06/10/2010 SlLe and SubsLrucLure 8Soal

!ames SLockley 1echnology A age 1 of 16

Ootlloe tbe molo types of slte lovestlqotloo employeJ by tbe loJostty lo ptepototloo fot oew wotk
ooJ wotk oo exlstloq bollJloqs
SlLe lnvesLlgaLlons are used Lo acqulre geologlcal geoLechnlcal and oLher relevanL lnformaLlon
regardlng Lhe physlcal characLerlsLlcs of a slLe and lLs lmmedlaLe envlronmenL whlch may have an
effecL on Lhe consLrucLlon or performance of a clvll englneerlng or bulldlng pro[ecL 1hls analysls
should be compleLed before any deslgn or consLrucLlon work beglns allowlng senslble declslons Lo
be made abouL Lhe way ln whlch Lhe pro[ecL proceeds

1he ob[ecLlves of slLe lnvesLlgaLlons have been deflned by A Code of racLlce 8S 39301999 and can
be descrlbed as follows
O SlLe selecLlon ConsLrucLlon ls generally dependenL on Lhe flndlng of a sulLable slLe Lhe
safeLy of llves and properLy are aL rlsk and Lherefore geoLechnlcal daLa analysls and
appllcaLlon of resulLs ls lmporLanL lL allows Lhe cllenL Lo make a [udgemenL on wheLher Lhe
pro[ecL ls vlable and ln con[uncLlon wlLh a deslgner and sLrucLural englneer locaLe Lhe besL
poslLlon for consLrucLlon Laklng advanLage of physlcal and envlronmenLal condlLlons whllsL
avoldlng problemaLlc lssues
O oundaLlon and earLhworks deslgn 1he ldenLlflcaLlon and soluLlon of geoLechnlcal
problems allow for safe and economlcal deslgns of foundaLlons meLhodologles and enables
ML consulLanLs Lo deslgn provlslons for Lhe supply of servlces
O 1emporary works deslgn LxcavaLlons and groundwaLer may cause severe problems and
even brlng a halL Lo consLrucLlon work or prevenL compleLlon lnvesLlgaLlons can allow
accuraLe predlcLlons Lo be made and sulLable Lemporary works Lo be deslgned
O 1he effecLs of a pro[ecL on Lhe envlronmenL LxcavaLlons may cause sLrucLural damage Lo
nelghbourlng bulldlngs and exlsLlng envlronmenLal condlLlons may have undeslred effecLs on
Lhe proposed bulldlng and lLs lnhablLanLs
O lnvesLlgaLlon of exlsLlng consLrucLlon Where sLrucLures have prevlously falled or are llkely
Lo ln Lhe fuLure soluLlons musL be found Lo remedy Lhe slLuaLlon 1he daLa obLalned whllsL
examlnlng exlsLlng bulldlngs can Lhen be used when lL comes Lo deslgnlng new bullds ln
slmllar condlLlons
O 8emedlal works SlLe lnvesLlgaLlon meLhods musL be used Lo galn deslgn parameLers lf
fallure has already occurred or ls llkely Lo ln Lhe fuLure
O SlLe lnvesLlgaLlon can also help deslgners and conLracLors ensure safe consLrucLlon meLhods
are used
1here are Lhree maln Lypes of lnvesLlgaLlon deskLop sLudy reconnalssance and ground / soll
lnvesLlgaLlons 1he deskLop sLudy ls an lnvesLlgaLlon LhaL uses resources LhaL don'L lnvolve vlslLlng a
slLe lL lnvolves Lhe collecLlon of exlsLlng lnformaLlon abouL Lhe slLe looklng aL maps servlce
drawlngs aerlal phoLographs publlc bodles and uLlllLles knowledge of Lhe anLlclpaLed form and
locaLlon of consLrucLlon wlll ald ln Lhe walk over sLudy Lhe ob[ecLlves of whlch are llsLed below
06/10/2010 SlLe and SubsLrucLure 8Soal
!ames SLockley 1echnology A age 2 of 16

