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Electric Motor Theory

Electric motors provide one of the most versatile sources of mechanical power for industry. A motor is a device which converts or transforms electrical energy into mechanical energy. In order to understand how a motor operates, it is necessary to be familiar with magnetism and the effect of magnetic fields on ferrous or iron material placed in close proximity to the magnet. Consider a common permanent bar "horseshoe" shaped magnet. If we placed a transparent paper above the magnet and sprinkled iron shavings onto the paper, we would notice that the shavings would be attracted to the ends of the magnet. We shall call these points of concentrated magnetic strength "poles". For convenience we can label these poles north and south. Separate poles actually do not exist, however, there must always be two poles (a pair of poles) in every magnet. We can see that the magnetic field is the strongest between the poles of a magnet (See Figure 3.1.1.)

Just as we have named the poles north and south for sake of clarity, we can establish a means of defining the magnetic field strength. Magnetic field strength is proportional to the quantity or density of the invisible lines of force present. These lines of force are called "flux" and the number of lines of force per unit area is called "flux density" (See Figure 3.1.2).

By further experimentation using two magnets, we can quickly show that each pole of a magnet is different since placing the magnet together with ends touching, we will note that in one position the poles attract, whereas in the reverse position, the poles repel each other. It can quickly be deduced that like poles repel and unlike poles attract each other. (See Figure 3.1.3).

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Figure 3 .1 . 3 If we now suspend an iron disk from a string and then place the "horseshoe" magnet below, without touching the disk, and rotate the magnet, we will note the disk also turns. In essence, we have induced magnetic poles into the disk and these poles cause the disk to follow the rotation of the permanent magnet (See Figure 3.1.4).

Figure 3 . 1 . 4 A field, its lines of flux, can also be produced by passing an electric current through a wire conductor. An electric current is the flow of electric charges from one point to another. Current flows from positive to negative and is dependent upon electrical pressure, voltage, impressed across these two points. As the voltage is increased, the current is also increased. Field, and flux, can be increased by increasing the current. This can be accomplished by either increasing the voltage or increasing the number of wires carrying a current of constant magnitude. To improve flux concentration, the wires are formed into a coil (See Figure 3.1.5).

Figure 3 . 1 . 5 Flux density is dependent upon the magnetic field present and the ability of the surrounding materials to carry the flux. The ability to carry the flux is called

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permeability. Since air has a very low permeability, we can increase the flux density by inserting into the coil a material having a higher permeability such as iron. The relationship of field intensity, flux density, current, and permeability can be explained as follows: 1. Field intensity is directly proportional to current (H I) 2. Current is directly proportional to voltage (I V) 3. Flux density is directly proportional to magnetic field intensity and permeability (B H) where: B = flux density I = current V = voltage = relative permeability, air equals 1 and iron is more than 1 H = field intensity Experimentation shows that the polarity of the poles can be predetermined and is dependent upon the direction of current flow in the coil. If we place our right hand with the palm towards the coil so that our fingers point in the direction of current flow, our thumb will point toward the north pole (See Figure 3.1.6).

Figure 3 . 1 . 6 Let us now make a crude motor consisting of a stationary U shaped iron bar having a wire coiled around it and another iron bar, free to turn, placed between the openings of the stationary member. The stationary member is called a stator and the rotating "free to turn" bar is called a rotor. The rotor also has a coil of wire wrapped around it, however, the rotor coil is continuous; that is, its ends are connected together. If we pass a current through the stator wire, poles will be established in the stator. The magnetic field established by the stator poles will induce a voltage in the rotor coil causing a current to flow in the rotor coil. This induced rotor current establishes its own magnetic field and poles. The inducing of current in the rotor by the stator field is called transformer action. The stator is often referred to as the "primary" and the rotor as the "secondary". The interaction of stator poles and induced rotor poles exerts a force causing the rotor to align itself or turn 90 degrees. If the stator is de-energized just as the rotor completes the first 90 degrees of rotation, it will coast. Let us allow the rotor to coast until it is slightly past the midpoint between poles. Now re-energize the stator winding or coil, however, reverse the direction of current flow. This causes the stator poles to be reversed in polarity and causes continued rotation of the rotor. Again the coil must be de-energized until the rotor coasts slightly

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past the midpoint between poles completing 360 degrees of rotation. Again we can change direction of current flow, reverse the polarity of the stator and continue the cycle causing the rotor to continuously turn. This is an electric motor (See Figure 3.1.7).

