Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Seismic instruments used for registration of ground motion caused by earthquakes are
essential for studying seismology.
How it works: When the ground is moving rapidly, the spring ("Fjær") suspended mass
("Masse") will keep quiet due to inertia and we will get a measurement on the scale
("Måleskala") to the right. This is the principle of the mechanical seismograph. The
seismograph in this figure measures the vertical ground motion. In newer seismometers
there are electrical coils around the mass, which is magnetic, so that an electrical signal is
generated when the mass moves.
Horizontal motion
Earthquakes generate both vertical and horizontal motions. In order to measure a
horizontal movement, we need a mass which can swing in the horizontal plane.
A simple horizontal pendulum. When the ground moves to the right, the mass will swing
to the left and the ground motion will be recorded on the paper, which moves down. The
mass can swing in all directions and must be suspended on a very long string in order to
be able to record low frequencies. In order to avoid this, a ‘garden gate’ or inverted
pendulum is used (see next figures).
Inverted pendulum. The mass can swing in all horizontal directions. This is the principle
of the Wiechert seismograph used in Bergen from 1921 to 1968, see figure below.
The Wiechert seismograph. The mass horizontal motion is captured by two arms that, by
using a system of levers, can amplify the motion and record it on two rotating drums (R).
The seismograph can record horizontal motions in East-West and North-South directions
at the same time.
"Garden gate" pendulum. The mass only swings horizontally in one direction. It hangs at
an inclined angle in order to make it swing more slowly (like a door hanging at an angle).
This principle is used in the Bosch seismograph.
Frequencies measured
Seismometers measure signals with frequencies between 0.001 Hz and 100 Hz It is
relatively simple to construct seismometers that measure the higher frequencies higher
than 0.1 Hz (short period seismometer) Seismometers that measure the low frequencies
(less than 0.1 Hz) are more difficult to make (long period seismometers) Modern (and
expensive) seismometers measure both low and high frequencies (broad band
seismometers). Technically they are based on the principle of the accelerometer.
Optical recording. The electrical signal is sent to a galvanometer with a mirror (H). A
light beam (L) is reflected from the mirror (H), and recorded on a drum with optical
paper (R). In front of the drum, there is an optical lens focusing the beam.
Pen recording of seismic signals. The signal from the seismometer is amplified
("Forsterker") and sent to a drum recorder ("Trommel til registrering"). The time signal
from a GPS (Global Positioning System) receiver is used to generate minute and hour
pulses recorded together with the signal. Before time signals were available by radio,
time pulses were generated by a mechanical clock.
Analog to digital converter. The electrical input signal is continuous: In other words, we
know the size (amplitude) of the signal at any time. The analog to digital converter (AD)
measures the amplitude at regular time intervals (?t) and gives out the numerical values
for the amplitude as a sequence of numbers. These are then read by the computer. For
seismic signals, the amplitudes are usually read 100 times per second. For digital music
recorded on CD, we have ca 44 000 values per second.
Digitial seismic station. The signal is sent to the analog to digital converter ("Analog til
digital omformer"), which converts the signal to a digital signal. It is then transferred to a
computer ("Datamaskin"), where it is recorded and stored ("Datalagring"). Via Internet,
the signal is sent from there to a central data center. "GPS tidsmarkering" means making
a time stamping by GPS, and "Strømforsyning", power supply.
Accelerometer Principles
Overview
This tutorial is part of the National Instruments Measurement Fundamentals series. Each
tutorial in this series will teach you a specific topic of common measurement applications
by explaining theoretical concepts and providing practical examples. There are several
physical processes that can be used to develop a sensor to measure acceleration. In
applications that involve flight, such as aircraft and satellites, accelerometers are based on
properties of rotating masses. In the industrial world, however, the most common design
is based on a combination of Newton's law of mass acceleration and Hooke's law of
spring action.
Table of Contents
1. Spring-Mass System
2. Natural Frequency and Damping
3. Vibration Effects
4. Relevant NI Products
5. Buy the Book
Spring-Mass System
Newton's law simply states that if a mass, m, is undergoing an acceleration, a, then there
must be a force F acting on the mass and given by F = ma. Hooke's law states that if a
spring of spring constant k is stretched (extended) from its equilibrium position for a
distance Dx, then there must be a force acting on the spring given by F = kDx.
