Vibrations 10

Vibrations and Aeroelasticity
Vibrations
Session Objective
To illustrate the principles of Structural Vibrations To illustrate application of Vibration Principles in the design of aircraft Structures
2006 Confidential and proprietary to Infosys Technologies Ltd
1.1 Introduction
(1) Some Basic Terms Vibration : Any to and fro motion is called Vibration Ex: Sea waves, Simple pendulum Simple Harmonic Motion: Motion of the projection Q of a point P moving on a circle at a uniform angular velocity - on the diameter. y y = A sin Q * P =t . A y = - A cos .. 2 A sin y=- x 2 y =..+ y = 0 2 y
1.1 Introduction
Amplitude of Vibration : A Period : Time required for repeating a cycle Frequency : f No of cycles per second = 1/ =2f Phase angle: angle between 2 vectors rotating at same speed
x A= Amplitude
0
y x
t
= period
1.1 Introduction
(2) Some useful Vibrations : Musical notes; Sieving machine Some harmful Vibrations: Earth quake; Rotor unbalance (3) Types of Vibrations (i) Free vibration: Vibration that takes place after an externally applied disturbance seizes. (ii) Forced vibration: Vibration that takes place during the application of an external dynamic load (a) Sinusoidal vibrations : Ex; Motor unbalance (b) Transient vibrations vary in magnitude with time and act for a specific time: Ex; Rocket motor firing (c) Random vibrations characterized by statistical quantities: Ex; earth quake
1.1 Introduction
(4) Important Components in Vibration: (a) Stiffness K : Elasticity of the elements (b) Mass M : Density of the material and objects (c) Damping C : Due to intermolecular action in material, friction in joints, specifically dampers (d) Dynamic load : time dependent (5) Classification of Structures for the Present Study (a) Single degree of freedom systems (b) Two degree of freedom systems (c) Continuous systems: Ex beams, plates, shells (d) Multi degree of freedom systems
1.1 Introduction
(6) Importance of Vibrations in Aircraft Design The airplane structure being light weight and flexible is very susceptible to vibrations and noise transmission. The noise and vibration have to be reduced in commercial planes if they have to be competitive with other transport. The source of noise are generally the propeller, engines and aerodynamic forces. It is better to isolate such disturbances from getting transmitted to airframe. Equipment mounted in airplanes must be prevented from excessive vibrations which can lead to malfunction or strength or fatigue failures. Aerodynamic forces can induce high amplitude vibrations which can damage the structural components like nose wheel doors. They can also result in increasing loads on deflected surfaces like wings causing instability and failures
1.2 Free Vibration of Structures

1.2.1 Single Degree of Freedom Systems (1) Equation of Equilibrium
c x k Elastic force Inertial force Viscous force m k (x-0) m x c x
.. .
Total internal force = kx + cx + mx = External Nodal Force = 0
..

(2) Natural Frequency If we neglect damping x + n2 x = 0 where n =(k/m) radians/sec is the circular natural frequency of the system
..
fn = 1/(2 ). (k/m) cycles/sec Alternatively: If W is the weight of the mass m and gravity g acts in the direction x, the static deflection of the weight is given by = W/k where W = mg fn = 1/(2 ). (g/ ) This expression is seen to be a good approximation for natural frequency of even quite complex structures also, if is interpreted as the maximum deflection under 1g load.

Torsional Natural Frequency + t2 = 0 where is the angular motion of an inertia of I attached to a torsional spring of stiffness kt and t =(kt/I) radians/sec is the circular torsional natural frequency of the system
..
ft = 1/(2 ). (kt/I) cycles/sec Alternatively: If T is the torque given to a mass moment of inertia I at an angular acceleration , the static rotation of the inertial body is given by = T/kt where T = I ft = 1/(2 ). (/)

(3) Free Vibration Response Considering damping, the general solution of the second order differential equation is obtained as: (i) Solve auxiliary equation m 2 + c + k = 0 for 2 roots 1, 2 = (a + ib) where a = -c/2m b = [(c/2m)2 (k/m)] (ii) Then x = C1 e1t + C2 e2 t or in general x = eat [A cos (bt) + B sin (bt)] This equation can be solved for x given two initial conditions, for ex; x = 0 at t =0 and x = v0 at t =0, then A = 0 and B = v0/b x = (v0/b) eat sin (bt)