O AnLlclpaLe presenL ground condlLlons by examlnlng geologlcal maps and prevlous ground
lnvesLlgaLlon reporLs
O LsLabllsh varlablllLy of Lhe subsoll
O ldenLlfy poLenLlal problems wlLh consLrucLlon
O LsLabllsh llmlLaLlons such a slope lnsLablllLy and excesslve foundaLlon seLLlemenL
O Asses Lhe llkellhood of unexpecLed hazards (eg made ground or conLamlnaLed land)
1he carrylng ouL of a deskLop sLudy can avold unnecessary expenses when lL comes Lo ground and
soll LesLlng CLher lnformaLlon LhaL should be provlded lncludes
O ocaLlon of slLe boundarles and responslblllLles for malnLaln Lhem
O 8lghLs of way
O 8lghLs of llghL
O 8lghLs of supporL
O egal easemenLs
O Cwnershlp of land
O 8lghLs of LenanLs
O round condlLlons
O ocaLlon and capaclLy of servlces
O ConLamlnaLed land due Lo prevlous uses of slLe
O lkellhood of floodlng
8econnalssance lncludes a fleld sLudy or walk over sLudy whlch Lakes Lhe resulLs from a deskLop
sLudy and requlres furLher lnLruslve sLudles of Lhe slLe ln order Lo carry ouL slLe vlslLs rlsk
assessmenLs musL have been made and speclallsLs hlred Lo revlew Lhe condlLlon of exlsLlng
bulldlngs ln Lhls sLudy healLh and safeLy requlremenLs musL be addressed Surface condlLlons such
as Lopography and geomorphology are revlewed and wheLher or noL Lrees ln Lhe lmmedlaLe area are
under preservaLlon order round condlLlons musL be assessed and facLors such as Lhe waLer Lable
and rlsk of floodlng solls Lypes conLamlnaLlon and rlsks Lo englneerlng and flnance Laken lnLo
conslderaLlon Subsoll samples are Laken and lnslLu LesL conducLed 1he need for Lrlal plLs and bore
holes may be consldered aL hls polnL Appralsal of exlsLlng sLrucLures wlLh regards Lo Lhe poLenLlal
for Lhelr reuse or refurblshmenL Lhelr archaeologlcal value and Lhe evaluaLlon for demollLlon le
wlll lL be cosL effecLlve be deLrlmenLal Lo Lhe healLh of Lhose ln Lhe lmmedlaLe vlclnlLy
When conducLlng a walk over sLudy 8S 39301991 suggesL LhaL Lhe surveyor should
O 1raverse Lhe whole slLe lf safe
O MaLch up proposed locaLlon wlLh Lhe plans
O ldenLlfy any dlfferences beLween Lhe Lwo
O 8ecord deLalls of exlsLlng servlces Lrees sLrucLures bulldlngs and obsLrucLlons
O Check access and deLermlne capablllLy of susLalnlng heavy consLrucLlon Lrafflc
O 8ecord waLer levels flucLuaLlons of dlrecLlon of flow and raLe
O ldenLlfy ad[acenL properLy and llkellhood of belng affecLed and exlsLlng slgns of movemenL
O ldenLlfy acLlvlLles pasL or presenL LhaL may have conLamlnaLed Lhe land
O 8ecord mlne or quarry worklngs old sLrucLures and oLher feaLures
06/10/2010 SlLe and SubsLrucLure 8Soal
!ames SLockley 1echnology A age 3 of 16

