges,driversandpriorities indevelopingcountriesarementionedinBhargava(2010).

Forasenseofscale,SebitosiandOkou(2009)notethat,theestimatedamountofpowerthatislostduringthe delivery of 2000 MW from Cahora Bassa through the 1500 km line to South Africa is nearly equal to the entire consumptioncapacityofMozambique,thehostgeneratingcountry. Thisrepresentsashiftfromtheapplicationoftraditionallocalbasedcontrolinexistingpowersystems.However, gridcontrolanddesigntechniquesthatincorporatesuchcoordinatedcontrolareyettobeestablished. Inadditiontosynchrophasors,wideareamonitoringandcontrolcanbuildonintelligentelectronicdevicessuchas protectiverelays,programmablecontrollersandstandalonedigitalfaultrecorders.Examplesofapplicationsinclude coordinated VoltAmpere Reactive (VAR) control solutions (Yuan et al. 2010) and adaptive system islanding and resynchronisation(SCE2010).Further,deployinglowsag,hightemperatureconductorsanddynamiclineratingcan significantlyincreasetheelectriccurrentcarryingcapacity.
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fullhorizonplanning,i.e.a20yearplusperiod.Thedevelopmentofthesegridswillbeatypicalbutexisting workondistributionplanningmayprovideacanvasfromwhichtowork(FletcherandStrunz2007). Nontechnicallossesindevelopingcountriescanoftenbeattributedtouncollecteddebt,tamperedmeters andinconsistenciesinbillingduetocorruptmeterreadersorillegalconnections(Niez2010;Zheng2007). Powertheftoftencontributessignificantlytooverallsystemlossesindevelopingcountries73,reducingthe economicperformanceofutilities.Highvoltagedistributionlinescanhelppreventillegalconnectionsand improvepowerqualityandreliability(Niez2010).Smartmeteringinfrastructurewithanindependent transformerloadingbasedvalidationprocesscanhelpreducetheftfurther.Additionally,meterbased tariffsincentiviseanefficientuseofelectricity,whichcanresultinconsiderableloadreduction74. Smartminiandmicrogrids:Mini,andespeciallymicro,gridswithhighsharesofrenewableenergyare generallycomplextoimplement,primarilybecauseoffluctuatinggenerationandalowloadfactor75.The taskofmaintainingadequatepowerqualitybecomesachallenge,forexampleduetospikesassociated withthestartingcurrentofmotorloads(Makarand,Mukul,andBanerjee2010)ortheneedtoprovide someformofbackuppower.Smartcomponentscanhelpcushionsucheffectsandbetterbalancethe overallsystem,throughintegratingnewdemandsidemanagementoptions.Costsofsuchsystemsmaybe furthercutthroughtheimplementationof(DC)microgrids,especiallywhencombinedwithphotovoltaic generation.WhilelossescanbereducedthroughsavinglayersofDC/ACpowerconversion,themore expensiveprotectivedevicesrequiredforfaultmanagementandcontrol,suchascoordinatedpower converters,addcomplexityandoutweighsomeofthepotentialsavings. Demandsidemanagement:Demandsidemanagementoptionsforlarge76consumerloads,likeload controlswitchesatindustrialorinstitutionalfacilities,cancontributetooptimisingthequalityofenergy servicesandreducingloadshedding77.Thisusuallyaffectsthepoorestelectricityconsumersthemost. Radiocontrolledinterruptibleinstitutionalwaterheatersorwaterpumpingsystemsconstitutejusttwo examplesforsuchloadcontrol.Atthehouseholdlevel,smartappliancescouldalsocontribute.For example,smartrefrigeratorsthatholdenoughthermalstoragetowithstandinterruptionsoravoidpower useduringpeakloadscouldbedeployed.SmartGridswouldfurtherallowtheprioritisationofconsumer loadsaccordingtopublicimportance,guaranteeingahighersecurityofsupplyforbuildingssuchas hospitalsratherthanforenterprisesorhouseholds78.AsshowninJazayerietal.(2005),dueconsideration
73

In addition to pure electricity theft, cable theft may constitute a significant problem. In various municipalities in SouthAfrica,alldaystreetlightingisusedasanearlywarningsystem,despitegenerationconstraints(Niez2010).

74

InaminigridinNicaragua,theabandonmentofaflatratetariffaftertheinstallationofmetershelpedreducethe overallelectricityloadby28%byencouragingamoreconscioususeofelectricity,enablingtheminigridtooperate forlonger(CasillasandKammen).

Energyconservationsupplycurvesformeasuresregardinggeneration,meteringandenergyefficiencymeasuresare providedinCasillasandKammen(inpress)foraminigridinNicaragua.
76 77

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Largecomparedwiththetotalcapacityofthegrid.