(4) Free Vibration Response Effect of damping c is called critical damping cc when (c/2m)2 = (k/m) or Cc = 2m n The damping ratio is defined as (c/cc) In terms of the equilibrium equation reduces to =0 Consider different damping scenarios: (i) Under damped system: < 1 The system oscillates at damped natural frequency d with logarithmically decreasing amplitudes in successive cycles
n n
.. + 2 x + 2 x . x
n (1 - 2)
This is usually the form of damping in many structures.


(ii) Critically damped system: = 1 It is threshold of a situation where the system comes to rest slowly without oscillating. Critical damping is useful in door closures, measuring devices, pick up heads of turn tables etc. (iii) Overdamped system: > 1 In this case also the system comes to rest without oscillating but takes more time than when critically damped. Such high damping is useful in recoil mechanism of field guns and military hardware to absorb the shock during the operation of equipment. (iv) Undamped system: = 0 This is a hypothetical situation. In this case the system oscillates at a constant amplitude for an indefinite period.
Free vibration response of masswithout damping (Top) and under damping (Bottom)
Normalised response of mass with Overdamping (top) and critical damping (bottom) with time

1.2.2 Two Degree of Freedom Systems
(1) Equations of Equilibrium
x1 m1 m2 k2 k1 (x1 0) k2 (x1 x2) m1 x1
x2
k1 Elastic force Inertial force
k2 (x2 x1) m2 x2
..
..
At m1 : m1 x1 + k1 (x1 0) + k2 (x1 x2) = 0 At m2: m2 x2 + k2 (x2 x1) = 0

.. ..

(2) Natural Frequencies In a matrix form the equations of equilibrium are written as KX+ MX=0 where stiffness matrix K and mass matrix M are given by k1 + k2 K= -k2 k2 -k2 M= m2 m1 0
..
The solution is given by [K - n2 M] X = 0 Where n2 is a diagonal matrix of eigen values or natural frequencies and X is matrix whose columns are corresponding eigen vectors.

For non trivial solution K - n2 M = 0 From which the eigen values are determined. ( k1 + k2 ) - n2 -k2 -k2 =0 k2 - n2
12 , 22 = (1/2) [ a + (a2 b2] where a = [ 22 + 12 (1+ k2/k1)] and b = 2 1 2 12 = k1/m1 and 22 = k2/m2 are individual frequencies of separate spring-mass sytems Thus a two degree of freedom system has two natural frequencies

Example problem: Let k1 = 10 kgf/mm ; k2 = 20 kgf/mm ; m1 = 5 kg and m2 = 20 kg and g = 10**4 mm/sec2 12 = k1/m1 = 10*10**4/5 = 2*10**4 22 = k2/m2 = 20*10**4/20 = 10**4 a = [ 22 + 12 (1+ k2/k1)] = 7*10**4 b = 2 1 2 = 2 2*10**4 12 , 22 = (1/2) [ a + (a2 b2] = (1/2) [7*10**4 + (49*10**8 8*10**8)] = 0.3*10**4; 6.7*10**4 f1 = 8.7 Hz f2 = 41.2 Hz

Alternative method of frequency calculation If W1 and W2 are the weights of the masses m1 and m2; then under 1 g load the displacements are calculated as k1 + k2 -k2 -k2 k2 x1 = x2 W2 W1
The maximum displacement = x2 = (W1/k1) + (1/k1 + 1/k2)W2 The natural frequency f1 = 1/(2 ). (g/ ) For the example problem = 3.5 mm and f1 = 8.5 Hz
Mode 1:
m2 m1
Mode 2:
m1
m2

1.2.3 Continuous Systems- Beams (1) Equation of Equilibrium If we consider a unit length of a beam of uniform cross section and subjected to and external load of w/unit length, it is in equilibrium between internal and external load as given by the equation; EI d4y / dx4 = w where y is the lateral deflection. If m is the mass per unit length of the beam and vibrating at frequency of n, instead of external load w, we can consider the inertial force ( m y ) = - mn2 y to be acting in addition to the elastic force. Therefore we get EI d4y / dx4 - mn2 y = 0 or d4y / dx4 - 4 y = 0 where 4 = (mn2) / (EI) is called frequency parameter
..

