RS AND GIS APPLICATIONS IN FLOOD FORECASTING

Introduction

In recent years there have been a number of significant riverine floods all around the
World which caused enormous damage both in terms of loss of life and economics. In
the past decade thousands of lives have been lost directly or indirectly from flooding.
In fact, of all natural risks, floods pose the most widely distributed risk to life today. It is
also clear that no mitigation measure can offer a hundred percent security against
floods. There will always be the possibility that thresholds are surpassed and that
floods will occur. Another problem is that the higher the level of security due to
mitigation measures (dams, dikes, storage compartments.) the safer people feel
living and working in potentially dangerous areas. We have nowadays so much faith in
our defence systems that alluvial plains are among the most densely populated areas
in the world with a large accumulation of valuable property.

2. Objective
This contribution intends to demonstrate how Remote Sensing and Geographical
Information Systems can be used in the assessment of flood risk. Up-to-date
information on the development of the landscape is required to assess the flood
hazard and to estimate the potential impact of a flood when it occurs. It will be shown
how Remotely Sensed data can be used at various stages of the flood forecasting
process and the successive risk assessment.

3. Flood Forecasting
Assessment of the flood impact is a complex problem that can only be solved through
interdisciplinary research and a stepwise approach. The first step is to estimate the
dimensions of a possible (likely) flood. Through the application of 1-dimensional flood
models, design hydrographs can be constructed that give an indication of possible
discharges for a given catchment at a certain location for a predefined climatologic
event. The second step is to assess the consequences of such a (peak-) discharge for
an areas of special interest . e.g. for a city along the river. For this kind of study a 2-
dimensional model is required to characterise the flood hazard in terms of maximum
flow velocity, water depths, warning time, duration, sedimentation and erosion, etc.
The final step is to estimate how the flood interferes with human activities in the
affected area. How many people will suffer from the floodwater by losing their life,
National Workshop on Flood Disaster Management . Space Inputs, 3-4 June, 2004,
NRSA, Hyderabad, India 58
their health, their home or their livelihood? What will be the damage to crop yield,
industrial production or to houses? Also aspects of civil protection need to be
considered, like when people need to be evacuated and which transportation lines are
still available in the inundated area.

4. Use of Remote Sensing for Flood Risk

All three steps in the flood risk assessment process require up-to-date and accurate
information on the terrain topography and the use of the land. Remotely sensed
images from satellites and aircrafts are often the only source that can provide this
information for large areas at acceptable costs. Digital Elevation Models can be
constructed quickly or can be improved by using e.g. the Aster images. Furthermore all
kinds of parameters that are important for hydrological modelling is related to the
land cover, e.g. permeability, interception, evapo-transpiration, surface roughness,
etc. And since land cover mapping using satellite images is already common practice,
the spatial distribution of these values can be easily estimated. However satellite
imagery is not only useful to derive input data for the hydrologic models, but offers
also good possibilities to validate the output of the models when a flooding disaster
has struck. The observed extent of the flood can then be compared with the modelled
prediction. Perhaps the most promising application of RS is its use for elements at risk
analysis. High resolution images offer great opportunities to identify individual
structures. Recognition of the function of these structures is important for the
assessment of their vulnerability and their importance and value. Especially for cities
that experience fast and uncontrolled expansion into hazardous areas like floodplains,
this offers an opportunity to monitor the increasing risks and impacts and to use it in
their decision making process.

5. Flood Hazard Assessment: Modelling & GIS

This presentation will give examples how satellite images can be used for hydrological
modelling. Some results will be shown of the application of a two dimensional finite
element propagation model that was specially designed to simulate riverine floods.
This model . SOBEK . is very suitable for modelling flow over initially dry land and
complex topography. The model output, water height and flow velocity distribution at
hourly time-steps, were imported into a GIS (ILWIS) and transformed in seven indicator
maps that characterise the various aspects of flood hazard: maximum water depth,
maximum flow velocity, maximum impulse (amount of moving water), maximum speed
of rising of the water level, duration, arrival time of the first floodwaters and
sedimentation and erosion.