In Figure 5.23a we have a mass that is free to slide on a base. The mass is connected to
the base by a spring that is in its unextended state and exerts no force on the mass. In
Figure 5.23b, the whole assembly is accelerated to the left, as shown. Now the spring
extends in order to provide the force necessary to accelerate the mass. This condition is
described by equating Newton's and Hooke's laws:
ma = kDx (5.25)
If the acceleration is reversed, the same physical argument would apply, except that the
spring is compressed instead of extended. Equation (5.26) still describes the relationship
between spring displacement and acceleration.
The spring-mass principle applies to many common accelerometer designs. The mass
that converts the acceleration to spring displacement is referred to as the test mass or
seismic mass. We see, then, that acceleration measurement reduces to linear displacement
measurement; most designs differ in how this displacement measurement is made.
The friction that eventually brings the mass to rest is defined by a damping coefficient ,
which has the units of s-1. In general, the effect of oscillation is called transient response,
described by a periodic damped signal, as shown in Figure 5.24, whose equation is
XT(t) = Xoe-µt sin(2pfNt) (5.28)
The parameters, natural frequency, and damping coefficient in Equation (5.28) have a
profound effect on the application of accelerometers.
Vibration Effects
If this is used in Equation (5.25), we can show that the mass motion is given by
where all terms were previously denned and w = 2pf, with/the applied frequency.
To make the predictions of Equation (5.29) clear, consider the situation presented in
Figure 5.25. Our model spring-mass accelerometer has been fixed to a table that is
vibrating. The xo in Equation (5.29) is the peak amplitude of the table vibration, and Dx is
the vibration of the seismic mass within the accelerometer. Thus, Equation (5.29) predicts
that the seismic-mass vibration peak amplitude varies as the vibration frequency squared,
but linearly with the table-vibration amplitude. However, this result was obtained without
consideration of the spring-mass system natural vibration. When this is taken into
account, something quite different occurs.
Figure 5.26a shows the actual seismic-mass vibration peak amplitude versus table-
vibration frequency compared with the simple frequency squared prediction.You can see
that there is a resonance effect when the table frequency equals the natural frequency of
the accelerometer, that is, the value of Dx goes through a peak. The amplitude of the
resonant peak is determined by the amount of damping. The seismic-mass vibration is
described by Equation (5.29) only up to about fN/2.5.
Figure 5.26b shows two effects. The first is that the actual seismic-mass motion is limited
by the physical size of the accelerometer. It will hit "stops" built into the assembly that
limit its motion during resonance. The figure also shows that for frequencies well above
the natural frequency, the motion of the mass is proportional to the table peak motion, xo,
but not to the frequency. Thus, it has become a displacement sensor. To summarize:
1. f < fN - For an applied frequency less than the natural frequency, the natural frequency
has little effect on the basic spring-mass response given by Equations (5.25) and (5.29). A
rule of thumb states that a safe maximum applied frequency is f < 1/2.5fN.
2. f > fN - For an applied frequency much larger than the natural frequency, the
accelerometer output is independent of the applied frequency. As shown in Figure 5.26b,
the accelerometer becomes a measure of vibration displacement xo of Equation (5.20)
under these circumstances. It is interesting to note that the seismic mass is stationary in
space in this case, and the housing, which is driven by the vibration, moves about the
mass. A general rule sets f > 2.5 fN for this case.
Generally, accelerometers are not used near the resonance at their natural frequency
because of high nonlinearities in output.
FIGURE 5.26 In (a) the actual response of a spring-mass system to vibration is
compared to the simple w2 prediction In (b) the effect of various table peak motion is
shown
EXAMPLE 5.14
An accelerometer has a seismic mass of 0.05 kg and a spring constant of 3.0 X 103 N/m
Maximum mass displacement is ±0 02 m (before the mass hits the stops). Calculate (a)
the maximum measurable acceleration in g, and (b) the natural frequency.