O 8ecord obvlous feaLures LhaL pose a hazard Lo publlc healLh and safeLy
O 8ecord areas of dlscoloured soll evldence of gas producLlon or underground combusLlon
Soll lnvesLlgaLlons are lnvesLlgaLlons of Lhe solls beneaLh Lhe slLe ln quesLlon and can be carrled ouL
as parL of a slLe lnvesLlgaLlon or lndependenLly 1hls ls done by assesslng Lhe physlcal chemlcal and
general properLles of Lhe subsoll by Laklng samples normally aL a 20m grld paLLerns buL noL aL Lhe
acLual poslLlon of Lhe proposed foundaLlons 1hese samples can be Laken one of Lwo ways elLher as
a dlsLurbed or undlsLurbed sample ulsLurbed solls samples can be obLalned from bore holes or Lrlal
plLs and don'L show Lhelr naLural sLrucLure buL are sulLable for vlsual gradlng of Lhe solls and
esLabllshlng molsLure conLenL and a few laboraLory LesLs undlsLurbed samples are Laken uslng
corlng Lools and malnLaln Lhelr naLural sLrucLure 1hls form of sampllng ls sulLable malnly for rock
and clay subsolls buL dlfflculLles may arlse when sampllng oLher soll Lypes once exLracLed Lhey are
labelled and senL Lo a laboraLory for LesLlng
ln order Lo lnvesLlgaLe Lhe subsoll Lrlal plLs or boreholes are excavaLed 1hese are consLrucLed Lo an
average depLh of 3 or 4 meLres and Lhe subsoll ls classlfled by examlnlng Lhe sldes of Lhe
excavaLlons and undlsLurbed samples can be Laken for laboraLory LesLlng from Lhese sldes
ulsLurbed samples can be Laken from Lhe spoll 1he excavaLlon of Lhese plLs can provlde deLalls of
Lhe ease aL whlch Lhey can be dug Lrench sLablllLy and groundwaLer condlLlons 1rlal plLs are more
economlcal Lhan boreholes normally 12m square ln plan Powever ln areas of loose soll or hlgh
waLer Lable Lrlal plLs can be uneconomlcal due Lo Lhe need perhaps for pumplng or reLenLlon of Lhe
sldes for access lLs should be excavaLed ln Lhe lmmedlaLe vlclnlLy of proposed consLrucLlon buL
care musL be Laken when excavaLlng under proposed foundaLlon locaLlons as Lo whaL maLerlal ls
used Lo back flll Lhem 1he maLerlal used should be sufflclenLly sLrong and well compacLed Lach
Lrlal plL should have a reporL of Lhe lnspecLlon whlch should be kepL ln Lhe Lrlal plL log 1rlal plLs are
sulLable for foundaLlons under 3m
8oreholes enable dlsLurbed or undlsLurbed samples Lo be Laken for analysls once removed samples
should be sealed as qulckly as posslble Lo reLaln any molsLure undlsLurbed samples may be dlfflculL
Lo Lake from noncoheslve solls Core sample slzes can vary from 100mm Lo 200mm dependlng on
Lhe meLhod used ulsLurbed samples can be obLalned by uslng auger borlng or percusslon borlng
8oLary drllllng ls normally used where boreholes are belng cuL lnLo dense gravel or rock buL cannoL
peneLraLe as far as percusslon borlng and lL doesn'L allow lnslLu examlnaLlon undlsLurbed samples
can be Laken from Lhe boLLom of a drllled borehole and undlsLurbed rock samples can be obLalned
by dlamondLlpped core drllllng
8oreholes are normally made uslng llghL percusslon equlpmenL and are sulLable for foundaLlons of
up Lo 30m A 130200mm dlameLer welghLed hollow Lube ls dropped lnLo Lhe hole lodglng coheslve
solls ln Lhe Lube ln granular solls a flap coverlng Lhe base ls used AfLer Lhe sampllng has been done
LesLs such as Lhe sLandard peneLraLlon LesL and vane LesLs can be carrled ouL
Wlndow sampllng uses a sLeel Lube roughly 1m long wlLh a hole cuL lnLo Lhe slde llke a wlndow
allowlng Lhe sample Lo be vlewed or furLher samples Lo be Laken from Lhe Lube 1hls Lube ls drlven
lnLo Lhe ground by llghLwelghL percusslon hammer Lo obLaln dlsLurbed samples and ls Laken ouL wlLh
Lhe help of [acks 1hls meLhod ls sulLable for slLes wlLh llmlLed access and/or where dlsLurbance ls Lo
be kepL Lo a mlnlmum or where an lnvesLlgaLlon lnLo conLamlnaLlon ls Lo be carrled ouL
06/10/2010 SlLe and SubsLrucLure 8Soal
!ames SLockley 1echnology A age 4 of 16


elect ooe flelJ test ooJ ooe lobotototy test to explolo lo Jetoll
Standard enetrat|on 1est (S1)
1he sLandard peneLraLlon LesL ls Lhe mosL wldely used lnslLu LesL lLs resulLs glve an lndlcaLlon of
Lhe denslLy and compresslblllLy of granular solls lL can also be used Lo esLabllsh Lhe conslsLency of
sLony coheslve solls and weak rocks ueslgn meLhods for boLh shallow and deep foundaLlons rely
heavlly on Lhe resulLs of Lhese LesLs
1he LesL conslsLs of drlvlng a 30mm spllL spoon or spllL barrel sampler lnLo soll aL Lhe boLLom of a
borehole uslng repeaLed blows of a sLandard 633kg hammer falllng Lhrough 760mm up Lo a
maxlmum number of 30 blows 1he S1 - value ls Lhe number of blows needed Lo achleve a
peneLraLlon of 300mm afLer an lnlLlal drlve of 130mm 1hls LesL ls slmple wlLh low cosLs and Lhe
resulLs glve a numerlcal parameLer Lo whlch sLralghLforward emplrlcal deslgn rules apply lL's useful
because lL can LesL solls whlch can be dlfflculL Lo LesL under laboraLory condlLlons however Lhe
resulLs seem Lo open Lo a cerLaln degree of lnLerpreLaLlon

















|gure 1 1yp|ca| S1 resu|ts
|gure 2 1yp|ca| sp||t barre| samp|er
06/10/2010 SlLe and SubsLrucLure 8Soal
!ames SLockley 1echnology A age 3 of 16


8elow ote tbe 8tltlsb tooJotJ tepoltemeots fot tbe tooJotJ leoettotloo 1est tokeo ftom tbe cltlto
tepott 14J