6. Flood Risk Assessment

The flood hazard indicators are independent of the land-use. To assess the impact of
the flood, additional information is needed on the tolerance to floods of the various
land-use units in the inundated territory and their value. Some examples will be shown
how high resolution images are used for elements at risk mapping. For each of these
National Workshop on Flood Disaster Management . Space Inputs, 3-4 June, 2004,
NRSA, Hyderabad, India 59
elements relationships have to be established between the flood hazard parameters
and the degree of damage that they cause. Such flood risk modelling can best be
done within a GIS environment to maintain the spatial component of the flood risk
distribution. If the value of the exposed elements is known, the risk can be expressed
in monetary terms and the total damage can be estimated. However the value of
many elements go beyond the direct value (e.g. hospitals, energy plants) or cannot
easily be expressed in monetary terms (e.g. human suffering).

7. Conclusion
Through the examples in this presentation I hope to have demonstrated how Remote
Sensing and GIS techniques are vital for flood risk assessment studies, especially in
areas where data is scarce or outdated. New developments within catchments and on
alluvial plains can change the flood hazard and the flood risk. The use of flood models
can help to prevent undesirable side effects of the developments and can assist in
implementing mitigation measures. This could help avoiding that a dramatic event like
a flood turns into a disaster because of unwise land use. Furthermore, the visualisation
power of flood simulations will help to bridge the gap between the scientific
community and the responsible authorities. For non-experts it is usually hard to
imagine what could be the extent of a potential flood. Simulations can be a valuable
communication tool to visualise the flood hazard in terms of magnitude, area affected
and return intervals. The integration of flood hazard and the vulnerability and value of
the various land-use units into a flood risk assessment is crucial but requires still a lot
of research work. However it can be safely stated that high resolution images will play
a central role in the elements at risk analysis. Further studies are needed and require
the cooperation of interdisciplinary experts and responsible authorities.

IMPACT ASSESSMENT OF WATERSHED DEVELOPMENT

PROGRAM – AN APPROACH TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT AT DISTRICT LEVEL

ABSTRACT

Watershed Development program is the single largest program in agriculture and rural
development in India during recent years. The major objective of the program is through
optimization of production system and allied horticulture and fuel in rain fed areas by
practicing the improved soil and moisture conservation measures, better crop and land
management practices and afforestation. This has to achieve by conservation of resources
to safeguard them for future use and by maintaining ecological diversity.

Major thrust has been given to Watershed Development program in Karnataka under
various Centarl, State Government schemes, External aided programs such as SDC
(Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation), KWDP ( Danida Assisted) and
KAWADA ( Overseas Development Assistance) are pioneer in introducing innovative
concepts in watershed development since last two decades involving NGOs.

The first Phase of Tidagundi watershed development Program with an area of 6000 Ha.
implemented by SDC with a holistic approach completed during 1999. The action plans
have been generated and implemented by District watershed Development Program,
Bijapur and social acceptability, economic viability and institutional sustainability by
YUVKA VIKAS KENDRA, Bijapur an Non Governmental Organization and Peoples
living the in the project area.

The Project approach starts with baseline survey of Phase-I area by conventional
techniques and preparation of phased developmental Plans. The action plans are
implemented for stabilization of drainage line treatment and construction of water
harvesting structures, wasteland reclamation to establish the vegetative cover, agro-
forestry and agro-horticulture development etc. The generated/created assets are handed
over to Village Development Committees at the end of the implementation activity.

IMPACT ASSESSMENT:

It is essential to holistically assess and evaluate the long-term effects and the impact of
the activities through reliable methods. Satellite remote sensing data substantiated by
field data generated through Phase-I implementation and the ground water data plays a
vital role in this connection by depicting the status of the watershed before and after
implementation, indicating the changed scenario of the project area.