Solution
We find the maximum acceleration when the maximum displacement occurs, from
Equation (5.26).
a.
or because
Seismometers (in Greek seismos = earthquake and metero = measure) are used by
seismologists to measure and record the size and force of seismic waves. By studying
seismic waves, geologists can map the interior of the Earth, and measure and locate
earthquakes and other ground motions. Seismograph is often interchangeably with
seismometer
John Milne invented the horizontal pendulum seismograph at the Imperial College of
Engineering in Japan in 1880. This marked the beginning of modern seismology
Basic principles
Seismometers have:
• The foundation is critical, and often the most expensive part of a seismic station
• An inertial mass , using springs or gravity to establish a steady-state reference
position
• A damper system to prevent long term oscillations in response to an event
• A means of recording the motion or force of the mass relative to the frame
Passing seismic waves move the frame, while the mass tends to stay in a fixed position
due to its inertia. The seismometer measures the relative motion between the frame and
the suspended mass
Modern instruments use electronics. Usually, the proof mass is held motionless by an
electronic negative feedback loop that drives a coil. The distance moved, speed and
acceleration of the mass are directly measured. The measurements are often digitized and
stored using a computer, and then are sometimes automatically interpreted by computer
programs to locate earthquakes
A cruder system is used for geologic surveys: The geophones in surveys just have a heavy
magnet suspended in a coil. When the ground shakes, the frame and coil move, while the
heavy magnet stays. The magnet's field therefore cuts the coil and induces a measurable
electric current in the coil
Professional seismic observatories usually have instruments measuring three axes, north-
south, east-west, and up-down. Seismologists generally prefer a vertical seismograph if
only one instrument is available
In 132, Zhang Heng of China's Han dynasty invented the first seismometer, called
Houfeng Didong Yi (lit. instrument for measuring the seasonal winds and the movements
of the Earth). By use of a mechanical chain reaction caused by the earth's heavy vibration
during an earthquake, a pendulum mechanism within the copper-framed, urn-shaped
seismometer would sway and activate a series of levers. This in turn would ultimately
drop a spherical brass ball from an artificial dragon-mouth of the urn's top into an
artificial toad-mouth below, signifying the cardinal direction of the earthquake. Use of
this device was recorded in the historical text of the Book of Later Han
An early example
The principle can be shown by an early special purpose seismometer. This consisted of a
large stationary pendulum, with a stylus on the bottom. As the earth starts to move, the
heavy mass of the pendulum has the inertia to stay still in the non-earth frame of
reference. The result is that the stylus scratches a pattern corresponding with the earth's
movement. This type of strong motion seismometer recorded upon a smoked glass (glass
with carbon soot). While not sensitive enough to detect distant earthquakes, this
instrument could indicate the direction of the initial pressure waves and thus help find the
epicenter of a local earthquake — such instruments were useful in the analysis of the
1906 San Francisco earthquake. Further re-analysis was performed in the 1980s using
these early recordings, enabling a more precise determination of the initial fault break
location in Marin county and its subsequent progression, mostly to the south
Early designs
After 1880, most seismometers were descended from those developed by the team of
John Milne, James Alfred Ewing and Thomas Gray, who worked together in Japan from
1880-1895. These seismometers used damped horizontal pendulums. Later, after World
War II, these were adapted into the widely used Press-Ewing seismometer
The basic damped horizontal pendulum seismometer swings like the gate of a fence. A
heavy weight is mounted on the point of a long (from 10 cm to several meters) triangle,
hinged at its vertical edge. As the ground moves, the weight stays unmoving, swinging
the "gate" on the hinge
Modern instruments
Modern instruments use electronic sensors, amplifiers, and recording instruments. Most
are broadband, operating on a wide range of frequencies
defining difference between modern and obsolescent seimometers is that modern ones
utilize so-called zero-length springs that violate Hooke's law to get very long resonant
periods with relatively small physical instruments
A zero length spring is actually a spring that has a constant force for some part of its
stretch. So a pendulum driven by the spring can have (theoretically) an infinitely long
period. It is thus able to sense very long-period seismic waves that easily penetrate great
distances through the earth
Practical zero-length springs are odd mechanical systems that require special compliant
mountings, and have limited physical ranges. Also, the force they generate is never
exactly constant, but it can be a good approximation
Seismometers unavoidably introduce some distortion into the signals they measure, but
professionally-designed systems have carefully-characterized frequency transforms
Modern sensitivities come in three broad ranges: geophones, 50 to 750 V/m; local
geologic seismographs, about 1,500 V/m; and teleseismographs, used for world survey,
about 20,000 V/m. Instruments come in three main varieties: short period, long period
and broad-band. The short and long period measure velocity and are very sensitive,
however they 'clip' or go off-scale for ground motion that is strong enough to be felt by
people. A 24-bit analog-to-digital conversion channel is commonplace. Practical devices
are linear to roughly a part per million
Delivered seismogmeters come with two styles of output: analog and digital. Analog
seismographs require analog recording equipment, possibly including an analog-to-digital
converter. Digital seismographs simply plug in to computers. They present the data in
standard digital forms (often "SE2" over ethernet
Teleseismometers
The modern broad-band seismograph can record a very broad range of frequencies. It
consists of a small 'proof mass', confined by electrical forces, driven by sophisticated
electronics. As the earth moves, the electronics attempt to hold the mass steady through a
feedback circuit. The amount of force necessary to achieve this is then recorded
Most designs are proprietary, but in one publicly-available professional design[4], the
electronics holds a mass motionless relative to the frame. Basically, the distance between
the mass and some part of the frame is measured very precisely, by a linear variable
differential transformer. Many instruments use a linear variable differential capacitor
The voltage generated in a sense coil on the mass by the magnet directly measures the
instantaneous velocity of the ground.