IntheIndiancontext,demandsidemanagementhasalsobeenproposedtoensureahigherqualityofelectricity supplyforcustomerswhoregularlypaytheirbills,andlessgoodqualityforthosewhodonot(Zheng2007).

78

Thisrepresentsashiftfromtraditionalpreventivecontrolphilosophytocorrective,justintime,controlapproach. Benefitsincludeenhancedutilizationofgridassetsandimprovedefficiency.Supportivenewtechniquesandtoolsfor system operation and design need to be developed and applied. For example, at industrial and institutional levels,

22

ofpriceandsystemsecurityisessential.Aspartofsuchloadmanagement,aJustGridcouldensurereliable andlowcostaccessforthepoorduringoffpeakhours,foractivitiessuchascooking,whilecurtailedaccess wouldbeprovidedduringtimesofhigherdemand79.Thiscouldalsoencouragepeopletoadoptenergy efficientpracticesforpeaktimes,eitherbecauseofhighertariffsordependencyonbatteries80. Localchargingstations:Whileruralelectrificationisapriorityinmanycountries,itcannotbeentirely equatedwithelectricityaccessforthepoor,asmillionsofpeoplelivenearthegridbutcannotafforda connection(Meier2001;WB1995).Forthesepeople,chargingstationsensureaminimumlevelofaccess toelectricityservices,forexample,forcharginglanternsorbatteriestopowertheirradioorTV.Elaborating asuccessfulbusinessmodel81forbatterychargingservicesatthesestationsmayfurthercontributeto increasedpowerqualityandreliabilityinminigrids,bycompensatingpowerflowandvoltagefluctuations. Chargingstationscouldfurtherminimiseoreliminatetherunningofbackupdieselgeneratorsandspawn localbusinessesandjobs82.Anotherpossibilitywouldbetheintroductionofelectricbicyclesfortaxi services;thesecouldbechargedatstationsduringoffpeakhours,combiningincomegenerationwith demandsidemanagement83. Billingschemes:AsmanySmartGridcomponentsbuildonICT,theymightprofitfrompiggybackingon futuretelecomserviceexpansions,suchastheprovisionofelectricityconsumptioninformationviamobile phones.Chargingprepaidconsumptioncredits84viamobilephonesusingscratchcardsorcomparable devicesmayhelpaddressthespecificneedsofthepoorandreduceadministrativecostsrelatedtometer readingsandbilling85.Abasictimeofusepricingschemeathouseholdlevelmayeasilybeintroducedin subSaharanAfricatohelpbalancedemand86.Conceivably,tariffsmayevenbedelineatedbyserviceto allowfortargetedsubsidies.Forenergyintensiveindustries,realtimepricingmaybeconsidered.In addition,onbillfinancing87ofenergyefficientappliances88maybeanimportanttooltohelpconsumers overcomehighupfrontcosts.
underfrequency protective relays for heating, cooling and motor loads can provide significant support for grid operation.
79 80

Suchdemandwouldcomefromloadsthatrequirehigherreliability,suchasindustrialandcommercialusage.

Thishasbeenobservedwithwatersupplyschemes,wherecommunitiesadjusttheirbehaviourtoaccessacritical buteconomicalresource.Peoplecarryoutwaterintensivefunctionssuchascleaningclothesduringhoursofsupply, andreserveactivitiesthatneedlesswater,suchascooking,fortimeswithnosupply.

81 82 83

Thismodelwouldneedtocoverthelogisticsofbatteryownership,managementandcharging. Forexample,chargingservices,millsforgrindinggrain,ITservicesorcommunitymeetingplaces.

Due to strong policy support, China has four times more electric bicycles than cars on its roads, with 21 million bicyclesboughtin2008alone,atpricestypicallybelowUSD300(Ramzy2009).Bycontrollingtheirchargingtimethey couldbecomeoneelementofaSmartGrid. Botswana and other countries were already using prepaid meters in the 1980s (McDonald 2009). Refer to Niez (2010) for information on the introduction of prepaid electricity meters under South Africas Integrated National ElectrificationProgramme.
85 86 84

Forcustomerswithatelecomcontract,theelectricitybillmayaswellbechargedtothemonthlytelephonebill.

As already outlined as a demand side management option, this may include special schemes where lowcost electricityisprovidedatoffpeakhourstoensureaffordableaccessforthepoor,butwithlowerreliabilityduringthe restoftheday.Loadsrequiringhigherreliabilitywouldneedtopayahighertariffforthisprivilege.
87

Referto(Kammen)forfurtherinformationononbillfinancing.

