Improv|ng Ceram|cs

ropert|es










zgn Sunar Aykut 2ede||



Content
1Ceramlc MaLerlals
11 ueflnaLlon
12 AdvanLages and 8lsks
2ClasslflcaLlon of Ceramlcs
21 Alumlna ceramlcs
22 Magnesla ceramlcs
23 Zlrconla ceramlcs
24 Alumlnum LlLanaLe ceramlcs
3lmprovlng roperLles
31 MeLhod of lmprovlng Lhe roperLles
4 SuMMA8? Cl 1PL lnvLn1lCn
3Lxamples















1Ceram|c Mater|a|s
11 Def|nat|on
A ceram|c ls an lnorganlc nonmeLalllc solld prepared by Lhe acLlon of heaL and
subsequenL coollng
1
Ceramlc maLerlals may have a crysLalllne or parLly crysLalllne
sLrucLure or may be amorphous (eg a glass) 8ecause mosL common ceramlcs are
crysLalllne Lhe deflnlLlon of ceramlc ls ofLen resLrlcLed Lo lnorganlc crysLalllne maLerlals as
opposed Lo Lhe noncrysLalllne glasses
1he earllesL ceramlcs were poLLery ob[ecLs made from clay elLher by lLself or mlxed wlLh
oLher maLerlals hardened ln flre LaLer ceramlcs were glazed and flred Lo creaLe a colored
smooLh surface Ceramlcs now lnclude domesLlc lndusLrlal and bulldlng producLs and arL
ob[ecLs ln Lhe 20Lh cenLury new ceramlc maLerlals were developed for use ln advanced
ceramlc englneerlng for example ln semlconducLors
1he word ceramlc comes from Lhe Creek word pto (ketomlkos) of poLLery or
for poLLery
2
from p (ketomos) poLLers clay Llle poLLery
3
1he earllesL
menLlon on Lhe rooL ceram ls Lhe Mycenaean Creek ketomewe workers of
ceramlcs wrlLLen ln Llnear b syllablc scrlpL
4
Ceramlc may be used as an ad[ecLlve
descrlblng a maLerlal producL or process or as a slngular noun or more commonly as a
plural noun ceramlcs
3

12 Advantages and k|sks
Ceramlcs used for LoLal hlp [olnLs surfaces (medlcal grade ceramlcs) are solld
maLerlals composed of pure crysLals of alumlnum or zlrconlum oxldes Such ceramlcs are
Lhe mosL chemlcally and blologlcally lnerL of all maLerlals 1hey are noL only lnerL Lhey are
also sLlff sLrong and hard lor example Lhe only subsLance harder Lhan alumlnum oxlde ls
dlamond
hus ceramlc are very reslsLanL Lo scraLches from Lhe Llny parLlcles LhaL occaslonally
land beLween Lhe arLlflclal [olnL surfaces be lL parLlcles of bone cemenL or meLal 1he
mechanlcal law sLaLes LhaL Lhe harder Lhe surfaces coupled LogeLher are Lhe less wear Lhe
coupllng sysLem produces 1hus LoLal hlp wlLh ceramlcs surfaces produces very low raLes
of wear parLlcles Ceramlcs also aLLracL fluld on Lhelr surface so LhaL coupllngs made of
ceramlc have low frlcLlon reslsLance
1he maln dlsadvanLage of medlcal ceramlc maLerlals ls Lhelr fraglllLy 1he ceramlc
maLerlals cannoL deform under Lhe sLress as can do plasLlcs and meLals When Lhe sLress