1he |e|d Vane 1est
1he fleld vane LesL was developed Lo help deLermlne Lhe shear sLrengLh of very sofL and senslLlve
clays due Lo Lhe dlfflculLles of dolng so ln lab LesLs uslng poor quallLy samples from meLhods LhaL
gaLhered dlsLurbed samples A lab vane LesL has slnce been developed 1he orlglnal Cadllng vane
borer had Lhe rod encased Lo ellmlnaLe frlcLlon and Lhe Lorque requlred for roLaLlon was measured
aL ground surface by a separaLe lnsLrumenL rom Lhe Lorque and geomeLry of Lhe vane Lhe shear
sLrengLh of Lhe soll ls calculaLed
1he LesL conslsLs of a four bladed cruclform vane mounLed on a solld rod pushed lnLo Lhe solld and
roLaLed from Lhe surface ln Lhe fleld LesLs are carrled ouL aL ground level or from Lhe boLLom of a
borehole Accordlng Lo 8S 1377 parL 9 Lhe helghL of Lhe apparaLus musL be Lwlce Lhe dlameLer 1he
I1 ls noL sulLable for solls wlLh undralned sLrengLhs greaLer Lhan 73 ka lL ls noL sulLable for
flbrous peaLs sands or gravels or ln clays conLalnlng lamlnaLlons of sllL or sand or sLones lL ls
deslgned however for weak lnLacL coheslve solls our Lypes of vane are ln use
1 1he vane ls pushed unproLecLed from Lhe boLLom of Lhe borehole or ground surface
2 A houslng ls used Lo proLecL Lhe vane durlng peneLraLlon unLll Lhe vane pushes pasL
Lhe houslng when Lhe LesL ls Lhen sLarLed
3 Iane rods are sleeved mlnlmlslng frlcLlon durlng Lhe LesL
4 Iane rods wlLh a swlvel above Lhe blades allowlng a 900 rod roLaLlon prlor Lo Lhe
vane belng engaged enabllng Lhe rod frlcLlon Lo be measured as parL of Lhe LesL
resulLs






06/10/2010 SlLe and SubsLrucLure 8Soal
!ames SLockley 1echnology A age 6 of 16

1he vane musL be pushed ahead of any dlsLurbance Cnce Lhe vane has been pushed lnLo Lhe
ground lL ls roLaLed aL a slow raLe 1orslonal force ls measured and Lhen converLed Lo unlL shearlng
reslsLance by assumlng Lhe geomeLry of Lhe shear surface and Lhe shear sLress dlsLrlbuLlon across lL
1he relaLlonshlp beLween rod roLaLlon and measured Lorque ls recorded by Laklng readlngs beLween
1330 seconds Cnce maxlmum Lorque ls achleved roLaLe Lhe vane rapldly Lhrough a mlnlmum of
Len revoluLlons and lmmedlaLely sLarL shearlng aL Lhe prevlous slow raLe Lo deLermlne Lhe
remoulded sLrengLh of Lhe soll
1he vane LesL ls rouLlnely used only Lo obLaln 'undlsLurbed' peak undralned shear sLrengLh and
remoulded undralned shear sLrengLh 1he undralned sLrengLh ls derlved on Lhe basls of Lhe followlng
assumpLlons

1 eneLraLlon of Lhe vane causes negllglble dlsLurbance boLh ln Lerms of changes ln
effecLlve sLress and shear dlsLorLlon
2 no dralnage occurs before or durlng shear
3 1he soll ls lsoLroplc and homogeneous
4 1he soll falls on a cyllndrlcal shear surface
3 1he dlameLer of Lhe shear surface ls equal Lo Lhe wldLh of Lhe vane blades
6 aL peak and remoulded sLrengLh Lhere ls a unlform shear sLress dlsLrlbuLlon across
Lhe shear surface and
7 1here ls no progresslve fallure so LhaL aL maxlmum Lorque Lhe shear sLress aL all
polnLs on Lhe shear surface ls equal Lo Lhe undralned shear sLrengLh













1he resulLs of a vane shear LesL may be lnfluenced by many facLors

1 1ype of soll especlally when permeable fabrlc exlsLs
2 SLrengLh anlsoLropy
3 ulsLurbance due Lo lnserLlon of Lhe vane
4 8aLe of roLaLlon or sLraln raLe
3 1lme lapse beLween lnserLlon of Lhe vane and Lhe beglnnlng of Lhe LesL
6 rogresslve/lnsLanLaneous fallure of Lhe soll around Lhe vane


Shear 8ox 1est

1hls LesL can be used on boLh dralned and undralned samples Lo deLermlne resldual sLrengLh
parameLers 1rlaxlal LesL are now more commonly used Lo deLermlne undralned or peak effecLlve
sLrengLh parameLers In the UK, shear box tests are now used mainly to determine residual shear
06/10/2010 SlLe and SubsLrucLure 8Soal
!ames SLockley 1echnology A age 7 of 16

strength parameters Ior the analysis oI pre-existing slope instability (Skempton 1964; Skempton and
Petley 1967).
