Figure 3 . 1 . 7 In our crude motor it was necessary to produce a magnetic field in the stator which by transformer action, caused the rotor to turn. Continuous rotation was accomplished by mechanically switching the direction of current flow in the stator coil. Let us investigate a more practical way of obtaining a pulsating electrical field by employing an alternating current source of power. Alternating current, A.C., is an electric current having a regularly changing polarity. In other words, the current is continually changing direction or cycling from positive to negative. The rapidity of polarity change per second is referred to as cycles per second or merely frequency. The rate of polarity change is constant, however, the current magnitude is constantly changing with respect to time. This can be represented by a curve-plotting current magnitude versus time (See Figure 3.1.8).

Figure 3. 1. 8 In a motor, the relative direction of flux, current and motion can best be explained by Flemings left hand rule. If we place thumb, index and middle finger so as to form three axes of a coordinate system and then point the finger in the direction of the stator flux, (north to south) the middle finger in the direction of current in the rotor conductor, the thumb will indicate the direction of force and, therefore, the resulting motion. The force

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referred to in Flemings rule is the result of the interaction of stator poles and rotor poles. The rotor poles are caused by voltages and currents induced into the rotor by the magnetic stator field (See Figure 3.1.9).

Figure 3 .1.9 The continual fluctuation of the current, both in magnitude and polarity, causes a continually changing, alternating, magnetic field and resulting force. In actual practice the winding is distributed in slots around the stator. We can consider this a concentrated coil. The stator current, stator field, and flux are all alternating in magnitude. In our crude motor stator, a disproportionate share of the flux and field strength produced by the current carrying coils is wasted or ineffective. As a material is magnetized, the internal molecular alignment changes. Small elementary magnets are set up within the material. As a magnetic field passes through a material, it induces north and south poles in the elementary fields which, in turn, align and cause the material itself to have a north and south pole. When the magnetic field is removed, the elementary magnets called dipoles will tend to return to their original position because of the inherent molecular stresses in the material itself. Each time the magnetic field is applied or removed, the dipoles change their physical position. This movement generates heat and is defined as hysteresis loss. The magnitude of this loss is dependent upon flux density and the grade and quality of the material (See Figure 3.1.10).

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Figure 3. 1. 1 0 Small recirculating currents called eddy currents are induced within a material as the flux through the material is changed (either increased or decreased). These eddy currents create internal losses within the material and display themselves in heat. By constructing the stator core of thin laminations insulated from each other, these eddy currents can be restricted to each lamination. By this restriction, their magnitude can be decreased (See Figure 3.1.11).

Figure 3.1. 11 The choice of material, thickness used, and its chemical content is made by the Design Engineer based on such considerations as permeability, heat transmission, handling ease in manufacturing and cost. In general, special electrical grade sheet steel having a thickness of .01 to .03 inches is used. The insulating barrier between laminations consists of an oxidized film on the lamination itself or special plating of the lamination steel with varnishes or resins. These insulating barriers generally have a thickness of .0003 inches or less. Although it would be possible to wrap the coils of wire around the laminated stator core in order to produce the magnetic field, it is more practical to place the coils in slots formed in the inside diameter or the bore of the stator. This is done to provide a more even flux distribution, maximum flux concentration and to utilize both sides of the coil. It is necessary to isolate or insulate the current carrying members from the stacked stator laminations or stator core to prevent electrical shorting. The materials used to isolate the copper wire from the stator core are called insulators and are further defined as to their use. Insulators, materials which resist the flow of electrical currents, must be provided around each wire and within the stator slot.

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The coils are physically placed in the stator slot in such a manner that when energized, the magnetic field and its corresponding poles are produced. It has been determined that laminated electrical grade steel should be used to form the stator core to reduce the eddy current and hysteresis losses. For the same reasons, the rotor should be made up of laminated electrical grade steel which has been formed with grooves in the periphery. Current carrying bars or conductors are placed in these rotor grooves or slots so as to facilitate the passage of the induced currents. The bars are then connected at the ends of the rotor by means of rings which complete the electrical circuit. The bars and end rings look somewhat like an exercise cage for squirrels, hence the rotor is termed a squirrel cage type.