acLlng on medlcal ceramlc maLerlals exceeds a cerLaln llmlL ceramlc maLerlal bursLs
formally explodes ln many spllnLers See lcLure of bursL ceramlc ball of a falled ceramlc
LoLal hlp
Such bursL fracLures of ceramlc componenLs of Lhe LoLal hlps were observed ln Lhe
pasL due Lo Lhe poor quallLy of Lhe ceramlc maLerlal of LhaL Llme
Powever even Lhe modern Lhlrd generaLlon medlcal ceramlc ls sLlll a fraglle
maLerlal alLhough lL wlll noL suffer Lhe bursL fracLure 8uL Lhe rlm of Lhe modern ceramlc
cup may sLlll chlp off durlng assembllng wlLh Lhe meLalllc back up under surgery
Lven modern ceramlc maLerlals are very senslLlve Lo asymmeLrlc loadlng and
lmplngemenL by Lhe femoral neck componenL 1hus less accuraLe poslLlon of Lhe ceramlc
cup may lncrease conslderably Lhe wear of Lhe ceramlc componenLs ln such a LoLal hlp
[olnL
1wo klnds of ceramlc maLerlals are used ln Lhe modern ceramlc LoLal hlp sysLems
alumlna ceramlc and zlrconla ceramlc 8oLh maLerlals have qulLe dlsLlncL poslLlve sldes and
also some dlsadvanLages
2 C|ass|f|cat|on of Ceram|cs
1here are varlous classlflcaLlon sysLems of ceramlc maLerlals whlch may be
aLLrlbuLed Lo one of Lwo prlnclpal caLegorles app||cat|on base system or compos|t|on
base system


ComposlLlon base classlflcaLlon of ceramlc maLerlals




21 A|um|na ceram|cs
A|um|na (a|um|num ox|de) ls Lhe mosL lmporLanL wldely used and cosL effecLlve
oxlde ceramlc maLerlal
1he Lechnlcal alumlna ceramlcs conLaln aL leasL 80 of alumlnum oxlde (AL
2
C
3
)
Small amounLs of slllca (S|C
2
) magnesla (MgC) and zlrconla (2rC
2
) may be added Lo
alumlna ceramlcs
AddlLlon of zlrconla Lo alumlna ceramlc resulLs ln conslderable lncrease of Lhe
maLerlal fracLure Loughness
mloo possesses sttooq loolc booJloq wblcb Jetetmloes tbe motetlo ptopettles
O Plgh mechanlcal sLrengLh (flexural sLrengLh) and hardness
O Plgh wear reslsLance
O Plgh reslsLance Lo chemlcal aLLacks of sLrong aclds and alkall even aL hlgh
LemperaLures
O Plgh sLlffness
O LxcellenL lnsulaLlng properLles
O Low coefflclenL of Lhermal expanslon
O Cood fracLure Loughness
O Cood Lhermal conducLlvlLy
O Cood blocompaLlblllLy
Alumlnum ceramlcs parLs are manufacLured by Lhe followlng Lechnologles unlaxlal
(dle) presslng lsosLaLlc presslng ln[ecLlon moldlng exLruslon and sllp casLlng 1he parLs
may be machlned ln green condlLlon before slnLerlng (flrlng)
Alumlnum ceramlcs are wldely used ln elecLronlcs and elecLrlcal englneerlng
meLallurglcal processes chemlcal Lechnologles medlcal Lechnologles mechanlcal
englneerlng mlllLary equlpmenL


Alumlnum ceramlcs are used for manufacLurlng lnsulaLors capaclLors reslsLors
furnace Lubes seallng refracLory parLs foundry shapes wear pads Lhermocouple
proLecLlon Lubes cuLLlng Lools and pollshlng/grlndlng powders balllsLlc armor laboraLory
equlpmenL bloceramlc parLs for orLhopedlc and denLal surgery bearlngs
22 Magnes|a ceram|cs
Magnes|a Ceram|c ls a ceramlc maLerlal conslsLlng of aL leasL 90 of Magneslum
Cxlde (MgC)
Magneslum Cxlde ls produced from naLural mlnerals such as magneslLe (magneslum
carbonaLe) magneslum chlorlde rlch brlne and seawaLer
Magnesla ls characLerlzed by hlgh melLlng LemperaLure 3070 l (2800 C) and hlgh
Lhermal and chemlcal sLablllLy Lherefore lL ls wldely used ln refracLory appllcaLlons
Magnesla ceramlcs are sLable up Lo 4170 l (2300 C) ln oxldlzlng aLmosphere and up Lo
3090 l (1700 C) ln reduclng aLmosphere
Magnesla ceramlc maLerlals are produced ln LlghL hlgh denslLy form (poroslLy less Lhan 1)
and ln porous form (poroslLy up Lo 30)
Magnesla may be doped by small amounL of ?LLrlum Cxlde (
2
C
3
) as slnLerlng ald
AddlLlon of carbon Lo magnesla ceramlc allows Lo lncrease lLs chemlcal reslsLance Lo SLeel
maklng baslc slags
,oqoeslo cetomlcs possess tbe foowloq ptopettles
O Plgh Lhermal sLablllLy
O Plgh reslsLance Lo molLen meLals (lron sLeel alumlnum) slags and semlconducLor
compounds
O Cood corroslon reslsLance even aL hlgh LemperaLures
O Cood lnsulaLlng properLles
O Cood Lhermal conducLlvlLy
O lnfrared Lransparency


