SCALE UP OF HEAT TRANSFER EQUIPMENTS What is Heat Transfer? Energy (heat) is transit due to temperature difference.

In simple words, we can say that heat is transported from high temperature to low temperature area in physical systems.

Heat transfer tells us: How (with what modes) dQ is transferred At what rate dQ is transferred Temperature distribution inside the body

Modes of Heat Transfer Heat, a form of kinetic energy, is transferred in three ways: Conduction Convection and Radiation. Conduction: An energy transfer across a system boundary due to a temperature difference by the mechanism of intermolecular interactions. Conduction needs matter and does not require any bulk motion of matter.

Where: q = heat flow vector k = thermal conductivity, a thermodynamic property of the material A = Cross sectional area in direction of heat flow = Gradient of temperature

Convection: An energy transfer across a system boundary due to a temperature difference by the combined mechanisms of intermolecular interactions and bulk transport. Convection needs fluid matter.

Newtons Law of Cooling: q = h As Where: q = heat flow from surface, a scalar h = heat transfer coefficient As = Surface area from which convection is occurring = TS - T Temperature Difference between surface and coolant Free or natural convection (Induced by buoyancy forces) Convection Forced convection (induced by External means) May occur with phase change (Boiling, condensation)

Radiation: Radiation heat transfer involves the transfer of heat by electromagnetic radiation that arises due to the temperature of the body. Radiation does not need matter. Emissive power of a surface: E = TS4 Where: e = emissivity = Steffan Boltzman constant Ts = Absolute temperature of the surface

The above equation is derived from Stefan Boltzman law, which describes a gross heat emission rather than heat transfer. The rate of radiation heat exchange between a small surface and a large surrounding is given by the following expression:

q = A (Ts 4 T4sur) Where: = Surface Emissivity A= Surface Area Ts = Absolute temperature of surface Tsur = Absolute temperature of surroundings What is Heat exchanger? A heat exchanger is a device designed to perform heat transfers from one medium to another. Heat exchangers are used to transfer heat from one substance to either its surroundings or another substance. Heat exchangers are important components for the operational reliability of most process plants. Purpose of heat exchangers: Heat exchangers are used to transfer heat from a fluid on a side of a barrier to a fluid on the other side without allowing the fluids to mix together. Heat exchangers maximize the surface area of a wall that is used between the two fluids while minimizing any resistance to the flow of a fluid through the exchanger. Types of heat exchangers Heat exchangers are classified on the basis of flow arrangements, Parallel flow or Counter flow arrangement Shell and tube arrangement Cross flow arrangement

Parallel-flow A major type of heat exchangers, allow two fluids to enter the exchanger at the same end. The two fluids then travel in parallel to the other side of the exchanger. The hot fluid transfers heat to the wall via convection. Parallel-flow heat exchangers are often used when two fluids must be brought to close to the same temperature. Counter-flow The fluids enter the exchanger from opposite ends. As the two flows move toward each other from opposite directions, the system is able to maintain almost a constant gradient between the two liquid flows as they travel the length of the exchanger. This enables nearly all the heat properties from one flow to be transferred to the other flow. Shell and tube arrangement:

As its name implies, this type of heat exchanger consists of a shell (a large pressure vessel) with a bundle of tubes inside it. One fluid runs through the tubes, and another fluid flows over the tubes (through the shell) to transfer heat between the two fluids. The set of tubes is called a tube bundle, and may be composed by several types of tubes: plain, longitudinally finned, etc. Cross flow arrangement:

In a cross-flow heat exchanger the direction of fluids are perpendicular to each other. Scale up of heat exchangers: Dimensional analysis: Heat transfer processes are described by physical properties and process parameters, the dimensions of which not only include the basic dimensions mass (M), length (L) and time (T) but also Temperature () as the fourth one.

Dimensionless Numbers The major dimensionless groups employed for heat exchanger design or scale up are;

Reynolds Number The Reynolds number represents the ratio of the applied to the opposing viscous drag forces.

Where, Re - Reynolds number - Fluid density v- Velocity D - Tube diameter - Fluid viscosity Nusselt Number Nusselt number is the ratio of convective to conductive heat transfer across (normal to) the boundary

Stanton Number The Stanton number is a dimensionless number that measures the ratio of heat transferred into a fluid to the thermal capacity of fluid. It is used to characterize heat transfer in forced convection flows.

Where, h = convection heat transfer coefficient = density of the fluid cp = specific heat of the fluid V = velocity of the fluid It can also be represented in terms of the fluid's Nusselt, Reynolds, and Prandtl numbers:

Colburn j -Factor for Heat Transfer,jH

Where, St - Stanton number Pr - Prandtl number (w/) Sieder Tate term

Prandtl Number The Prandtl number Pr the ratio of momentum diffusivity (kinematic viscosity) to thermal diffusivity.