(2) Natural Frequencies (i) Solve auxiliary equation 4 - 4 = 0 for 4 roots 1 = ; 2 = -; 1 = i; 2 = -i (ii) Then y = A cos (x) + B sin (x) + C cosh (x) + D sinh (x)
We need 4 boundary conditions to solve for the constants.

Example Problem: Consider a simply supported beam of length l. At x = 0, y= 0 it gives A + C = 0 x = 0, d2y/dx2 = 0 it gives A - C = 0 From the above 2 eqs A = C = 0 x = l, y = 0 it gives B sin (l) + D sinh (l) = 0 x = l, d2y/dx2 = 0 it gives B sin (l) - D sinh (l) = 0

From the above 2 equations we get B sin (l) = 0 , the general solution of which is l = n where n = 1,2,3,4 -----. The natural frequencies are given by n = ( n22/l2) (EI/m) It can be seen that the natural frequencies of simply supported beam are in the ratio 12, 22, 32, 42 -f1 = 1.5708 (EI/Ml3) where M is mass of the beam First natural frequency from static deflection: The maximum deflection of simply supported beam with a udl of w is = (5/384) (Wl3/EI) from which f1 = 1.395 (EI/Ml3) The ratio of exact to approximate frequency is 1.13 A scale factor of 1.25 on f1 is found to give best approximation for any general structure with distributed mass.

First natural frequency from Raleighs Method The potential energy of the whole beam PE = (EI/2) (d2y/dx2)2dx integrated between x=0 and l The kinetic energy of the whole beam KE = (1/2) mv2 = (1/2) m n2 y2dx integrated between x=0 and l The maximum PE is equal to maximum KE as no energy is lost. n2 = (EI/m) (d2y/dx2)2dx / y2dx The natural frequency is not very sensitive to deflection curve. A function which satisfies boundary conditions is usually chosen to get reasonably accurate first frequency estimate.

Example of simply Supported Beam Let y = x (l x) The potential energy of the whole beam PE = (EI/2) (d2y/dx2)2dx integrated between x=0 and l = 2EI. l The kinetic energy of the whole beam KE = (1/2) m n2 y2dx integrated between x=0 and l = (1/60) m n2 l5 n2 = 120 (EI/ml4) ; f1 = 1.743 (EI/ml4)
Typical mode shapes of different beams

Fundamental Bending frequency of Aircraft Wing with Single Engine Burgess proposed an approximate method where the wing curvature is assumed to be constant. d2y/dx2 = C Raleighs method and step by step integration is performed for solution. This is found to give reasonably accurate estimate. Usually C is taken as unity. Consistent units are: length- in, weight - lbs

Example problem of wing bending frequency Station 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Total Distance 220 200 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 I(d2y/dx2)2 2 6 22 52 96 156 234 329 422 480 546 620 2965 dy/dx/20 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 y/400 66 55 45 36 28 21 15 10 6 3 1 0 y2/160000 4336 3025 2025 1296 784 441 225 100 36 9 1 0 w 0.53 0.72 0.91 1.1 1.29 1.48 1.67 1.86 2.05 2.24 2.43 2.62 wy2/160000 2298 2178 1843 1426 1011 653 376 186 74 20 2 0 10067
f = 1/2/ (386*10*7*2965)/(10067*16000) = 13.42 hz More exact method gives 13.36 Hz

1.2.4 Multi Degree of Freedom Systems (1) Equation of Equilibrium MX+KX=0 (2) Natural Frequencies and Modes For a non trivial solution K - n2 M = 0 Methods: * For small problems and many/ all frequencies and vectors - Determinant expansion - Givens method * For large problems and few frequencies and vectors - Subspace iteration - Lanczos method
..

