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CCNA 1 Chapter 10
Routing Fundamentals and Subnets
The network layer interfaces to networks and provides the best end-to-end packet
delivery services to its user, the transport layer. The network layer sends packets from the
source network to the destination network.

Routers are devices that implement the network service. They provide interfaces for a
wide range of links and subnetworks at various speeds. Routers are active and intelligent
network nodes; therefore, they can participate in managing the network. Routers manage
networks by providing dynamic control over resources and supporting the tasks and goals
for networks: connectivity, reliable performance, management control, and flexibility.

In addition to the basic switching and routing functions, routers have implemented a
variety of value-added features that help to improve the cost-effectiveness of the network.
These features include sequencing traffic based on priority and traffic filtering.

Typically, routers are required to support multiprotocol stacks, each with its own routing
protocols, and to allow these different environments to operate in parallel. In practice,
routers also incorporate bridging functions and can serve as a limited form of hub.

IP addressing makes it possible for data that is passing over the network media of the
Internet to find its destination. Because each IP address is a 32-bit value, there are four
billion different IP address possibilities. IP addresses are hierarchical addresses, like
phone numbers and zip codes. They provide a better way to organize computer addresses
than MAC addresses, which are "one-dimensional" addresses (like social security
numbers). IP addresses can be set in software, so they are flexible. MAC addresses are
burned into hardware. Both addressing schemes are important for efficient
communications among computers.

Concept Questions
Demonstrate your knowledge of these concepts by answering the following questions in
the space provided.

1. Path determination occurs at the network layer. Routers are another type of
internetworking device. These devices pass data packets among networks based
on network protocol or Layer 3 information. Explain how this process works.

Routers use logical addressing to make routing decisions. When a packet is

received by a router, it pulls off Layer 2 frame encapsulation and analyzes
the Layer 3 header. It uses this destination address along with its routing
table to determine the best path and ultimately the next hop.

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2. Routers have the capability to make intelligent decisions as to the best path for
delivery of data on the network. What criteria do routers use to make these
decisions?

Routers share information with other routers, educating one another about
known networks within the internetwork. The router uses this table, almost
like a network roadmap. When requested to forward a packet, the router
refers to this map/table and forwards the packet to the next appropriate
interface and neighbor.

3. IP addresses are 32-bit values that are written as four octets separated with
periods. To make them easier to remember, IP addresses are usually written in
dotted notation with decimal numbers. IP addresses are used to identify a machine
on a network and the network to which it is attached. What do dotted-decimal and
hexadecimal mean?

Dotted-decimal notation allows for easier identification of the IP address.

Each decimal number (octet) represents 8 individual bits. Those bits are used
to represent either the host or network portion of this unique address. The
subnet mask actually indicates whether the bit is representative of the host or
network

4. Convert the following decimal numbers to hexadecimal numbers.

A. 32,014
B. 56,432
C. 57,845
D. 98,764
E. 54,462

32,014 Hex number = 7D0E

56,432 Hex number = DC70
57,845 Hex number = E1F5
98,764 Hex number = 181CC

5. Convert the following hexadecimal numbers to decimal numbers.

A. 23F6
B. 6AB7
C. 5FE3
D. 87CE
E. 59AC

23F6 Decimal = 9206

6AB7 Decimal = 27,319
5FE3 Decimal = 24,547

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87CE Decimal = 34,766

59AC Decimal = 22,956

6. Time-to-live (TTL) is a field that specifies the number of hops a packet may
travel. Describe how this field can prevent a packet from looping endlessly.

This number is decreased by one as the packet travels through a router.

When the counter reaches zero the packet is discarded. This prevents packets
from looping endlessly.

7. Describe the process of encapsulation and de-encapsulation as a packet is

switched from a router interface to another router interface.

Encapsulation is the wrapping of data in a particular protocol header. For

example, upper-layer data is wrapped in a specific Ethernet header before
network transit. Also, when bridging dissimilar networks, the entire frame
from one network simply can be placed behind the header used by the data
link layer protocol of the other network. The de-encapsulation process is the
opposite, removing the headers and trailers and then recombining the data
into a seamless stream.

8. List and describe four routing protocols.

1. RIP is a distance vector routing protocol that uses hop count as its
metric to determine the direction and distance to any link in the
internetwork.
2. IGRP is a distance-vector routing protocol developed by Cisco. IGRP
was developed specifically to address problems associated with
routing in large networks that were beyond the range of protocols
such as RIP.
3. OSPF is a link-state routing protocol developed by the Internet
Engineering Task Force (IETF) in 1988. OSPF was written to address
the needs of large, scalable internetworks that RIP could not.
4. Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) is an example of an External
Gateway Protocol (EGP). BGP exchanges routing information
between autonomous systems while guaranteeing loop-free path
selection.
9. List and describe four routed protocols.