A speclmen of clay ls placed ln Lhe shear box and allowed Lo swell for 24 hours lL ls Lhen
consolldaLed under requlred normal compresslon and measuremenLs of verLlcal pressure are made
1he Lwo halves of Lhe box are separaLed and ls Lhe Lhen cuL ln half and Lhe Lwo halves are sub[ecLed
Lo large dlsplacemenLs on Lhe preformed shear surface Maxlmum shear sLresses are ploLLed agalnsL
Lhe logarlLhmlc cumulaLlve dlsplacemenL Shearlng ls conLlnued unLll Lhe curve ls levelled ouL

1hree pleces of apparaLus are ln common use for consolldaLlon LesLlng ln Lhe uk 1hese are

1 1he oedomeLer (1erzaghl 1923 Casagrande 1936)
2 1he Lrlaxlal apparaLus (8lshop and Penkel 1962)
3 1he hydraullc consolldaLlon cell (8owe and 8arden 1966)

1r|ax|a| 1est|ng


%he three most common Iorms oI test are:
1. %he unconsolidated undrained triaxial
compression test, without pore water
pressure measurement.
2. %he consolidated undrained triaxial
compression test, with pore water pressure
measurement.
3. %he consolidated drained triaxial
compression test, with volume change
measurement.

undralned shear sLrengLh ln Lrlaxlal compresslon
wlLhouL measuremenL of pore pressure (As sLaLed
ln 8S 1377 parL 7 1990)

1hls meLhod covers Lhe deLermlnaLlon of Lhe undralned sLrengLh of a speclmen of coheslve soll
when lL ls sub[ecLed Lo a consLanL conflnlng pressure and Lo sLralnconLrolled axlal loadlng when no
06/10/2010 SlLe and SubsLrucLure 8Soal
!ames SLockley 1echnology A age 8 of 16

change ln LoLal molsLure conLenL ls allowed 1esLs are usually carrled ouL on a seL of slmllar
speclmens sub[ecLed Lo dlfferenL conflnlng pressures 1he LesL ls carrled ouL ln Lhe Lrlaxlal
apparaLus on speclmens ln Lhe form of rlghL cyllnders of helghL approxlmaLely equal Lo Lwlce Lhe
dlameLer Speclmen dlameLers range from 38 mm Lo abouL 110 mm


edometer 1est

1hls LesL can be used for large speclmens lL prevenLs laLeral
sLraln and provldes verLlcal sLress 1hls LesL has mosL of Lhe
advanLages of Lhe Lrlaxlal LesL buL ln addlLlon volume change
measuremenLs can be made by monlLorlng Lhe movemenLs of
Lhe seLLlemenL rod or by measurlng Lhe movemenL of Lhe waLer
wlLh a volume gauge 1he Casagrande oedomeLer apparaLus ls
Lhe mosL commonly used


|ate Load|ng 1est

1he plaLe loadlng LesL provldes a dlrecL measure of compresslblllLy and Lhe bearlng capaclLy of solls
lL ls also useful ln assesslng Lhe properLles of weak rocks A plaLe ls placed on Lhe soll Lo be LesLed
uslng sand or cemenL morLar A load ls applled Lo Lhe plaLe ln successlve lncremenLs of 20 of Lhe
deslgn load unLll Lhe raLe of seLLlemenL reduces Lo less Lhan 0004 mm/mm oads are applled unLll
elLher
O Shear fallure of Lhe soll occurs
O 1he plaLe pressure reaches Lwo or Lhree Llmes Lhe deslgn bearlng pressure proposed for Lhe
full scale foundaLlon



















06/10/2010 SlLe and SubsLrucLure 8Soal
!ames SLockley 1echnology A age 9 of 16

xplolo tbe effects soll closslflcotloo moy bove oo tbe selectloo Jeslqo ooJ coosttoctloo of o
sobsttoctote qeoetolly
When deslgnlng foundaLlons Lhe properLles of Lhe subsoll musL be ldenLlfled and Lhelr load bearlng
capaclLy calculaLed knowlng Lhls allows lLs behavlour due Lo LemperaLure and molsLure change Lo
be anLlclpaLed along wlLh any chance of ground movemenL or slngle domesLlc bulldlngs exposure
of subsolls when excavaLlng for foundaLlons ls sufflclenL Lo verlfy ground condlLlons buL for larger
works boreholes and Lrlal plLs may need Lo be excavaLed 1he key Lo good foundaLlon deslgn ls Lo
LransmlL sLrucLural loads safely Lo Lhe subsoll wlLh mlnlmal movemenL
SLrlp foundaLlons are sulLable for mosL subsolls and llghL sLrucLural loadlngs assoclaLed wlLh medlum
and low rlse bulldlngs where mass concreLe ls sulLable oLherwlse relnforced concreLe should be
used ad foundaLlons are sulLable for mosL subsoll excepL for sands loose gravels and fllled areas
ad foundaLlons are normally square and made from relnforced concreLe 8afL foundaLlons spread
Lhe load over a large area and are ldeal for low load bearlng capaclLy solls and where hlgh column
loads are encounLered CanLllevered foundaLlons can be used Lo avold placlng pressure on ad[acenL
sLrucLures whereas plled foundaLlons can be used Lo LransmlL Lhe loads of Lhe supersLrucLure Lo a
layer of subsoll wlLh sufflclenL load bearlng capaclLy 1hese are noL sulLable ln areas
O of naLurally low bearlng capaclLy solls
O hlgh waLer Lable
O of compresslble subsolls
O llkely Lo be affecLed by changes ln molsLure conLenL or plasLlc fallure
1opsoll ls loosely compacLed and does noL make for a good foundaLlon conslsLlng of sand clay and
decaylng vegeLable maLLer has poor bearlng capaclLy