Figure 3.1.12 The pulsating field strength can be graphically shown by considering a coil having A.C. current flowing through it. The field will build up and collapse at right angles to the coil. At time (T1 ) the field is at maximum strength and we will assume north polarity. At time (T2) the field is still of north polarity, however, slightly reduced in magnitude. At time (T3) no current is flowing, therefore, the field is at zero strength. At time (T4) the field is again building up, however, is of south polarity because the current flow has been reserved. At time (T5) the field is at maximum strength and south polarity. Since we know the field strength is pulsating at a constant rate with respect to time, it can be represented by a curve plotting field strength with respect to time. This curve, representing magnetic field strength at specific points in time, is obtained by considering the field strength as a vector, a line having both magnitude and direction. The magnetic field strength vector is stationary in space, but continually alternating with respect to time. For theoretical purposes and to better understand the operation of a motor, we can consider the field strength vector as the sum of two opposing revolving field strength vectors equal in magnitude. Since there is only one stator winding and one stator current, the same stator current must and does set up both revolving and opposing fields.

Figure 3.1.13 Field Strength with Respect to Time

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When the rotor is at rest, and the stator energized, the opposing revolving fields cancel each other resulting in a pulsating field. Because the stator field is pulsating, currents are induced into the rotor by transformer action. These induced rotor currents produce a magnetic rotor field opposing the stator field. Since the stator and rotor fields are in line and opposing each other, no turning effort or torque is produced and the motor won't start. In essence, the motor is merely a transformer with a shorted secondary. If the rotor is made to turn (started by auxiliary means eg. by hand), the rotor bars or conductors pass through the flux lines produced by the stator field and voltages and currents are induced in the rotor bars. The induced rotor voltages and currents set up their own field, poles, etc. which adds to the stator flux of the stator "forward rotating field" and decreases the stator flux of the "backward rotating field". The resulting rotating stator flux is stronger in the forward direction of rotation. The resultant stator field and induced rotor field will try to align. This causes the rotor to continue to turn. The effective increase in the forward flux and decrease in the backward flux which causes the rotor to continually turn after it is mechanically started is slight at low speeds, but improved as the rotor speed increases (See Figure 3.1.14).

Figure 3.1.14 The motor discussed in Section 3 would continually run if supplied with an A.C. current, however, this motor would not start by itself. This motor is energized by a single A.C. current source or phase supplied to the stator, hence is called a single phase A.C. motor. Let us consider multiple, separate A.C. currents supplying the stator at the same time via separate stator windings. Each current will be displaced in time from any other current. Each separate source is referred to as a phase. An A.C. 3 phase motor then actually has 3 current sources. Let us mount 6 metal bars equally spaced within a circular frame. Now place coils of wire around these bars and connect the coils which are physically spaced 180 degrees apart, together in pairs. Let us now supply each pair of stator coils with a separate alternating current. Each alternating current must be "electrically timed" so that each current reaches its positive maximum in proper sequence. Probably the easiest way to understand the electrical timing is to consider a circle (360 degrees). When the maximum current of phase A is electrically at 0 degrees, the maximum currents of phase B and C will be at 120 and 240 degrees respectively. We have already seen, that supplying the stator coils with alternating current, a pulsating magnetic field and flux resulted. This in turn produced a field which rotated simultaneously both in the forward and backward direction. If the rotor was

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manually turned, the energized stator would create a rotating field due to the transformer action between rotor and stator (See Figure 3.1.15).

Figure 3.1.15 Phase Relationship Our multiple or 3 phase motor is essentially 3 single phase motors combined into one unit. Each phase is providing a pulsating field in perfect time sequence (120 electrical degrees apart from the previous phase). The coils in the stator are connected so that they produce "positive" or "negative" coil groups. In other words, a positive connected coil group will produce a north pole when the current flowing through it is positive and will produce a south pole when the current flowing through it is negative. Conversely, the negative coil group produces a north pole when the current flowing is negative (See Figure 3.1.16). The effect of magnitude and direction of the flux wave can be illustrated by a graphical display of the pulsating current for each phase at specific instants of time. We must simultaneously consider the direction of the flux produced by the current flow in each phase. This can best be seen by unfolding the coil groups shown in Figure 3.1.16 into a straight line. We will assign the same connection polarity of the coil groups as shown in Figure 3.1.16.