A free structure has 6 rigid body modes and many elastic modes . A constrained structure has only elastic modes. The elastic modes are orthogonal with respect to stiffness and mass matrices TK = k generalised stiffnesses and TM = m generalised masses The elastic modes are normalised such that (a) The maximum component is unity or (b) The rms value of the vector is unity or (c) The generalised stiffness/ mass is unity The rigid body modes can be normalised with unity in each direction at a base point. The rigid body mass is given by TM = M0 referred to base
1.3 Forced Vibration of Structures

1.3.1 Single Degree of Freedom Systems (1) Equation of Equilibrium
c x k Elastic force Inertial force Viscous force m k (x-0) m x c x F (, t)
.. .
Total internal force = kx + cx + mx = External Nodal Force = F
..

(2) Sinusoidal Load (a) Steady State Force Vibration Let input Force = F = F0 eit is excitation frequency F0 is magnitude of Force Structure vibrates at same frequency as excitation Let x = A eit be structural response . = Ai eit x .. x = -2 A eit Substituting in equation of equilibrium A [ -2m + ic + n2m ] = F0 A = F0/ [ (n2-2) m + ic] = / [ (1 r2) + i r(2) ] where is static deflection F0/k ; r is frequency ratio (/n); and damping ratio

The displacement increases to a maximum as the excitation frequency reaches close to natural frequency, r=1. This situation is called resonance. The peak depends only on damping. The amplification of displacement over static displacement Q (magnification) is given by 1/2. Below the natural frequency, r<1, the displacement is in the same direction as the applied force. After the natural frequency, r>1, the displacement is exactly in opposite direction to applied force.

(b) Steady State Base Vibration Let input Force = F = F0 eit
c x xb (, t) k Elastic force Inertial force Viscous force m k (x-xb) m x
.. .
Total internal force = k(x-xb) + cx + mx = 0
..
c x

Let xr = x-xb . + mx = -mx .. .. kxr + cxr r b Let input base displacement = xb = X0 eit is excitation frequency X0 is magnitude of base displacement Then Xr response of mass relative to base is given by Xr = r2X0 / [ (1 r2) + i r(2) ] This curve shows that when base excitation frequency is higher than 2 times natural frequency, r> 2, the (relative) response of the mass will be less than base imposed displacement. This situation is called isolation. On the other hand if the excitation frequency is lower than natural frequency, r<1, the mass displacement will be amplified over base displacement. At resonance r=1 it reaches a peak value of 1/2
Magnification of mass displacement with frequency ratio


(3) Transient Load The response of the mass subjected to a transient load F(t) is given by Duhamels integral over 0 to t x = (1/mn) e - n(t-t1) F(t1) sin n(t-t1)dt1 If we consider specific cases of shock loads like triangular or square pulses, the following can be observed. - if the shock frequency is low compared to natural frequency the peak response occurs during the shock and responses are high. - if the shock frequency is high compared to natural frequency the peak response occurs after the shock is over and the responses (residual shock) are generally benign. - in any case the maximum amplification is about 2

(4) Random Load Random vibration encountered in practice is mostly in the form of a base input acceleration power spectral density P specified as a function of within a band 1 and 2. The solution consists of the following steps. 1. Obtain acceleration response as magnification factor Q as a function of for a constant unit magnitude sine input. 2. Square the Q vs plot 3. Multiply the Q vs plot by input plot P vs . This plot R vs gives the psd of acceleration response as a function of . 4. The area under the curve R vs between 1 and 2 gives the mean square value of the acceleration response, which is predominantly dictated by the response close to resonance. The square root of the area gives rms value of acceleration.

If the input is a white noise P g2/hz (psd constant with ), then the root mean square value of acceleration response Rrms is given by Rrms = (/2 * P * Qmax * fn ) Example Problem An aircraft package is subjected to a white noise of 0.1 g2/hz . If the natural frequency of the package is 4 hz and damping is 5% find the rms acceleration response. Here P = 0.1 g2/hz ; Qmax = 1/2 = 10; fn = 4.0Hz Peak acceleration psd response = 100*0.1 = 10 g2/hz Rrms = (/2 * 0.1* 10.0 * 4.0 ) = 2.5g

1.3.2 Two Degree of Freedom Systems
(1) Equations of Equilibrium
x1 m1 F1 (, t) k2 k1 (x1 0) k2 (x1 x2) m1 x1 m2
x2
k1 Elastic force Inertial force
k2 (x2 x1) m2 x2
..
..
At m1 : m1 x1 + k1 (x1 0) + k2 (x1 x2) = F1 (,t) At m2: m2 x2 + k2 (x2 x1) = 0

.. ..