06/10/2010 SlLe and SubsLrucLure 8Soal
!ames SLockley 1echnology A age 10 of 16

tow to scole o soltoble footloq fot o ttoJltlooolly bollt Jwellloq oo qooJ beotloq qtooolot soll ooJ
wltb o qtoooJ beotloq lo slto cooctete slob

























06/10/2010 SlLe and SubsLrucLure 8Soal
!ames SLockley 1echnology A age 11 of 16

tow to scole o soltoble footloq fot o ttoJltlooolly bollt Jwellloq oo sbtlokoble looJoo cloy wltb o
ptecost cooctete sospeoJeJ slob


























06/10/2010 SlLe and SubsLrucLure 8Soal
!ames SLockley 1echnology A age 12 of 16

xplolo tbe oJvootoqes qoloeJ by teJocloq qtoooJ wotet levels oo slte ooJ wltb tbls lo mloJ compote
pomploq ftom opeo somps moltlstoqe well polots ooJ sbeet plle coffetJoms compote tbelt
oppllcotloo lostollotloo opetotloo lo ose ooJ tettlevol fot teose
roundwaLer ls Lhe waLer Lemporarlly held ln Lhe soll above Lhe waLer Lable lL can be conLrolled
uslng a mulLlLude of dlfferenL meLhods elLher Lo permanenLly exclude groundwaLer from a parLlcular
area or Lemporarlly lower Lhe waLer Lable Lo allow consLrucLlon acLlvlLles Lo Lake place








roundwaLer affecLs Lhe sLablllLy and ground bearlng capaclLy of subsolls Lo dlfferenL exLenLs
dependlng on Lhe characLerlsLlcs of Lhe soll and by dewaLerlng a slLe can reduce Lhe exLenL Lo whlch
Lhey are affecLed lL can also prevenL floodlng due Lo an lncrease ln Lhe waLer Lable durlng weL
perlods prevenL lLs Lendency Lo move lnLo volds creaLed durlng excavaLlon works and provlde a
soluLlon Lo unaccepLable humldlLy levels around flnlshed bulldlngs and sLrucLures
Cne of Lhe mosL common permanenL soluLlons for Lhe excluslon of
groundwaLer ls sheeL plllng Lo form a cuL off wall Lo Lhe flow of
groundwaLer 1hls can also be used Lo form a Lemporary enclosure
around excavaLlon works as a cofferdam ln order Lo lower Lhe waLer
Lable 1hls meLhod ls Lyplcally applled ln open excavaLlons and ls
sulLable ln mosL Lypes of soll excepL where Lhere ls Lhe posslblllLy of
encounLerlng boulders or where Lhe vlbraLlon and nolse assoclaLed
wlLh Lhelr lnsLallaLlon ls unaccepLable (alLhough sllenL meLhods
are avallable) 1he sheeL plles can be reused buL ls cosLly lf lefL as
a permanenL reLalnlng sLrucLure 1hls meLhod can also be used ln
con[uncLlon wlLh pumplng Lechnlques
Sump pumplng ls also sulLable for Lrench work or where small
volumes of waLer arlse durlng excavaLlon Sumps can be used ln
mosL subsoll Lypes and are parLlcularly effecLlve ln coarse sands
and gravels 1he sump should be placed ln Lhe corner of Lhe
excavaLlon as shown ln Lhe flgure below Lo mlnlmlse soll
movemenL whlch ls a hazard assoclaLed wlLh Lhls meLhod and
|gure 3 C|ass|f|cat|on of water by |ts re|at|ve pos|t|on to the ground (Chud|ey and
Greeno 2010)
|gure 4 ermanent exc|us|on
of water by sheet p|||ng
|gure S |an show|ng sump pump|ng
06/10/2010 SlLe and SubsLrucLure 8Soal
!ames SLockley 1echnology A age 13 of 16