The Internet Protocol (IP) and Novell Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX)
are examples of routed protocols. Other examples include DECnet,
AppleTalk, Banyan VINES, and Xerox Network Systems (XNS). Routed or

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routable protocols are used at the network layer to transfer data from one
host to another across a router. Routed protocols transport data across a
network. Routing protocols allow routers to choose the best path for data
from a source to a destination.

Vocabulary Exercise
Define the following terms as completely as you can. Use the online curriculum or
CCNA 1 Chapter 10 from the Cisco Networking Academy Program CCNA 1 and 2
Companion Guide, Revised Third Edition, for help.

Address[md]Data structure or logical convention used to identify a unique entity, such as

a particular process or network device.
Broadcast address[md]Special address reserved for sending a message to all stations.
Generally, a broadcast address is a MAC destination address of all 1s.
Broadcast storm[md]Undesirable network event in which many broadcasts are sent
simultaneously across all network segments. A broadcast storm uses substantial network
bandwidth and, typically, causes network time-outs.__________________
IP (Internet Protocol)[md]Network layer protocol in the TCP/IP stack offering a
connectionless internetwork service. IP provides features for addressing, type-of-service
specification, fragmentation and reassembly, and security. Documented in RFC 791.
ISPs (Internet service providers) [md]Companies that offer services that tie together
multiple network segments.
Router[md]Network layer device that uses one or more metrics to determine the optimal
path along which network traffic should be forwarded. Routers forward packets from one
network to another based on network layer information. Occasionally called a gateway
(although this definition of gateway is becoming increasingly outdated).
Segment[md]1) Section of a network that is bounded by bridges, routers, or switches. 2)
In a LAN using a bus topology, a segment is a continuous electrical circuit that is often
connected to other such segments with repeaters. 3) Term used in the TCP specification
to describe a single transport layer unit of information.
Subnet mask[md]A 32-bit address mask used in IP to indicate the bits of an IP address
that are being used for the subnet address. Sometimes referred to simply as mask.
Subnetwork[md]In IP networks, a network sharing a particular subnet address.

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Focus Questions

1. What type of addressing scheme does the network layer address use?

Logical addressing occurs at the network layer. The network layer address
has both network and host representation; because of this, Layer 3 addresses
are said to be hierarchical.

2. Switches can learn layer two addresses and routers can learn layer three
addresses. Why must switches forward broadcasts, leading to possible broadcast
storms?

The Layer 2 switch builds its forwarding table using MAC addresses. When
a host has data for a non-local IP address, it sends the frame to the closest
router. This router is also known as its default gateway. The host uses the
MAC address of the router as the destination MAC address.

3. What type of determination is the process the router uses to choose a course for
the packet to travel to its destination?

Path determination is the process that a router uses to choose the next hop in
a path toward a packet’s ultimate destination.

4. At what layer does logical addressing occur?

A network address helps the router identify a path within the network cloud.
The router uses the network address to identify the destination network of a
packet within an internetwork. In addition to the network address, network
protocols use some form of host, or node, address. For some network layer
protocols, a network administrator assigns host addresses according to some
predetermined network addressing plan.

5. When a computer is moved to a different network, what type of address remains

the same and what type of address must be reassigned?

When you physically move a computer to a different network, the computer

maintains the same MAC address, but you must assign it a new network
layer address.

6. What is the difference between a flat addressing scheme and a hierarchical

addressing scheme?

Protocols that support the network layer use a hierarchical addressing

scheme that allows for unique addresses across network boundaries, along
with a method for finding a path for data to travel between networks. MAC
addresses use a flat addressing scheme that makes it difficult to locate devices

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on other networks. Hierarchical addressing, on the other hand, not only

enables information flow through an internetwork, but it also provides an
efficient means of doing so.
Flat addressing does not allow for the grouping of multiple devices based
upon some common characteristic, such as department, floor, company, city,
and so on.
7. In the IP header, what information does the “total length” contain?

Specifies the length of the entire IP packet, including data and header, in two
bytes (16 bits).
8. What three pieces of information does the subnet mask give to network devices?

The subnet mask allows the host to identify the size of the network on which
it is participating. The subnet mask also allows for the identification of a
network address (all 0s in the Host field) and the identification of the
broadcast address (all 1s in the Host field).
9. What happens to a packet if there is no route found in the routing table for the
packets destination network?