The scenario/status of the up gradation of the existing resources has been assessed after
the implementation of the project to know the lacunas in planning, implementation and
monitoring of the Phase-II continued activities. Remarkable advances in Remote sensing
and GIS technology and its applications in the last two decades established immense
potential in planning, monitoring, management, impact assessment and conservation of
Natural resources including water land and bio-resources. The main objectives of the
present study is,
* To assess the Biophysical status of the resources in the area.
* To evaluate the Land use Land cover changes after implementation.
* The actual transformation of Land use land covers categories.
* Status and sustainability of implemented works.
* Representation of the physical work on the cadastral maps.
* Correlation of rainfall with water levels in water bodies.
* Estimation of ground water before and after implementation.
* Suggesting suitable site specific measures for the Phase-II implementation with
reference to the needs and potentiality of the resources.

The methodology used in the study are the biophysical changes after implementation the
scenario the IRS LISS II 1993 and LISS III 1999 summer season data in which preceding
year rainfall almost similar are chosen supplemented by season data. The FCC are
interpreted by visual interpretation and sufficient ground checks and prepared land use/
land cover maps. The actual transformations are derived by overlay of pre and post land
use/land cover maps using Mapnifo GIS. The major activities of implementation such as
soil and water conservation areas of afforestartion and horticultural plantation are mapped
on cadastral scale and verified in the field and their validation. The ground resource
estimated before and after implementation based on Revised norms as envisaged by
Ground Water Resources Committee, Ministry of Water Resources, and Government of
India, 1977. The suggestions are made based on impacts and strategies are recommended
for the Phase II area of the watershed.

BIO-PHYSICAL CHANGES:

Land use/ Land cover is one of the most important theme in evaluating the land use
changes over a period of time. The Post implementation land use/land cover pattern
shown significant positive development in the watershed during 1993 and 99. The
irrigated area has been increased by 6%, double cropped area by 14%, and there is a
significant reduction in the extent of fallow lands by 21% and the negative change only
1.5% in the watershed. The soil and moisture conservation activities enhanced towards
increase of irrigated area by 372 Ha. and double cropped area by 862 ha by transforming
kharif and fallow lands in to productive category. About 1265 Ha. of fallow lands have
been converted in to Kharif and double-cropped areas in the watershed. The actual land
cover transformations after the implementation fromm 1993 to 1999 are as follows.

SL.No Land use Transformations Area (Ha.)

1. Irrigated/ Plantations area to Land without scrub 15
2. Irrigated/ Plantations area to Fallow land 41
3. Kharif area to Irrigated/plantation area 77
4. Kharif area to Double crop area 96
5. Kharif area to Land without scrub 34
6. Kharif area to Fallow land 140
7. Double crop to Irrigated/plantation area 360
8. Double crop to Kharif area 66
9. Double crop to Land without scrub 14
10. Double crop to Fallow land 172
11. Land without scrub to Irrigated/ plantation area 27
12. Land without scrub to Kharif area 36
13. Land without scrub to Fallow land 50
14. Fallow land to Irrigated/ Plantation area 295
15. Fallow land to Kharif area 160
16. Fallow land to double crop area 1084
17. Fallow land to Land without scrub 1042

The project implementation has created assets in common as well as private lands. The
activities under taken in are Check dams 29, Nala Bunds 96, Boulder Checks 43, Ravine
Reclamation Structures 28, Farm Ponds 12 in addition to moisture conservation activities
such as contour bundling etc. The block plantation 34 Ha., Silvi Horticulture 7 Ha., Farm
Forestry 428 Ha., Nala Bund Plantation 5 Km., Bund Plantation 220 Km. and Road side
plantation 41 Km. has been raised in common lands and private lands. The Horticulture
plantations like Mango, Lime, Pomegranate, Ber in 957 Ha. in the watershed.