23

Informationsystemsarchitecture:Smartdatamanagementtoolswillhelputilitiesdistilrelevant informationinamanageableandunderstandableformat.Diagnosticsoftwarewillfurtherhelpmonitorthe healthofgridassets,predictproblemsinpowerdistribution,andinitiatecorrectiveaction.Therequired architecturemustensureinteroperabilityandenableasmoothtransitionfromexistingtofuturepower systems(SCE2010).Specialattentiontosecurityissueswillberequiredincountrieswithlimitedrobust governanceregimes.Userfriendlyinterfaces,suchascellphonebillingandtransparentmetering,willbe equallyimportanttoengagecustomerssuccessfully.

4.2ENSURINGCOORDINATEDACTION
RegardlessofwhichspecificaspectsofSmartandJustGridsforsubSaharanAfricaarepursued, internationalcooperationwillbeessential89.Suchcooperationwouldfurtherbenefitfromtheclose involvementoforganisationssuchasexistingSmartGridalliancesinindustrialisedcountries(e.g.ETPSmart Grids,GridWiseAlliance)andnascentbodiesliketheInternationalSmartGridActionNetworkortheGlobal SmartGridFederation,bothannouncedattheFirstCleanEnergyMinisterial(2010).SouthSouth CooperationshouldformanintegralelementoftherequiredinternationalactionasmanysubSaharan Africancountriesfacesimilarchallengestothedevelopingandemergingeconomiesofcountriessuchas India90. Morespecifically,SmartandJustGridsforsubSaharanAfricacanprofitfrominternationalcooperationin thefollowingareas: Analysisofpotentialandroadmaps:IdentifysubSaharanAfricaspotentialtoprofitfromSmartandJust Grids,includinganassessmentofassociatedcostsandbenefits.Developaroadmapupto2030including identificationoftechnologysolutionsthatcanberapidlyandcosteffectivelydeployedintheshortterm. ThisroadmapcouldbealignedwithsimilareffortsbytheIEA. Countryassessments:Provideinternationalsupportforpreliminaryassessmentofthepowersectorsand theirneeds,focusingonpolicy,regulatory,legal,institutionalandcommercialframeworks,energyplanning tools,transmissionanddistributionsystemdesign,operationalmodalities,technologiesandtechnical standards.Basedonthisassessment,developcountryspecificbusinessanddevelopmentcasesforSmart andJustGrids,withclearlydefinedtechnologytransferroutes.Prioritiseinvestmentsinspecificsmart elementswithclearlydefinedmechanismsforreturnoninvestment91. Powersystemdesign:Developanddeployinternationallysupportedopensourceorwidelyavailable modellingtoolsandcapacitiesforpowersystemdesignandoperation.Adjustpowersystemdesigntothe
In a minigrid in Nicaragua, the introduction of compact fluorescent lights helped to cut demand by 17%, which meanttheminigridcouldoperateforlonger(CasillasandKammen). According to Bipath (2010), international cooperation for Smart Grids is expected to focus on standardisation, cybersecurityandinteroperability.
90 91 89 88

Balijepalli,Khaparde,andGupta(2009)reportthedetailedrequirementsandneedsforSmartGridsinIndia.

Whileweemphasisetheimportanceofbusinesscasedevelopment,itneedstoberecognisedthatmanyhistorical infrastructureprojectswerebasedonhomegrownnationbuildinginitiatives.

24

specificcontext:simpleplanningtoolscanaddressurgentelectrificationneedsin,forexample,post conflictareas;moresophisticatedtoolsarerequiredtoupgradeextensiveexistingpowersystemstoSmart andJustGrids.Itiscriticallyimportantthatthearchitecturedevelopedenablesfuturesystemupgrades withoutaddingsignificantcostsduringearlyimplementationstages. Pilotprojects:Implementjointpilotprojectsbasedonidentifiedfasttracksolutions.Asthedeploymentof smartelectricitysystemsredefinestherolesofstakeholders,thesepilotprojectswillhelpunderstand stakeholderbehaviorwithintheseredefinedrolesandtestthemarketsbeforeengaginginmassive rollouts.Remoteruralelectrificationschemeswithhigherpenetrationratesofrenewableenergysources wouldserveasaparticularlygoodstartingpointfortestingtheconceptofSmartandJust(mini)Grids. Enablingenvironments:Helppromotesupportivepolicy,regulatory,institutional,legalandcommercial frameworks,includingtherequiredcodesandstandards.SubSaharanAfricaespeciallycanprofitfrom ongoingeffortsinindustrialisedcountriestoadjustrelatednetworkstandards.Additionally,legislation precedentscanbeemployedtohelpreduceelectricitytheft92.Further,internationaldesigncompetitions supportedbyfinancialrewardcouldsupportbusinesscasedevelopmentbyhelpingtohighlightchallenges anddevelopinnovativesolutions. Capacitybuildinginitiatives:Basedonskillsassessments,trainkeystakeholderssuchasMinistriesin chargeofenergyissues,powerpoolrepresentatives,energyregulatorsandnationalsystemoperatorson theSmartandJustGridconcept.DevelopingtheassetmanagementcapacitiesofAfricanutilitiesand energyentrepreneurstomaintaintechnicalsystemsandequipmentwillbevitalforensuringthe sustainabledeploymentofSmartandJustGrids.Concertedinternationaleffortstodevelopcentresof competencyinpowerengineeringforselectedsubSaharanAfricancountrieswillhelpbuildupthe requiredregionalandnationalexpertise. Forasuccessfultransitiontowardssmartandjustenergysystems,suchinternationalcooperationwillneed tobecomplementedbycloseengagementwithregionalandnationalstakeholders,frompolicyand institutionallevelstogenerators,consumers,powerequipmentmanufacturersandICTproviders.While SmartandJustGridsrequirestrongpubliccommitment,includingfunding,theprivatesectorasthemain engineofeconomicgrowthhasanessentialroleinsupportingrelatedinitiativesinsubSaharanAfrica. Creatingreliableinvestmentenvironmentswillhelptoengageallkeyplayerseffectively.