The current to the drive coil provides a sensitive, accurate measurement of the force
between the mass and frame, thus directly measuring the ground's acceleration (using
F=MA of basic physics
One of the continuing problems with sensitive vertical seismographs is the buoyancy of
their masses. The uneven changes in pressure caused by wind blowing on an open
window can easily change the density of air in a room enough to cause a vertical
seismograph to show spurious signals. Therefore, most professional seismographs are
sealed in rigid gas-tight enclosures. For example, this is why a common Streckheisen
model has a thick glass base that must be glued to its pier without bubbles in the glue
It might seem logical to make the heavy magnet serve as a mass, but that subjects the
seismograph to errors when the Earth's magnetic field moves. This is also why
seismograph's moving parts are constructed from a material that minimally interacts with
magnetic fields
The hinges on a seismograph are usually patented, and by the time the patent has expired,
the art has improved. The most successful public domain designs use thin foil hinges in a
clamp
Strong-motion seismometers
Other forms
Accelerographs and geophones are often heavy cylindrical magnets with a spring-
mounted coil inside. As case moves, the coil tends to stay stationary, so the magnetic field
cuts the wires, inducing current in the output wires. They receive frequencies from
several hundred hertz down to 4.5 Hz (cheap) to as low as 1 Hz (pretty expensive). Some
have electronic damping, a low-budget way to get some of the performance of the closed-
loop wide-band geologic seismographs
Some other sensitive designs measure the current generated by the flow of a non-
corrosive ionic fluid through an electret sponge or a conductive fluid through a magnetic
field
Modern recording
Interconnected seismometers
Seismometers spaced in an array can also be used to precisely locate, in three dimensions,
the source of an earthquake, using the time it takes for seismic waves to propagate away
from the hypocenter, the initiating point of fault rupture (See also Earthquake location).
Interconnected seismometers are also used to detect underground nuclear test explosions
A world-wide array of seismometers can actually image the interior of the Earth in wave-
speed and transmissivity. This type of system uses events such as earthquakes, impact
events or nuclear explosions as wave sources. The first efforts at this method used manual
data reduction from paper seismograph charts. Modern digital seismograph records are
better adapted to direct computer use. With inexpensive seismometer designs and internet
access, amateurs and small institutions have even formed a "public seimograph network
Seismographic systems used for petroleum or other mineral exploration historically used
an explosive and a wireline of geophones unrolled behind a truck. Now most short-range
systems use "thumpers" that hit the ground, and some small commercial systems have
such good digital signal processing that a few sledgehammer strikes provide enough
signal for short-distance refractive surveys. Exotic cross or two-dimensional arrays of
geophones are sometimes used to perform three-dimensional reflective imaging of
subsurface features. Basic linear refractive geomapping software (once a black art) is
available off-the-shelf, running on laptop computers, using strings as small as three
geophones. Some systems now come in an 18" (0.5 m) plastic field case with a computer,
display and printer in the cover
Small, inexpensive seismic imaging is now sufficiently inexpensive that it is used by civil
engineers to survey foundation sites, locate bedrock, and find subsurface water.
• Accelerograph:
• A seismograph whose output is proportional to ground acceleration (in
comparison to the usual seismograph whose output is proportional to
ground velocity). Accelerographs are typically used as instruments
designed to record very strong ground motion useful in engineering
design; seismographs commonly record off scale in these circumstances.
Normally, strong motion instruments do not record unless triggered by
strong ground motion.
• Seismogram:
• A graph showing the motion of the ground versus time.