Where, - kinematic viscosity, = / - thermal diffusivity, = k / (cp) - Dynamic viscosity k - Thermal conductivity cp - specific heat Density Graetz Number The Graetz number, Gz is a dimensionless number that characterizes laminar flow in a conduit. The number is defined as

Where, DH - hydraulic diameter L - Length Re - Reynolds number Pr - Prandtl number.

Peclet Number The Peclet number reflects the ratio of heat transferred by convection to that transferred by conduction and is most commonly found in applications in laminar flow or with liquid metals.

= Re. Pr Where, Cp - Heat capacity Density D - Characteristic length V - Velocity k - Thermal Conductivity Grashof Number Grashof number is a dimensionless number in fluid dynamics and heat transfer which approximates the ratio of the buoyancy to viscous force acting on a fluid. It frequently arises in the study of situations involving natural convection.

Where, g - acceleration due to Earth's gravity - Volumetric thermal expansion coefficient - Temperature gradient L - Length - Kinematic viscosity - dynamic viscosity The product of the Grashof number and the Prandtl number gives the Rayleigh number, a dimensionless number that characterizes convection problems in heat transfer.

Biot number Biot number is the ratio of the heat transfer resistances inside of and at the surface of a body.

Where, Bi Biot number h = heat transfer coefficient or convective heat transfer coefficient

LC = characteristic length, which is commonly defined as Lc=Vbody/Asufrace kb = Thermal conductivity of the body Scale up procedure: In most heat transfer processes, it includes not only the fluid mechanics but also the mass transfer processes. And mass transfer is subject to phase equilibria which are not scale dependent. Hence the scale up procedure is a bit difficult to frame since each process obey different laws. However, we can generalize the steps involved in design or scale up of heat exchangers as; 1. Geometry calculations 2. Heat transfer correlations 3. Pressure drop correlations Geometry calculations: The area available for heat transfer plays a vital role in the design or scale up. Area can be given as, Where, Q heat transfer rate, U Overall heat transfer coefficient, GTD LTD / ln (GTD/LTD) {GTD, LTD = greater, lower temp. diff} Number of transfer units:

Where, U overall heat transfer coefficient A Area available for heat transfer Cpmin heat capacity The effectiveness of the heat transfer is the function of (NTU and Cpmin/Cpmax)

Heat transfer correlations: DittusBoelter correlation A common and particularly simple correlation useful for many applications is the DittusBoelter heat transfer correlation for fluids in turbulent flow. This correlation is applicable when forced convection is the only mode of heat transfer. Pr - Prandtl number Re - Reynolds number n = 0.4 for heating (wall hotter than the bulk fluid) 0.33 for cooling (wall cooler than the bulk fluid) Heat transfer coefficient:
The heat transfer coefficient is the proportionality coefficient between the

heat flux that is a heat flow per unit area and the driving force for the flow of heat (i.e., the temperature difference, T). The heat transfer coefficient is often calculated from the Nusselt number. For a liquid flowing in a straight circular pipe with a Reynolds number between 10 000 and 120 000 (in the turbulent pipe flow range), when the

liquid's Prandtl number is between 0.7 and 120, the heat transfer coefficient between the bulk of the fluid and the pipe surface can be expressed as:

Where h heat transfer coefficient kw - thermal conductivity of the fluid DH - Hydraulic diameter Nu - Nusselt number For finned tubes, the coefficient h cannot be found by the use of equations normally used in bare tube tubes. An correlation for longitudinal finned tubes is given below.

Overall heat transfer coefficient: The overall heat transfer coefficient U is a measure of the overall ability of a series of conductive and convective barriers to transfer heat.

Where, U = the overall heat transfer coefficient A = the contact area for each fluid side hw = conductance per unit area of wall hI, ho = conductance at inner side and outer side of the tube

In heat transfer unit there are three successive steps at work; 1) Convection from the hot fluid to metal wall 2) Conduction through the wall 3) Convection from wall to cold fluid In the above process, 2nd step depends on the thermal conductivity of metals and the presence of scale and fouling. Hence the other two steps, by means of convection are considered invariably in the scale up of heat transfer equipments. As we studied earlier, convection may be forced convection or natural convection. Forced convection: In any system under forced convection, the Nusselt number in general is expressed as a function of the Reynolds number and the Prandtl number. The correlation is called Nusselt equation. Nu = f (Re, Pr) Free convection: In any system under free convection, an equation similar to forced convection can be derived. The correlation is given as a function of Grashof number and Prandtl number. Nu = f (Gr, Pr) Pressure drop calculations: Determining pressure drop in single pass pipe in tube heat exchanger is relatively easy or extremely difficult in shell and tube exchanger. The pressure drop in a straight run pipe is given as,

Where, L length of pipe, uav avg. velocity Dh hydraulic diameter f darcys friction factor

The pressure drop calculation helps in pumping power determination; Pumping power = m Mass flow rate Pressure drop - Density