The Groundwater occurs under unconfined water table conditions in the weathered and
decomposed material over hard rock and in the joints and fractures in the upper zone of
weathered hard trap. Groundwater exploitation for irrigation by 247 dug wells and Dug-
cum bore wells and 43 Bore wells in the watershed during 1994. As the availability of
ground water increases the dug wells and dug-cum bore wells increased to 262 and bore
wells 96 during 2000. The total extent of irrigation by wells is 930 Ha. during 2000. The
Major portion of ground water is used for horticultural crops such as Grapes, Ber,
Pomegranate, Banana and lime that bring good economic returns to the farmers. Prior to
the implementation of the project most of open wells get dried up during summer and
irrigation during this period is through dug-cum bore wells and bore wells. After the
project implementation farmers increased the area under wells and getting summer crops
also.

The average annual ground water recharge by all sources is estimated 516 and 774 Hem.
Net annual ground water recharge available is 439 (85% of 516) Hem. and 689 (85% of
774 ) Hem. during 1994 and 2000 respectively. After the implementation of the project
the available of ground water perish much of the area has been brought under assured
commercial crops like horticulture etc. The Number of ground water structures increased
from 370 to 474 with an average of 27 % in 5 years i.e. about 5.4% per annum. The
project implementation has contributed towards bringing down the ground water
development by 11% from 59% during 1994 to 48% during 2000.

Based on the resource profiles existing in the phase-II area recommendations future
strategies area made component wise and to achieve sustainability of the resources in the
watershed.

COST EFFECTIVE INTERNET/INTRANET GIS SOLUTION FOR DECISION

MAKERS USING OPEN SOURCE GIS

ABSTRACT

Need of the day is to provide client specific GIS applications which are easy to use and
cost effective. Idea here is not to provide a full-featured GIS system to everybody, but to
provide enough core functionality to support a wide variety of web GIS applications. The
core functionality of most of the GIS users include browsing, querying and printing GIS
data. The development and maintenance of the GIS applications is the domain of a very
small section of domain experts. Therefore the deployment of very expensive GIS
software should only be confined to such users.

This paper briefly describes the development of an Internet/Intranet Infrastructure

Information system for IIT Delhi campus (IITInfo) using one such free Java based
mapping toolkit. This mapping toolkit allows Maps to be viewed interactively on web
browsers without the need for dedicated server side support. All of the components used
for this development are released under Open Source licenses. Open Source programs are
applications of which the source codes are accessible to public. This application provides
the means to allow users to see and manipulate geospatial information.

The primary objective is to demonstrate the technology and cost effectiveness of such
technology, which can be developed and used for any client specific spatial applications.
IITInfo has two components, a map applet for display and manipulation of spatial
information and the non spatial database query component. Map applet is a Java applet
and the database component is developed using Java servlet technology

Functions Implemented
Search facility
Search for a Staff member for Personal details, office location and residence location
Search for a student for Personal details, Hostel Location, time table with room location
Security Information
Security outposts, security group deployment location and schedule
Facility Information
Query for all the rooms held by a particular department. Department-wise space
utilisation can be used for various planning purposes.

Components of the Layout

The Map Applet

This is the area where the map data gets rendered. This applet has buttons which provide
various common GIS rendering facility like pan, zoom, full extent. Tooltip is provided for
all the GIS entities which gets displayed on the map when the mouse moves over them.

Locator Panel
The panel at the lower left corner shows an overview of the entire map. The extents of the
Map Applet are indicated by a rectangular outline in the Locator map. At each instance of
map Zoom In, Zoom Out or Pan in the Map Display Area, the rectangle is changed to
show the current position. This panel also supports Pan functionality by clicking at a
point on the panel where one needs to pan.