• Seismograms are the records (paper copy) produced by seismographs used
to calculate the location and magnitude of an EQ. They show how the
ground moves with the passage of time. On a seismogram, the
HORIZONTAL axis = time (measured in seconds) and the VERTICAL
axis= ground displacement (usually measured in millimeters). When there
is NO EQ reading there is just a straight line except for small wiggles
caused by local disturbance or "noise" and the time markers. --
• Seismograph:
• A sensitive instrument that can detect, amplify, and record ground
vibrations too small to be perceived by human beings.
•
• Seismographs are instruments used to record the motion of the ground
during an EQ--installed in the ground throughout the world and operate as
seismographic network. The first one was developed in 1890. The earliest
"seismoscope" was invented by the Chinese philosopher Chang Heng in
A.D. 132. This did not record earthquakes, however. It only indicated that
there was one occurring. A seismograph is securely mounted onto the
surface of the earth so that when the earth shakes, the entire unit shakes
with it, EXCEPT for the mass on the spring which has inertia, and remains
in the same place. As the seismograph shakes under (in the example
below) the mass, the recording device on the mass records the realtive
motion between itself and the rest of the instrument, thus recording the
ground motion. In reality, these mechanisms are no longer manual, but
instead work by measuring electronic changes produced by the motion of
the ground with respect to the mass.
• Seismometer:
• A seismometer is the internal part of the seismograph, which may be a
pendulum or a mass mounted on a spring; however, it is often used
synonymously with "seismograph". --
The cathode ray tube (CRT), invented by German physicist Karl Ferdinand
Braun in 1879, is an evacuated glass envelope containing an electron gun (a source of
electrons) and a fluorescent screen, usually with internal or external means to accelerate
and deflect the electrons. When electrons strike the fluorescent screen, light is emitted
The electron beam is deflected and modulated in a way which causes it to display an
image on the screen. The image may represent electrical waveforms (oscilloscope),
pictures (television, computer monitor), echoes of aircraft detected by radar, etc
The single electron beam can be processed in such a way as to display moving pictures in
natural colors
The generation of an image on a CRT by deflecting an electron beam requires the use of
an evacuated glass envelope which is large, deep, heavy, and relatively fragile (this has
earned it the nickname "Fishbowl"). The development of imaging technologies without
these disadvantages has caused CRTs to be largely displaced by flat plasma screens,
liquid crystal displays, DLP, OLED displays, and other technologies
An exception to the typical bowl-shaped CRT would be the flat CRTs[1][2] used by Sony
in their Watchman series (the FD-210 was introduced in 1982). One of the last flat-CRT
models was the FD-10A (last produced in 1989 as Sony moved to LCD displays in 1990).
The CRT in these units was flat with the electron gun located roughly at right angles
below the display surface thus requiring sophisticated electronics to create an undistorted
picture free from keystoning and the like
Types of transducers
This list is confined to the narrower definition of the term.
Electromagnetic:
Antenna - converts electromagnetic waves into electric current and vice versa.
Cathode ray tube (CRT) - converts electrical signals into visual form
Fluorescent lamp, light bulb - converts electrical power into visible light
Hall effect sensor - converts a magnetic field level into electrical form
Electrochemical:
Electroacoustic: ,
Tactile transducer
Photoelectric:
Laser diode, light-emitting diode - convert electrical power into forms of light
Electrostatic:
Thermoelectric:
Radioacoustic:
The cathode ray tube (CRT), invented by German physicist Karl Ferdinand Braun in
1879, is an evacuated glass envelope containing an electron gun (a source of electrons)
and a fluorescent screen, usually with internal or external means to accelerate and deflect
the electrons. When electrons strike the fluorescent screen, light is emitted.
The electron beam is deflected and modulated in a way which causes it to display an
image on the screen. The image may represent electrical waveforms (oscilloscope),
pictures (television, computer monitor), echoes of aircraft detected by radar, etc
The single electron beam can be processed in such a way as to display moving pictures in
natural colors
The generation of an image on a CRT by deflecting an electron beam requires the use of
an evacuated glass envelope which is large, deep, heavy, and relatively fragile (this has
earned it the nickname "Fishbowl"). The development of imaging technologies without
these disadvantages has caused CRTs to be largely displaced by flat plasma screens,
liquid crystal displays, DLP, OLED displays, and other technologies
An exception to the typical bowl-shaped CRT would be the flat CRTs[1][2] used by Sony
in their Watchman series (the FD-210 was introduced in 1982). One of the last flat-CRT
models was the FD-10A (last produced in 1989 as Sony moved to LCD displays in 1990).