should be placed below Lhe formaLlon level of Lhe excavaLlon/Lrench plL 1he danger of soll
movemenLs can be eradlcaLed by Lhe use of [eLLed sumps whlch replaces Lhe vold creaLed by
deposlLlng a sand medlum 1he depLh aL whlch sump pumplng can be used may be llmlLed Lo a
depLh of around elghL meLres due Lo llmlLaLlons of sucLlon llfL of pumps 1hls meLhod ls cheap and
slmple buL may glve lnsufflclenL drawdown Lo prevenL seepage on Lhe cuL face of slopes posslbly
leadlng Lo lnsLablllLy 1hls Lechnlque has a modesL drawdown and ls favourable lf Lhere ls no
lmmedlaLe source of recharge or for unconflned aqulfers SllLy and unlform sands may become
enLralned ln seepage and musL enLer sedlmenL Lanks for seLLlemenL because screenlng for Lhese
around Lhe sump wlll be near lmposslble lL should only be used where Lhere are mlnlmal resLrlcLlons
on waLer dlscharge quallLy Seepage can also be easlly conLamlnaLed wlLh suspended sollds cemenL
and fuel olls so sumplng ls only sulLable where Lhere ls a low rlsk of conLamlnaLlon 1he sump should
be deep enough Lo draln Lhe excavaLlon and dralnage neLwork allowlng for Lhe pump lnLake level
and some accumulaLlon of sedlmenL lL should be subsLanLlally larger Lhan Lhe slze of Lhe pump Lo
allow space for sedlmenL and cleanlng and good access ls requlred Lo allow removal of Lhe pumps
for malnLenance and cleanlng of Lhe sumps Lo remove any accumulaLlon of sedlmenL
Well polnL sysLems lower Lhe waLer Lable sufflclenLly below
formaLlon levels Lo glve a dry worklng area and are a
popular meLhod for waLer lowerlng ln noncoheslve solls Lo
depLhs of beLween 3 and 6 meLres buL may be llmlLed Lo
3343 meLres ln flne gralned solls MulLlple small dlameLer
wells are waLer [eLLed lnLo Lhe ground aL regular lnLervals
all connecLed Lo a header plpe aLLached Lo a vacuum pump
1hey are normally lnsLalled ln a rlng conflguraLlon around an
open excavaLlon A sLandby pump should always be ready
Lo Lake over Lhe work lf pumplng operaLlons cease Lo avold
compleLe collapse of Lhe excavaLlon 1he same equlpmenL
can be used around small and large excavaLlons lL ls qulck Lo
lnsLall ln many soll condlLlons and close spaclng (1 3 2 m
Lyplcally) promoLes effecLlve drawdowns ln sLraLlfled solls
A drawback Lo Lhls meLhod ls LhaL Lhe header maln may
cause dlfflculLles Lo access of Lhe slLe As Lhe waLer ls
lowered alr may be sucked up lowerlng Lhe lmpacL of Lhe
vacuum and Lhe well polnL valves may have Lo be Lrlmmed Lo malnLaln good levels of sucLlon



|gure 4 1yp|ca| deta||s of we|| po|nt dewater|ng
systems
06/10/2010 SlLe and SubsLrucLure 8Soal
!ames SLockley 1echnology A age 14 of 16


|gure 6 A mu|t|staged we||po|nt system

lasLlc dlsposable wellpolnLs are lnsLalled by [eLLlng uslng a Lemporary sLeel placlng Lube 1he
wellpolnL ls Lhen lnsLalled and any fllLer sand |s lnLroduced Lo Lhe [eLLed hole as Lhe Lemporary sLeel
caslng ls wlLhdrawn 8eusable sLeel self[eLLlng wellpolnLs remaln avallable SLeel sheeLplle
cofferdams can be used Lo provlde excavaLlon slde supporL lf dewaLerlng ls requlred ln con[uncLlon
wlLh a cofferdam careful conslderaLlon should be glven Lo Lhe lnLeracLlon beLween Lhe flow of
groundwaLer Lo Lhe dewaLerlng sysLem and from around Lhe sheeLplles ln parLlcular lL ls lmporLanL
Lo undersLand Lhe pore waLer pressure reglme LhaL wlll resulL from Lhe dewaLerlng works and check
LhaL Lhe deslgn of Lhe cofferdam ls adequaLe for boLh Lhe soll loadlng and Lhe hydrosLaLlc loads LhaL
may arlse
|gure 7 We||po|nt system components
|gure 8 Summary of we||po|nt |nsta||at|on techn|ques (CIkIA CS1S 2000)
06/10/2010 SlLe and SubsLrucLure 8Soal
!ames SLockley 1echnology A age 13 of 16

lscoss tbe bozotJ potbwoy totqet sceootlo fot o cootomlooteJ slte ooJ tbeo select o slte to
explolo/lllosttote bow tbe cootomlooot moy be Jeolt wltb eltbet by soll tteotmeot ot sobsttoctote
Jeslqo