If the packet does not match any entries in the table, the router checks to see
if a default route has been set. If a default route has been set, the packet is
forwarded to the associated port. A default route is a route that is configured
by the network administrator as the route to use if there are no matches in
the routing table. If there is no default route, the packet is discarded. A
message is often sent back to the device that sent the data to indicate that the
destination was unreachable.

10. What are the two link-state routing protocols?

1. OSPF
2. Intermediate System-to-Intermediate System (IS-IS) protocol

11. What are the benefits of subnetting?

The ability to divide the original host portion of the address into the new
subnet and host fields provides addressing flexibility for the network
administrator. In addition to the need for manageability, subnetting enables
the network administrator to provide broadcast containment and low-level
security on the LAN.

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CCNA Exam Review Questions

The following questions help you prepare for the CCNA Exam. Answers appear in
Appendix B, "CCNA 1 and 2 Exam Review Questions Answer Key."

1. Which layer of the OSI model uses the Internet Protocol addressing scheme to
determine the best way to move data from one place to another?
A. Physical layer
B. Data link layer
C. Network layer
D. Transport layer

2. Which of the following functions allows routers to evaluate available routes to a

destination and to establish the preferred handling of a packet?
A. Data linkage
B. Path determination
C. SDLC interface protocol
D. Frame Relay

3. IP addresses are necessary for which of the following reasons?

A. To identify a machine on a network and the network to which it is
attached
B. To identify a machine on a network
C. To identify the network
D. To keep track of who is on a network

4. Which of the following best describes a network address on the Internet?

A. All four octets in the address are different.
B. Each address is unique.
C. The first three octets can be the same, but the last one must be different.
D. Two of the four octets can be the same, but the other two must be
different.

5. Who assigns the network portion of every IP address?

A. The local network administrator
B. The person who owns the computer
C. The Network Information Center
D. The host network administrator

6. The network number plays what part in an IP address?

A. It specifies the network to which the host belongs.
B. It specifies the identity of the computer on the network.
C. It specifies which node on the subnetwork is being addressed.
D. It specifies which networks the device can communicate with.

7. The host number plays what part in an IP address?

A. It designates the identity of the computer on the network.

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B. It designates which node on the subnetwork is being addressed.

C. It designates the network to which the host belongs.
D. It designates which hosts the device can communicate with.

8. A Class A address is given to what sort of organization?

A. An individual
B. A medium-size company
C. A large corporation
D. A government

9. In a Class A address, which octets does InterNIC assign?

A. The first octet
B. The first and second octet
C. The first, second, and third octets
D. All the octets

10. In a Class A address, the value of the first octet can equal which of the following?
A. 0 through 127
B. 128 through 191
C. 192 through 223
D. 192 through 255

11. A Class B address is given to what sort of organization?

A. An individual
B. A medium-size company
C. A large corporation
D. A government

12. In a Class B address, which octets are assigned locally?

A. The first octet
B. The second octet
C. The second and third octets
D. The third and fourth octets

13. The address 129.21.89.76 is of which class?

A. Class A
B. Class B
C. Class C
D. Address not valid

14. Given a host with the IP address of 172.16.55.33 and the default subnet mask,
what is the network number?
A. 172.16.55.32
B. 172.16.55.0
C. 172.16.0.0
D. 172.0.0.0

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15. Which of the following addresses is a Class C address? (Choose all that apply.)
A. 129.219.95.193
B. 209.101.218.30
C. 151.13.27.38
D. 192.119.15.17

16. What address changes as a frame is received at each router?

A. Layer 4 address
B. Layer 3 address
C. Layer 2 address
D. All of the above

17. If you have only one class C network and you need to create 6 subnets with at
least 22 hosts, on each subnet what will your subnet mask be?
A. 255.255.255.0
B. 255.255.255.128
C. 255.255.255.192
D. 255.255.255.224

18. If you have only one class C network and you need to create 11 subnets with at
least 11 hosts, on each subnet what will your subnet mask be?
A. 255.255.255.224
B. 255.255.255.240
C. 255.255.255.248
D. 255.255.255.252

19. What is the maximum number of bits that can be borrowed from a Class C
network?

A. 2
B. 4
C. 6
D. 8

Editor’s Note: The actual maximum is 7

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20. What is the maximum number of bits that can be borrowed from a Class B
network?

A. 2
B. 8
C. 14
D. 16

Editor’s Note: The actual maximum is 15

21. How many subnets are usable with a subnet mask of 255.255.252.0 with a Class
B network?
A. 62
B. 64
C. 256
D. 1024

22. How many subnets are created with a subnet mask of 255.255.255.240 with a
Class B network?
A. 16
B. 2048
C. 4096
D. 65,536

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