The CRT in these units was flat with the electron gun located roughly at right angles
below the display surface thus requiring sophisticated electronics to create an undistorted
picture free from keystoning and the like
load cell:
load cell is typically an electronic device (transducer) that is used to convert a force into
an electrical signal. This conversion is indirect and happens in two stages. Through a
mechanical arrangement, the force to be sensed is used in deforming a strain gauge. The
strain gauge converts the deformation (strain) to electrical signals. Normally, a load cell
consists of four strain gauges in a wheatstone bridge configuration, but are also available
with one or two strain gauges. The electrical signal output is normally in the order of a
few millivolts and requires amplification by an instrumentation amplifier before it can be
used. The output of the transducer is plugged into an algorithm to calculate the force
applied to the transducer
Although strain gauge load cells are the most common, there are other types of load cells
as well. In industrial applications, hydraulic (or hydrostatic) is probably the second most
common, and these are utilized to eliminate some problems with strain gauge load cell
devices. As an example, a hydraulic load cell is immune to transient voltages (lightning)
so might be a more effective device in outdoor environments
Other types include piezo-electric load cells (useful for dynamic measurements of force),
and vibrating wire load cells, which are useful in geomechanical applications due to low
amounts of drift
Every load cell is subject to "ringing" when subjected to abrupt load changes. This stems
from the spring-like behavior of load cells. In order to measure the loads, they have to
deform. As such, a load cell of finite stiffness must have spring-like behavior, exhibiting
vibrations at its natural frequency. An oscillating data pattern can be the result of ringing.
Ringing can be suppressed in a limited fashion by passive means. Alternatively, a control
system can use an actuator to actively damp out the ringing of a load cell. This method
offers better performance at a cost of significant increase in complexity.
Strain gauge:
A strain gauge (alternatively: strain gage) is a device used to measure deformation
(strain) of an object. Invented by Edward E. Simmons in 1938, the most common type of
strain gauge consists of an insulating flexible backing which supports a metallic foil
pattern. The gauge is attached to the object by a suitable adhesive, such as
cyanoacrylate[1]. As the object is deformed, the foil is deformed, causing its electrical
resistance to change. This resistance change, usually measured using a Wheatstone
bridge, is related to the strain by the quantity known as the gauge factor.
and three dummy resistors, the output v from the bridge is where
BV is the bridge excitation voltage
Foil gauges typically have active areas of about 2-10 mm in size. With careful
installation, the correct gauge, and the correct adhesive, strains up to at least 10% can be
measured
Accelerometer
Accelerometers are perhaps the simplest MEMS device possible, sometimes consisting of
little more than a suspended cantilever beam or proof mass (also known as seismic mass)
with some type of deflection sensing and circuitry. MEMS Accelerometers are available
in a wide variety of ranges up to thousands of gn's. Single axis, dual axis, and three axis
models are available
Accelerometers are being incorporated into more and more personal electronic devices
such as media players and handheld gaming devices. In particular, more and more
smartphones (such as Apple's iPhone) are incorporating accelerometers for step counters,
user interface control, and switching between portrait and landscape modes
Accelerometers are used along with gyroscopes in inertial guidance systems, as well as in
many other scientific and engineering systems. One of the most common uses for micro
electro-mechanical system (MEMS) accelerometers is in airbag deployment systems for
modern automobiles. In this case the accelerometers are used to detect the rapid negative
acceleration of the vehicle to determine when a collision has occurred and the severity of
the collision.
The widespread use of accelerometers in the automotive industry has pushed their cost
down dramatically
Transducer Types
Ultrasonic transducers are manufactured for a variety of applications and can be custom
fabricated when necessary. Careful attention must be paid to selecting the proper
transducer for the application. A previous section on Acoustic Wavelength and Defect
Detection gave a brief overview of factors that affect defect detectability. From this
material, we know that it is important to choose transducers that have the desired
frequency, bandwidth, and focusing to optimize inspection capability. Most often the
transducer is chosen either to enhance the sensitivity or resolution of the system.
• Contact transducers are used for direct contact inspections, and are generally
hand manipulated. They have elements protected in a rugged casing to withstand
sliding contact with a variety of materials. These transducers have an ergonomic
design so that they are easy to grip and move along a surface. They often have
replaceable wear plates to lengthen their useful life. Coupling materials of water,
grease, oils, or commercial materials are used to remove the air gap between the
transducer and the component being inspected.