Approved uocumenL C ulagram showlng Lyplcal hazard paLhway LargeL scenarlo
Cn any conLamlnaLed slLe a rlsk assessmenL should be carrled ouL Lo ldenLlfy Lhe rlsk posed Lo any
poLenLlal recepLors lncludlng bulldlngs Lhelr maLerlals servlces and of course people ln Lhe case of
conLamlnaLlon Lhe source paLhway recepLor llnk musL be broken aL some polnL whlch can be done ln
numerous ways
O 1he conLamlnanL can be LreaLed uslng blologlcal chemlcal or physlcal meLhods
O 1he conLamlnanL can be removed by excavaLlon of conLamlnaLed maLerlal
O 1he paLhway can be removed by lsolaLlng Lhe conLamlnaLlon by creaLlng barrlers elLher by
capplng wlLh unconLamlnaLed maLerlal or uslng hard sLandlngs and barrlers Lo prevenL
laLeral mlgraLlon of Lhe conLamlnanL
O 8y changlng Lhe layouL of Lhe proposed developmenL or by redeslgnlng uslng more
approprlaLe bulldlng maLerlals Lhe recepLor can be removed from Lhe hazard
1here are four sLages of rlsk assessmenL
1 Pazard ldenLlflcaLlon
2 Pazard assessmenL
3 8lsk esLlmaLlon
4 8lsk evaluaLlon
lf Lhe rlsks are deemed Lo be unaccepLable Lhen remedlal measures musL be Laken
1teotmeot 8y uslng blologlcal chemlcal or physlcal meLhods carrled ouL elLher on or off slLe lL ls
posslble LhaL elLher Lhe mass concenLraLlon moblllLy flux or LoxlclLy can be reduced
cootolomeot 1hls normally lnvolves creaLlng cover sysLems ln order Lo

O 8reak Lhe polluLanL llnkage beLween recepLors and conLamlnanLs
O SusLaln vegeLaLlon
O lmprove geoLechnlcal properLles
O 8educe exposure Lo an accepLable level
06/10/2010 SlLe and SubsLrucLure 8Soal
!ames SLockley 1echnology A age 16 of 16

1he consLrucLlon deslgn of foundaLlons subsLrucLure and ground floor can also help Lo proLecL from
Lhe harmful effecLs of conLamlnanLs Cover sysLem deslgn dlmenslons musL Lake lnLo conslderaLlon
long Lerm performance for naLural dlsLurbance and breach of cover layers by lnnocenL removal for
such acLlvlLles as domesLlc exLenslons and landscaplng
emovol 1hls can be selecLlve LargeLlng areas of hlgh concenLraLlon or enLall compleLe excavaLlon
of conLamlnaLed removal MerlLs of boLh meLhods musL be consldered

ConLamlnaLlon can pose rlsks Lo sLrucLures as well as humans hazards lnclude combusLlble
maLerlals aggresslve subsLances and expanslve slags Aggresslve maLerlals lnclude Lhose wlLh
exLremes ln pP organlc solvenLs and lnorganlc chemlcals such as sulphaLes and chlorldes whlch may
affecL Lhe longLerm durablllLy of consLrucLlon maLerlals malnly concreLe meLals and plasLlcs
SubLerranean flres are llkely lf Lhe conLamlnanLs are combusLlble Lhese can lnclude domesLlc wasLe
and organlc compounds such as peLrol 1hese flres may noL be noLlceable and may compromlse
sLrucLural sLablllLy and Lhe lnLegrlLy of servlces Lxpandable slags llke Lhose produced ln Lhe maklng
of sLeel and as a producL of blasL furnaclng may expand parLlcularly ln Lhe presence of waLer and
may cause damage Lo sLrucLures slmllar Lo Lhe shrlnkable naLure of clays

MeLhane ls an exploslve and asphyxlaLlng gas Carbon dloxlde alLhough nonflammable ls Loxlc ICCs
are noL only flammable and Loxlc buL can also have a sLrong unpleasanL odour Should any of Lhese
gases bulld up Lo hazardous levels ln bulldlngs Lhen Lhey can cause harm Lo healLh or compromlse
safeLy 8emedlal measures for Lhese clrcumsLances lnclude elLher Lhe removal of Lhe subsLance
causlng Lhe release of gas or by consLrucLlng a barrler beLween Lhe bulldlng and Lhe conLamlnanL
IenLllaLlon areas below Lhe sLrucLure can ensure safe release lnLo Lhe aLmosphere normally uslng
passlve meLhods llke sLack or wlnd venLllaLlon