1he maln dlsadvanLage of flne graln dense magnesla ceramlc ls low Lhermal shock
reslsLance
Magnesla ceramlcs are used for manufacLurlng hlgh LemperaLure cruclbles
Lhermocouple Lubes heaLlng elemenLs foam ceramlc fllLers for molLen meLal llnsulaLors
sLeel maklng refracLorles klln furnlLure
23 2|rcon|a ceram|cs
Zirconia Ceramic is a ceramic material consisting oI at least 90 oI Zirconium
Dioxide (ZrO
2
).
Zirconium Oxide is produced Irom natural minerals such as Baddeleyite (zirconium
oxide) or zirconium silicate sand.
Pure zirconia changes its crystal structure depending on the temperature:
At temperatures below 2138 F (1170 C) zirconia exists in monoclinic Iorm.
At the temperature 2138 F (1170 C) monoclinic structure transIorms to tetragonal Iorm
which is stable up to 4300 F (2370 C).
Tetragonal crystal structure transIorms to cubic structure at 4300 F (2370 C).
Structure transIormations are accompanied by volume changes which may cause cracking iI
cooling/heating is rapid and non-uniIorm.
Additions oI some oxides (MgO, CaO,Y
2
O
3
) to pure zirconia depress allotropic
transIormations (crystal structure changes) and allow to stabilize either cubic or tetragonal
structure oI the material at any temperature.
The most popular stabilizing addition to zirconia is yttria (Y
2
O
3
), which is added and
uniIormly distributed in proportion oI 5.15.
Depending on sintering temperature and other processing parameters, the following forms
of stabili:ed :irconia may be prepared.
1. Fully stabilized zirconia $ with cubic crystal structure;
2. Partially stabilized zirconia !$ with mixed structure (cubictetragonal);
3. Polycrystalline tetragonal zirconia %! with metastable tetragonal structure oI very
Iine zirconia grains sintered at low temperature.
%he following characteristics are typical for Zirconia Ceramics.


O igh density up to 380 lb/It (6.1*10 kg/m);
O ow thermal conductivity 10 oI that oI alumina ceramics;
O igh Iracture toughness;
O 'ery high Ilexural strength and hardness;
O igh maximum service temperature up to 4350 F (2400 C).
O coeIIicient oI thermal expansion similar to that oI cast iron;
O odulus oI elasticity similar to steel;
O igh chemical resistance;
O igh resistance to molten metals;
O ood wear resistance;
O ow coeIIicient oI Iriction;
O Oxygen ion conductivity (used Ior oxygen sensors and high temperature Iuel cells).
Zirconia ceramics are used Ior manuIacturing Extrusion dies, powder compacting dies,
cutting tools, balls and seats Ior ball valves, thread and wire guides, pump seals, impellers
and shaIt guides, engine parts, oxygen sensors, Iuel cells membranes,high temperature
heaters Ior electric Iurnaces, bearings (e.g., bearings Ior submersible pumps).