Immersion transducers do not contact the component. These transducers are designed
to operate in a liquid environment and all connections are watertight. Immersion
transducers usually have an impedance matching layer that helps to get more sound
energy into the water and, in turn, into the component being inspected. Immersion
transducers can be purchased with a planer, cylindrically focused or spherically focused
lens. A focused transducer can improve the sensitivity and axial resolution by
concentrating the sound energy to a smaller area. Immersion transducers are typically
used inside a water tank or as part of a squirter or bubbler system in scanning
applications.
Normal incidence shear wave transducers are unique because they allow the
introduction of shear waves directly into a test piece without the use of an angle beam
wedge. Careful design has enabled manufacturing of transducers with minimal
longitudinal wave contamination. The ratio of the longitudinal to shear wave components
is generally below -30dB.
Paint brush transducers are used to scan wide areas. These long and narrow transducers
are made up of an array of small crystals that are carefully matched to minimize
variations in performance and maintain uniform sensitivity over the entire area of the
transducer. Paint brush transducers make it possible to scan a larger area more rapidly for
discontinuities. Smaller and more sensitive transducers are often then required to further
define the details of a discontinuity.
The cathode ray is a beam of electrons which are emitted by the heated cathode (negative
electrode) and accelerated toward the fluorescent screen. The assembly of the cathode,
intensity grid, focus grid, and accelerating anode (positive electrode) is called an electron
gun. Its purpose is to generate the electron beam and control its intensity and focus.
Between the electron gun and the fluorescent screen are two pair of metal plates - one
oriented to provide horizontal deflection of the beam and one pair oriented ot give
vertical deflection to the beam. These plates are thus referred to as the horizontal and
vertical deflection plates. The combination of these two deflections allows the beam to
reach any portion of the fluorescent screen. Wherever the electron beam hits the screen,
the phosphor is excited and light is emitted from that point. This coversion of electron
energy into light allows us to write with points or lines of light on an otherwise darkened
screen.
In the most common use of the oscilloscope the signal to be studied is first
amplified and then applied to the vertical (deflection) plates to deflect the beam vertically
and at the same time a voltage that increases linearly with time is applied to the
horizontal (deflection) plates thus causing the beam to be deflected horizontally at a
uniform (constant> rate. The signal applied to the verical plates is thus displayed on the
screen as a function of time. The horizontal axis serves as a uniform time scale.
The linear deflection or sweep of the beam horizontally is accomplished by use of a
sweep generator that is incorporated in the oscilloscope circuitry. The voltage output of
such a generator is that of a sawtooth wave as shown in Fig. 2. Application of one cycle
of this voltage difference, which increases linearly with time, to the horizontal plates
causes the beam to be deflected linearly with time across the tube face. When the voltage
suddenly falls to zero, as at points (a) (b) (c), etc...., the end of each sweep - the beam
flies back to its initial position. The horizontal deflection of the beam is repeated
periodically, the frequency of this periodicity is adjustable by external controls.
To obtain steady traces on the tube face, an internal number of cycles of the
unknown signal that is applied to the vertical plates must be associated with each cycle of
the sweep generator. Thus, with such a matching of synchronization of the two
deflections, the pattern on the tube face repeats itself and hence appears to remain
stationary. The persistance of vision in the human eye and of the glow of the fluorescent
screen aids in producing a stationary pattern. In addition, the electron beam is cut off
(blanked) during flyback so that the retrace sweep is not observed.
Two components comprise the LVDT: the mobile armature and the outer transformer
windings. The secondary coils are series-opposed; wound in series but in opposite
directions.
When the moving armature is centered between the two series-opposed secondaries,
equal magnetic flux couples into both secondaries and the voltage induced in one
half of the secondary winding is balanced and 180 degrees out-of-phase with, the
voltage induced in the other half of the secondary winding.
The DC LVDT is provided with onboard oscillator, carrier amplifier, and demodulator
circuitry. The AC LVDT requires these components externally. Due to the presence of
internal circuitry, the DC LVDT is temperature limited operating from typically -40 C
to +120 C.
The AC LVDT is able to tolerate the extreme variations in operating temperature that
the internal circuitry of the DC LVDT could not tolerate. Typically, LVDT’s will be
excited by a primary carrier voltage oscillating at between 50 hertz and 25 Kilohertz
with 2.5 Kilohertz as a nominal value. The carrier frequency is generally selected to
be at least 10 times greater than the highest expected frequency of the core motion.