Navigation Facility
The viewer provides basic Map Navigation facilities
Zoom In - This allows the user to zoom to a specific area
Zoom Out - This helps to zoom out or reduce the map extent.
Pan - This allows panning of the map.
Full Extent - The complete map is displayed in the Map Display Area.
Identify

This functionality provides for selecting individual entities on the map and displaying the
relevant attributes attached to it.
Select
This selects one or more spatial entities, which the user selects. The data attached to these
selected entities can be displayed using the seldata button

Development Environment
Map Applet: Open Source GIS
Database: Ms Access/mySql
Internet: Java Web Server
Platform: Developed using Windows NT, but is a platform independent application
Some of the screen shots of the applications are shown in the figures.
Such efforts can be replicated for all those applications where dissemination is wide
spread and can be very expensive with the conventional solutions
Appropriate technology for low cost geological mapping
Abstract
The objective of this project is to put in place an interactive web based system that will
provide geological surveys and individuals with guidance on the technology options
available that will enable them to implement cost-effective, appropriate and sustainable
geoscience data acquisition. The country and climate specific information will be
accessed through a web interface based around ArcIMS webGIS software. eXtensible
Markup Language (XML) has been used to encode text documents to allow retrieval of
information as requested by the user. The main focus of the project has been on the use of
remote sensing technology, in particular, in determining which type of remotely sensed
data is appropriate for each climate type, the techniques and processes involved in
analysing the data to gain geological and geohazard information, and where to source the
data.

Introduction
Gathering geological data and disseminating the data by traditional methods is a slow and
expensive process. In order to re-address the deficiency of geological information world
wide within a reasonable time frame and cost then more rapid approaches are needed.
Geological Survey’s in the developing world, especially those in countries where
minerals play and important role in the national economy are increasingly searching for
cost-effective and rapid techniques to increase the efficiency of their geological data
gathering.

Various affordable, operational technologies such as remote sensing, Geographic

Information Systems (GIS), GPS and laser range finders can significantly contribute to
improved efficiency. Several levels of technological sophistication are envisaged ranging
from off-the-shelf satellite imagery to report generating software that will automatically
retrieve specific client orientated information from a global database. The main focus of
the project has been has been directed to the use of remote sensing to gain geological and
geohazard information.

Funded by the Department of International Development (DFID), London, this British

Geological Survey (BGS) project aims to demonstrate that appropriate and affordable
technologies such as those mentioned above, together with access to the internet can
contribute to data sourcing efficiency in diverse geographic and climatic terrains.

Methodology
The starting point for the project was a manual written by The British Geological Survey,
entitled ‘Remote Sensing and image analysis: a practical training manual’ this contained
information on guidance for the use of the technology available. This document was then
marked up using eXtensible Markup Language (XML). XML is a document processing
standard that allows text documents such as the manuals to be encoded with information
to allow the retrieval of information as requested by the user. This is a highly useful and
relatively new form of designing text formats, and produces files that are easy to generate
and easy for a computer to read.
(XML) allows text to be encoded with 3 broad types of information.

 Contextual information: This defines the relative order of a block of text, for
example whether the text is a heading, a chapter, a section or a set of references.
 Meta information: is that which holds information about the block of text, for
example who authored it, who published it, who supplies it or general details
regarding the information within the block.
 Descriptive information: is used to describe elements within the block of text, for
example the mineral type, satellite or stratigraphy.

Encoding the text in this way allows the user to generate a report containing the
information specific to their requirements. Such a report could be a list of climate zones
with the appropriate remote sensing techniques for each climate type or alternatively, it
would be possible to retrieve all sections of the text that held information relevant to
Radar, for example.

The text documents for this project were received in a variety of formats including Word
documents and RTF files. The software we then used to convert these documents into
XML files included WorX-SE, XMLSpy and Omnimark

The map based front end for the project was developed using ArcIMS which is a web-
based Geographic Information System (GIS) produced by the Environmental System
Research Institute (ESRI). It allows the dissemination of GIS data and mapping services
via the internet and it was decided that this was the best software for our purposes.
ArcIMS has a simple browser interface and provides some of the standard tools present in
Desktop GIS systems such as Arcview. Using ArcIMS however means that we are able to
serve GIS data across the internet. An example of a standard GIS tool that we have used
is the hyperlink function that has enabled us to link between the example satellite images
and the countries map so that at the click of a button you are able to view an example
image for that country.