24 A|um|num t|tanate ceram|cs
Alumlnum LlLanaLe ls a ceramlc maLerlal conslsLlng of a mlxLure of alumlna (A|
2
C
3
) and
LlLanla (1|C
2
) formlng solld soluLlon wlLh sLolchlomeLrlc proporLlon of Lhe componenLs
A|
2
C
3
*1|C
2
or A|
2
1|C
S

Alumlnlum LlLanaLe ls prepared by heaLlng of a mlxLure of alumlna and LlLanla aL
LemperaLure above 2460l (1330C)
1he powder ls Lhen slnLered aL a LemperaLure ln Lhe range 2330 2910l (1400 1600C)
ln alr aLmosphere


ure Alumlnum 1lLanaLe ls unsLable aL Lhe LemperaLures above 1380l (730C) when Lhe
solld soluLlon decomposes lnLo Lwo separaLe phases A|
2
C
3
and 1|C
2
Alumlnum 1lLanaLe
ceramlcs are doped wlLh MgC S|C
2
and 2rC
2
ln order Lo sLablllze Lhe solld soluLlon
sLrucLure
1he dlsLlncLlve properLy of Alumlnum 1lLanaLe ceramlcs ls Lhelr hlgh Lhermal shock
reslsLance whlch ls a resulL of very low coefflclenL of Lhermal expanslon
@be foowloq cbotoctetlstlcs ote typlco fot mlom @ltooote cetomlcs
O Low coefflclenL of Lhermal expanslon
O Low Modulus of LlasLlclLy
O Plgh 1hermal Shock 8eslsLance
O Low 1hermal ConducLlvlLy
O Low weLLablllLy ln molLen nonferrous meLals
O Cood chemlcal reslsLance
O Cood wear reslsLance
ulsadvanLage of Alumlnum 1lLanaLe ceramlcs ls relaLlvely low mechanlcal sLrengLh caused
by mlcrocracks formed as a resulL of anlsoLropy of Lhermal expanslon along Lhe Lhree
prlmary axes of Lhe crysLal laLLlce (a slngle crysLal of Alumlnum 1lLanaLe expands along Lwo
axes and conLracL along Lhe Lhlrd axls when heaLed)
Alumlnum 1lLanaLe ceramlc maLerlals ceramlcs are used for manufacLurlng cruclbles
launders nozzles rlser Lubes pourlng spouLs and Lhermocouples for nonferrous
meLallurgy porLllner and cyllnder llnerrs ln auLomoLlve englnes masLer moulds ln Lhe
glass lndusLry spaclng rlngs of caLalyLlc converLers
3Improv|ng ropert|es
31 Method of Improv|ng the ropert|es
O Abstract
A meLhod of lmprovlng Lhe physlcal properLles such as workablllLy and lmpacL sLrengLh of
ceramlcs whereln parLlcles of ceramlcs are coaLed wlLh aLacLlc polypropylene
subsequenLly formed lnLo deslred shape under compresslon and Lhen slnLered


OC|a|m
WhaL ls clalmed ls
1 A meLhod for lmprovlng Lhe physlcal properLles of ceramlcs comprlslng Lhe sLeps of
coaLlng 100 parLs by welghL parLlcles of sald ceramlcs wlLh 3 Lo 10 parLs by welghLaLacLlc
polypropylene formlng Lhe coaLed ceramlcs lnLo deslred shape under cold compresslon of
200 Lo 400 kg/cmsup2 and slnLerlng Lhe formed producL aL 1100degree C Lo
1300degree C whereln sald ceramlc ls barlum ferrlLe or low soda alumlna