No sensing spring element exists within an LVDT and therefore, the output of the
sensor is hysteresis-free. Some LVDT displacement measuring sensors are, however,
provided with internal armature return springs to allow profile measurement. When
there exists no direct contact with the moving armature is allowed no mechanical
wear results. The provision of linear bearings to prevent armature to coil structure
contact and to limit wear can greatly extend LVDT operating life expectancies.
The strong relationship between core position and output voltage yields a sensor
design that shows excellent resolution, limited more by the associated circuitry than
the sensing method.
The internal core of the LVDT is generally constructed of an annealed nickel iron alloy
with the high-temperature limitations of the device limited to the curie point of the
core and the winding insulations used.
The thermal response characteristics of the LVDT are excellent for static and quasi-
static thermal environments due to the physical and electrical symmetry of these
devices. The physical symmetry also contributes to excellent zero repeatability over
time and temperature. Most thermal-sensitivity shift errors result from the significant
thermal coefficient of resistance (TCR) of the copper transformer windings. With
increasing temperature, the primary coil resistance will increase causing a decrease
of the primary current in the constant-voltage-excited case and therefore decreasing
the magnetic flux generated and voltage output correspondingly.
The use of constant-current excitation will ensure a constant primary flux regardless
of the coil resistance. Since the equivalent circuit of the constant-current source is a
voltage source with an infinite series resistance, the use of a low-TCR resistance, in
series with the primary, will function in much the same manner as the piezoresistive
span-compensation resistor by causing the primary voltage to increase as a function
of temperature thus offsetting the TCR-induced losses. The use of the series low-TCR
resistor in the primary circuit allows the constant-voltage source to appear to the
LVDT as a constant-current source.
Other thermally-active methods may also be used to compensate for the primary
winding TCR by causing the primary voltage to increase, with rising temperature, in
proportion to the increase in the primary coil resistance. The temperature coefficient
of magnetic permeability is another contributor to the thermal-sensitivity shift and is
compensated out as a net effect by the means described above. Within
approximately 2 seconds of power application the LVDT oscillator and demodulator
circuitry will stabilize sufficiently for dynamic measurement.
Due to self-heating of the primary coil, warm-up times for high precision static
measurement are comparable to strain gaged sensors and are dependent upon the
thermal stability of the measuring environment.
Lvdt
The transfer of current between the primary and the secondaries of the LVDT
displacement transducer is controlled by the position of a magnetic core called
an armature.
On our position measurement LVDTs, the two transducer secondaries are
connected in opposition.
At the centre of the position measurement stroke, the two secondary voltages of
the displacement transducer are equal but because they are connected in
opposition the resulting output from the sensor is zero.
As the LVDTs armature moves away from centre, the result is an increase in one
of the position sensor secondaries and a decrease in the other. This results in an
output from the measurement sensor.
With LVDTs, the phase of the output (compared with the excitation phase)
enables the electronics to know which half of the coil the armature is in.
The strength of the LVDT sensor's principle is that there is no electrical contact
across the transducer position sensing element which for the user of the sensor
means clean data, infinite resolution and a very long life.
Our range of signal conditioning electronics for LVDTs handles all of the above so
that you get an output of voltage, current or serial data proportional to the
measurement position of the displacement transducer
Accelerometer
A crystal cut to resonate at a specific frequency is supported within a case. Mounted above
the crystal is a mass. As the case of the pickup vibrates, the force of gravity acting on the
mass attempts to deform the crystal. The crystal is a piezoelectric element, so it generates
an electrical charge when a mechanical force is applied to it.
Although an accelerometer does not measure velocity directly, an electronic integration can
be performed on the output signal of the accelerometer to obtain velocity. Accelerometers
generate high-frequency responses suitable for high-speed machinery and are very useful
for monitoring vibrations in high temperature areas.
Transducer installation depends on the mechanical configuration of the assembly. Anti-
friction bearings usually require contact pickups due to the low casing damping. Journal
bearings generally need non-contact pickups. In this fashion, we are looking at relative
motion of the shaft.
Generally, two velocity pickups, one mounted on the inboard bearing for radial vibration and
one mounted on the outboard bearing in the axial direction, are adequate for determining
misalignment and axial thrust. The inboard bearing usually consists of two non-contact
probes, one for readings in the horizontal direction, and one for readings in the vertical
direction.