Figure 3. 1. 16 Coil Identification and Connection Polarity, Current Flow (Direction) Shown at Time T1

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Figure 3.1.17 Motor Construction

Motor Operation:
A three phase motor is required for use with all Variable Frequency Controllers. They come in various winding configurations, voltage ratings, sizes and enclosures in order to be applied in all applications.

A simple three phase 2 pole motor consist of a pair of windings for each phase spaced 120 degree apart. Each pair of windings is connected to an individual phase.

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As we supply an alternating voltage to the pair of windings, a magnetic field is developed. With a positive voltage applied, A1 becomes a North Pole and A2 a South Pole. The magnetic strength will be proportional to the applied voltage, therefore it is always varying. The same applies for the negative potential, with A1 now becoming the South Pole and A2 becoming the North Pole.

3 Phase Voltage relationship


The above voltage relationship shows the relative strength of the field created by each pair of windings at any given time. We will look closes at the effect of the three phase voltages at any instant of time.

At time t,: phase A is zero phase B is negative phase C is positive therefore no magnetic field created B2 is +, B1 is C1 is +, C2 is

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Field Strength vs. Time

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3 Phase, 2 Pole Motor

Magnetic Field Rotation, 3 Phase 2 Pole Motor

3 Phase, 4 Pole Motor

Magnetic Field Rotation, 3 Phase 2 Pole Motor As shown above, the 2 pole motor made one complete rotation in one cycle, whereas the 4 pole motor only made one half of a revolution. The operating speed of the motor is determined by the frequency of the power source and the number of pole pairs in the motors winding. Rotational Speed = Frequency in Hertz * 60 seconds per minute / Stator Pole pairs per phase

Speed Synchronous (RPM) = 120 * Frequency / # of Poles Torque rated = 5250 * HP / RPM

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Speed -Torque Characteristics for NEMA B Motor The above figure shows the Speed - Torque characteristic curve for a NEMA design B squirrel cage motor. The actually operating speed is the synchronous speed minus the slip which is around 2 to 3%.

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Figure A.

Motor Equivalent Circuit

The above vector diagram is typical for a squirrel cage motor. The main task of the inverter is to duplicate the flux pattern strength for all the different frequencies generated, in order to optimize the motor performance.

Flux is proportional to the Magnetizing Current Magnetizing Current = E / Xm = E / 2 * 3.14 * f L eliminating the constants, ~ E/ f or Volts / Hertz
In order to accomplish the constant Voltage to Hertz ratio at the magnetizing inductor, the VFD will increase the output voltage slightly as the load increases to over come the increased voltage drop (IR drop) in the stator circuit. With the VFD capable of producing this constant V/Hz ratio, the performance of the motor on utility voltage and frequency can be matched or exceeded on VFD power.

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Family of Speed- Torque, Speed- Current Curves The above figure shows the speed - torque and speed - current characteristic curves for various frequencies with a constant flux available to the motor as provide by an adjustable frequency controller. The figure shows a series of identical curves with different synchronous speed corresponding to various operating frequencies. Each curve has the same value of breakdown torque and the same value of slip RPM at any given operating torque level.

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In order for the motor to produce the above characteristic curves, the controller must be able to provide the optimum voltage at each frequency. This relationship between the voltage and frequency is call the Volts per Hertz ratio. The ideal Volts per Hertz ratio implies that the motors voltage and frequency ratio across the magnetizing inductor (LM) remains constant as in the case when the motor is operated on utility power.

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The squirrel cage motor can operate in any of the four quadrants. The first and third quadrants are defined as the motoring quadrants for the forward and reverse directions respectively. The second and forth quadrants are the regeneration (reversing) quadrants for the forward and reverse directions respectively.

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SPEED TORQUE CURVE 1200 AND 1800 RPM MOTORS

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MOTOR ROTOR DESIGN CHARACTERISTICS

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