(2) Sinusoidal Load Steady State Force Vibration Let input Force acting on mass 1 = F1 = F0 eit is excitation frequency F0 is magnitude of Force Structure vibrates at same frequency as excitation Let x1 = A eit be structural response x2 = B eit x1 = -2 A eit x2 = -2 B eit 12 = k1/m1 and 22 = k2/m2 are individual frequencies of separate spring-mass systems
.. ..

Substituting in equations of equilibrium, we get A = F0 (22 - 2 ) / [(22 - 2 ) {(12 m1+ 22 m2 ) - 2 m1} - 24 m2] and B = F0 22 / [(22 - 2 ) {(12 m1+ 22 m2 ) - 2 m1} - 24 m2] * It is interesting to observe that when = 2 A = 0 and B = - F0/k2 This situation is called tuned dynamic absorber. The main mass m1 can be protected from excessive vibration- in fact it can be made to stand still- if an auxiliary spring mass system k2,m2 is attached, tuned to the excitation frequency of the sinusoidal force acting on the main mass. The auxiliary mass can vibrate with large amplitude but it is less vulnerable. * If the two individual component frequencies are equal, 1 = 2 when the excitation frequency equals first component frequency = 1 then always A = 0, that is the main mass is at rest.
Ratio of excitation = 12nd component frequency freq/ Displacement response of m1 for 2 dampings

1.3. 3 Multi Degree of Freedom Systems (1) Equation of Equilibrium M X + CX + K X = F (,t) (2) Sinusoidal Load Steady State Force Vibration Mode superposition method The displacement vector at any excitation frequency is given by X = where is a vector of scale factors on each mode. Usually a few modes are selected with natural frequency above 1.5 times frequency of excitation. Substituting in equation of equilibrium and pre multiplying by T, and using the orthogonality properties of eigen vectors,
..
where m, c, and k are diagonal matrices and c = 2 m n
..+ c + k = TF = f . m

The equations get decoupled and become single degree of freedom systems in modal coordinates * Useful when a few eigen vectors can represent the response * Equilibrium equations are converted into modal coordinates * Eigen value analysis is first step before response analysis (2) Transient Load - Direct Integration method * Conditionally stable algorithm - Central difference method * Unconditionally stable algorithms - Wilson - method - Newmark - method * No transformation of equilibrium equations Solved step by step in time domain Eigenvalue analysis is not carried out Useful when the load is changing too frequently with time.
1.4 Aircraft Vibration

* The aircraft natural modes fall in 2 categories - Symmetric and antisymmetric about a vertical plane through the center line of fuselage * Heavy masses like engines form nodes in the modes * The fundamental symmetric mode is generally wing bending * The torsional frequency of wing is more important from flutter and is kept higher than bending frequency. Typical Frequencies of Aircraft Fighter Bomber Wing bending 10 Hz 3 Hz Wing torsion+bending 25 Hz 5 Hz Fuselage bending 13 Hz 9 Hz Tail plane bending 16 Hz 11 Hz
1.4 Aircraft Vibration
Typical vibration modes of (a) Single engine plane (b) Twin engine plane
1.5 Aircraft Vibration Testing

Objective of testing: Finding natural frequencies, modes and damping. Method: Mounting some kind of mechanical or electrical vibrator (even an unbalanced motor) (weight is small not to alter member character) at reasonably rigid location, to shake the member with a periodic force whose frequency can be varied. Responses are picked up through accelerometers at salient points. Planes may allowed to stand on partly deflated tires; seaplanes are suspended on slings. Wing bending mode: Vibrator is placed near outer end of the wing near flexural axis, at about 33% of chord. Wing torsion mode: Vibrator is placed off the flexural axis, usually near trailing edge. Aileron, fin, stabilizer etc., bending mode: Vibrator is placed near trailing (far away from hinge axis) edge.
References
(1) Freeberg, C. R., Aircraft Vibration and Flutter, John Wiley & Sons, London, 1944. (2) Broadbent, E. G., The Elementary Theory of Aeroelasticity, Bunhill Publications Ltd., HOLborn, 1954. (2) Srinivasan, P., Mechanical Vibration Analysis, Tata McGraw hill Publishing Company Ltd., New Delhi, 1982.
Summary
Discuss the points covered for the day