It was decided that a graphical means of displaying the data would be the most effective
way of serving the data we needed across the internet. ArcIMS is easily customisable to
fit our needs for the project, for example we have linked from the map using the country
codes to retrieve county specific information to further guide the user. This map based
front end is used to guide the user to the geographical area in which they are interested.

ColdFusion is used for developing powerful web applications using an intuitive tag based
scripting language. Examples of its use include the provision of database access and
business intelligence solutions. For this project ColdFusion is used as the scripting
language that links the ArcIMS software and the XML documents and performs file
processing and manipulation. It is also used to create instances of the Microsoft MSXML
COM object to allow server-side XSLT processing. XSLT and Omnimark have been used
to extract relevant information from the XML data.
Case Studies
One of the most important concepts of the project is that the methodology must be
appropriate in the context of the country’s skill base, infrastructure, geological setting and
climate. Therefore 2 case studies were carried out in the contrasting climatic and
geographic areas of Guyana and Mongolia. Guyana, in South America, is dominated by
tropical rainforest and is obscured by cloud for most of the year where as Mongolia
includes a range of climatic zones from arid to temperate.

Prior to going into the field suitable remote sensing imagery (both satellite and airborne)
was purchased and interpreted for use during the fieldwork. In conjunction with the
imagery, GPS and laser ranging devices were used with traditional field mapping
techniques to update existing maps and gather new information. To enable the
continuation of the methodology after the departure of the BGS staff the local geologists
and technicians were supplied with hardware and suitable training.

Guyana
Guyana has a mineral base economy and the Geological survey is keen to adopt low cost
mapping and data gathering techniques to improve efficiency.

Guyana is dominated by tropical rainforest and is obscured by cloud for most of the year
making it difficult to gain Landsat imagery that is of any use. Radarsat however can
effectively image tropical regions and has the benefit of high spatial resolution making it
the most appropriate imagery for this region.

It was decided to run a pilot study in the Bartica area of north central Guyana which is
low lying and has three main rivers running through it that would provide route ways
through the dense rainforest.

Fine beam Radarsat imagery was purchased via the internet and a Landsat 5 Thematic
Mapper image was procured through collaborative work with the National Resources
Management Project. On screen Geological interpretation was carried out prior to
fieldwork and then hard copy and digital maps were taken into the field for ground
truthing. Whereas dense rainforest and patchy cloud obscured all geological information
on the Landsat 5 image, the Radarsat image clearly showed the structural and limited
lithological information which allowed a preliminary structural map to be compiled prior
to fieldwork. This map could then be used to pin point areas of interest within the study
area.

Mongolia
The range of climate zones within Mongolia means that Landsat 5 and Landsat 7 are the
most appropriate types of remotely sensed data for studying this country.
Online internet searches helped to locate cloud free Landsat data for regions within the
geological mapping and mineral exploration programme of Mongolia Mineral Resources
Authority (MRAM).

Four project sites were chosen and the data for these areas were processed as band
composites, principle components and band ratios. The output was then displayed on
1:50,000 and 1:200,000 scale plots for geological interpretation in the field.

Enhanced imagery such as band ratios is particularly effective in discriminating certain

clay and oxide rich lithologies in the arid Gobi desert of Southern Mongolia.
Decorrolation Stretches (principle components) however helped to map out major
geological units and fault structures in the Baruun Altai of Western Mongolia (Figure 4).
GPS was also used to locate field sites in order to geocorrect the raw image data to the
local map projection system.

Conclusions
Feedback from the Geological surveys involved in the case studies suggests that data
gathering rates have been substantially improved by the use of remotely sensed data and
GPS as part of a structured programme of interpretation and fieldwork.

The true development in this project lay in the report generating aspect and we believe
that we are producing a web site that will prove invaluable to Geological surveys and
other Government mineral institutes worldwide. We feel that this site will help
Geological Survey Organisations and individuals to realise the full potential of cost
effective sustainable technologies such as Remote sensing, GIS and GPS.