2 MeLhod of clalm 1 whereln sald aLacLlc polypropylene exhlblLs an lnLrlnslc vlscoslLy of
03 Lo 10

3 MeLhod of clalm 1 whereln sald aLacLlc polypropylene ls ln melLed form or dlssolved ln
hydrocarbon

4 MeLhod of clalm 1 whereln sald coaLlng ls done whlle aglLaLlng and heaLlng

S MeLhod of clalm 1 whereln sald ceramlcs are parLlcles of slzes less Lhan 3mu

6 MeLhod of clalm 3 whereln sald slzes are less Lhan 1mu
O Descr|pt|on
lor worklng ceramlcs for lnsLance quarLz glass a fuslon process has convenlenLly been
employed 1hls process requlreshlgh LemperaLures ln some cases as hlgh as 1800degree
C Accordlngly Lhe Lype of heaL source whlch ls requlred Lo carry ouL Lhe process ls llmlLed
and expenslve 1hus cosL of worklng ls hlgh and producLlon of Lhe producL ls expenslve
Moreoverwhen blnders such as camphor and polyvlnyl alcohol are used a dlsLlncL
dlsadvanLage ls produced ln Lhe way of malodour when Lhe producL ls slnLered lor Lhese
reasons desplLe Lhe excellenL properLles produced by Lhls meLhod such as
Lhermalexpanslon coefflclenL as hlgh as 36 Llmes 10supsup7 whlch makes producLs
produced Lhereby hlghly reslsLanL Lo rapld heaLlng and rapld coollng excellenL reslsLance
Lo corroslon ulLravloleL ray peneLraLlon up Lo abouL 2000 A good elasLlclLyperformance
such producLs flnd llmlLed appllcaLlon lor example Lhey can be used as speclal Lhermal
lnsLrumenLs and vessels chemlcal lnsLrumenLs and vessels opLlcal lnsLrumenLs and


vessels for peneLraLlon of ulLravloleL rays preclslon sprlng eLcuemand has been severely
resLrlcLed
4 SUMMAk CI 1nL INVLN1ICN
1he presenL lnvenLors have wldely lnvesLlgaLed organlc macromolecule blnders whlch
have no malodour ls convenlenL Lo handle does noL deLerloraLe Lhelr own properLles for
lnsLance due Lo formaLlon of crlsLoballLe ln case of quarLz glass andfurLhermore can
develope sLrengLh as a resulL of addlLlon ln a small amounL 1hey have dlscovered a novel
meLhod of worklng ceramlcs by compresslon meLhods aL a surprlslngly much lower
LemperaLure as compared wlLh Lhe convenLlonal meLhods MoreoverLhe novel meLhod
enables producLlon wlLhouL deLerloraLlng Lhe advanLageous characLerlsLlcs such as Lhose
menLloned above

1he presenL lnvenLlon comprlses Lhe sLep of coaLlng each parLlcle of ceramlcs wlLh aLacLlc
polypropylene subsequenLly formlng Lhe ceramlc lnLo a deslred shape under compresslon
and Lhen slnLerlng


S DL1AILLD DLSCkI1ICN of kLILkkLD LM8CDIMLN1S
ALacLlc polypropylene ls a waxy amorphous polymer low ln molecular welghL and ln
lsoLacLlclLy (conLalnlng a small amounL of subsLance hlgh ln lsoLacLlclLy ln some cases) by
produced when synLheslzlng lsoLacLlc polypropylene or crysLalllnepolypropylene
copolymer 1hls compound ls gradually belng used ln more and dlfferenL flelds of
appllcaLlon Powever lL ls mosLly used for fuel and ls Lhe leasL expenslve of all synLheLlc
reslns
1hls subsLance may be synLheslzed by use of ZleglernaLLa caLalysLs lL may also be
obLalned by cracklng polymers of hlgh molecular welghL
1he aLacLlc polypropylene whlch ls used exhlblLs an lnLrlnslc vlscoslLy eLa of from
03 Lo 10 measured ln LeLrallneaL a LemperaLure of 133degree C When lL ls used
molsLure conLenL ls deslrably only a Lrace or subsLanLlally zero lfmolsLure ls presenL a
waLer layer may form on Lhe surface of Lhe shaped producL when formlng under pressure
1hls formaLlon of waLer layer ls a cause for cracklng durlng slnLerlng and ls Lherefore
undeslrable