5. Conclusion
SubSaharanAfricaischaracterisedbysignificantelectricityrelatedchallengesintermsofresources, infrastructure,costandsustainability.Anumberofregionalandnationalenergystrategies,policiesand targetsaimtoaddressthesechallengesandaccelerateelectrificationrates,althoughtheyhaveyetto translateintosignificantimplementationmeasures.Findingwaystoenhancefuturepowersystems representsakeytaskforgovernments,regionalpowerpoolsandutilities.Someapproachesmayenable
Chinas major reform of the rural power management system in 1988, combined with rural grid enhancements, helpedreducelossesinlowvoltagegridsby3045%andconsequentlyloweredelectricityprices.RefertoNiez(2010) forfurtherinformation.Foranotherexample,refertoIndias2003ElectricityAct,whichheavilypenalizeselectricity theft(Niez2010).
92

25

subSaharanAfricatoleapfrogtraditionalpowersystemspracticesandmovetoSmartGridelementsinthe shortterm.Otherswillrequirepreconditionstobeestablishedinordertoavoidtechnologylockinand ensurecompatibilitywithnewconceptsandtechnologiesinthefuture. WehavedescribedanaugmentationoftheconceptofSmartGridandpresentedabroaddefinitionof SmartandJustGridsforsubSaharanAfrica,embracingtheneedtoguaranteeinclusiveaccesstomodern energyserviceswithoutmarginalizingthepoor.Thisrefinedconceptwillneedtobecarefullyintegrated intonationalandregionalenergyplanning,regulationandmarkets,inordertobalancethecostsand benefitsofregionalgridintegrationwiththoseofnationalandlocalSmartGrids. WehavefurtheridentifiedsomeelementsofSmartandJustGridsthatoffertangibleanddirectbenefitsin theshortterm.ExploringtheconceptofSmartandJustGridsbyimplementingtheseelementsand suggestedareasforinternationalcooperationwillbeessentialforrealisingsignificantfuturebenefits. Thesewillgowellbeyondimprovedvoltageandfrequencycontrol. Fromaneconomicperspective,reliableenergysupplythroughSmartandJustGridswillhelpfoster economicgrowth.Fromanenvironmentalperspective,SmartGridswillsupportandaccelerateacost effectivetransitiontolowcarboneconomiesbyloweringgreenhousegasemissions.Finallyandmost importantly,fromasocietalperspective,accesstoelectricityisaprerequisitetowardsdevelopmentasitis linkedtomanyaspectsofthedevelopmentagenda,includingaccesstobetterhealthservices,education andsecurity. ThemassiveelectricityinfrastructurerequirementsinsubSaharanAfricaofferauniqueopportunityto learnfromgriddevelopmentsinindustrialisedcountriesandmoveforwardwithoutnecessarilyrepeating allpreviousdevelopmentstages.Weshouldtakeadvantageofthissignificantopportunitytoensurethat subSaharanAfricasfuturegridisdesignedinawaythatisbothsmartandjust.

Acknowledgements
Wewouldliketoacknowledgethesupportof:LawrenceMusaba(SAPP),SperoMensah(AREVA),Giuseppe DeSimone,ClaudiaLinkeHeep,AloisMhlanga,PradeepMonga,PatrickNussbaumerandMarina Ploutakhina(UNIDO),FatihBirol(IEA),GuidoBartels(IBM),IainMacGillandHughOuthred(UNSW),Carol Brooks(UM),JohnShine,FergalMcnamaraandPadraigMcManus(ESB),EamonRyanandSaraWhite (DCENR),MarkOMalley(UCD),S.A.Khapardeh(IIT,Bombay),MichaelLiebreich(BNEF),andDanKammen (WorldBank).

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