Vibrations 10

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Vibrations and Aeroelasticity

2006 Confidential and proprietary to Infosys Technologies Ltd

2006 Confidential and proprietary to Infosys Technologies Ltd

2006 Confidential and proprietary to Infosys Technologies Ltd

2006 Confidential and proprietary to Infosys Technologies Ltd

2006 Confidential and proprietary to Infosys Technologies Ltd

1.2 Free Vibration of Structures

c x k Elastic force Inertial force Viscous force m k (x-0) m x c x

Total internal force = kx + cx + mx = External Nodal Force = 0

2006 Confidential and proprietary to Infosys Technologies Ltd

1.2 Free Vibration of Structures

2006 Confidential and proprietary to Infosys Technologies Ltd

1.2 Free Vibration of Structures

1.2 Free Vibration of Structures

2006 Confidential and proprietary to Infosys Technologies Ltd

1.2 Free Vibration of Structures

This is usually the form of damping in many structures.

1.2 Free Vibration of Structures

2006 Confidential and proprietary to Infosys Technologies Ltd

1.2 Free Vibration of Structures

1.2 Free Vibration of Structures

2006 Confidential and proprietary to Infosys Technologies Ltd

1.2 Free Vibration of Structures

x1 m1 m2 k2 k1 (x1 0) k2 (x1 x2) m1 x1

k1 Elastic force Inertial force

At m1 : m1 x1 + k1 (x1 0) + k2 (x1 x2) = 0 At m2: m2 x2 + k2 (x2 x1) = 0

1.2 Free Vibration of Structures

2006 Confidential and proprietary to Infosys Technologies Ltd

1.2 Free Vibration of Structures

2006 Confidential and proprietary to Infosys Technologies Ltd

1.2 Free Vibration of Structures

2006 Confidential and proprietary to Infosys Technologies Ltd

1.2 Free Vibration of Structures

2006 Confidential and proprietary to Infosys Technologies Ltd

1.2 Free Vibration of Structures

2006 Confidential and proprietary to Infosys Technologies Ltd

1.2 Free Vibration of Structures

2006 Confidential and proprietary to Infosys Technologies Ltd

1.2 Free Vibration of Structures

We need 4 boundary conditions to solve for the constants.

1.2 Free Vibration of Structures

2006 Confidential and proprietary to Infosys Technologies Ltd

1.2 Free Vibration of Structures

2006 Confidential and proprietary to Infosys Technologies Ltd

1.2 Free Vibration of Structures

2006 Confidential and proprietary to Infosys Technologies Ltd

1.2 Free Vibration of Structures

Typical mode shapes of different beams

2006 Confidential and proprietary to Infosys Technologies Ltd

1.2 Free Vibration of Structures

2006 Confidential and proprietary to Infosys Technologies Ltd

1.2 Free Vibration of Structures

f = 1/2/ (386*10*7*2965)/(10067*16000) = 13.42 hz More exact method gives 13.36 Hz

2006 Confidential and proprietary to Infosys Technologies Ltd

1.2 Free Vibration of Structures

2006 Confidential and proprietary to Infosys Technologies Ltd

1.2 Free Vibration of Structures

1.3 Forced Vibration of Structures

c x k Elastic force Inertial force Viscous force m k (x-0) m x c x F (, t)

Total internal force = kx + cx + mx = External Nodal Force = F

2006 Confidential and proprietary to Infosys Technologies Ltd

1.3 Forced Vibration of Structures

1.3 Forced Vibration of Structures

f = 1/2/ (3861072965)/(1006716000) = 13.42 hz More exact method gives 13.36 Hz