When coaLlng surfaces of ceramlcs aLacLlc polypropylene melLed or dlssolved ln
hydrocarbon such as hepLane ls added Lo Lhe ceramlcs whlle aglLaLlng 1he order may be
reversed PeaLlng and aglLaLlng are conLlnued unLll coaLlng ls flnlshed 8y lowerlng Lhe
LemperaLure afLerwards loose nonsLlcklng powder ls obLalned
lL ls deslrable LhaL ceramlcs Lo be used do noL Lend Lo aggregaLe and be less Lhan
3mu ln parLlcle slze preferably 1mu Such ceramlcs for example may be quarLz glass
low soda alumlna magnesla cllnker elecLrofused magnesla andferrlLes such as barlum
ferrlLe sLronLlum ferrlLe lead ferrlLe manganesezlnc ferrlLe nlckelzlnc ferrlLe
magneslum ferrlLe magneslummanganesezlnc ferrlLe eLc 1he ferrlLe may be used slngly
or be comblned 1he Lerm ceramlcs as used herelncovers all such compounds
1he opLlmum quanLlLy of aLacLlc polypropylene whlch may be used for moldlng
under compresslon varles wlLh Lhe Lype of and parLlcle slze of ceramlc and Lhe presssure
used for compresslon moldlng As one example ln case of presslng 100 parLs ofquarLz
glass of 1mu aL room LemperaLure under pressure of 200 kg/cmsup2 10 parLs of aLacLlc
polypropylene ls adequaLe 1he pressure used for compresslon moldlng may range from
30 Lo 2000 kg/cmsup2 1he hlgher Lhe pressure Lhe greaLer LheamounL of aLacLlc
polypropylene ls reduced
1he deLalls of Lhe lnvenLlon wlll now be lllusLraLed wlLh reference Lo acLual
examples whlch examples are noL Lo be consLrued ln any llmlLlng sense

LkAMLL 1
Whlle aglLaLlng 10 parLs of melLed aLacLlc polypropylene (eLa of 071) heaLed aL
160degree C was added Lo 100 parLs of quarLz glass of 1mu ln parLlcle slze AfLer coaLlng
adequaLely Lhe surfaces of Lhe parLlcles wlLh Lhe polypropyleneblnder Lhe mlxLure was
gradually cooled Lo obLaln loose nonsLlcklng powder
up Lo 30 g of Lhls powder was placed ln a mold of 30 m/m ln dlameLer AL room
LemperaLure a pressure of 200 kg/cmsup2 was applled Lo obLaln a cyllndrlcal
compresslon moldlng producL 1he Lhlckness was 71 m/m An lron mass of 300 g ln
loadwas dropped on Lhls speclmen from a helghL of 16 cm CbservaLlon of lLs fracLure (uu
onLs lmpacL LesL) revealed LhaL Lhe speclmen dld noL crack
1he speclmen was placed ln an elecLrlc furnace and Lhe LemperaLure was ralsed Lo
1300degree C ln abouL 123 hours and Lhen malnLalned aL Lhe same LemperaLure for 30


mlnuLes 1he Lhlckness of Lhe slnLered producL was 70 m/m 1he uu onLslmpacL LesL dld
noL cause cracklng
roducLs formed by Lhe ordlnary fuslon process crack and Lhelr porLlons separaLe
LkAMLL 2
1he same procedure was followed as ln Lxample 1 excepL LhaL low soda alumlna (melLlng
polnL 2040degree C) of 1mu ln parLlcle slze was employed as Lhe ceramlc and slnLerlng
LemperaLure was 1600degree C

1he resulLs were as follows

LkAMLL 3
lollowlng Lhe procedure of Lxample 1 barlum ferrlLe was added lnsLead of quarLz
glass and of 108mu ln parLlcle slze 4 g of Lhe obLalned powder was placed ln a mold of
20 m/m ln dlameLer AL room LemperaLure a pressure of 400kg/cmsup2 was applled Lo
obLaln a cyllndrlcal compresslon moldlng producL of 4 m/m Lhlckness 1he resulLanL
producL was placed ln an elecLrlc furnace and ralsed ln LemperaLure Lo 1100degree C ln
abouL 2 hours and Lhen malnLalned for 4 hours aL Lhesame LemperaLure no odor was
noLlceable An lron lump of 30 g ln load was dropped on Lhls speclmen and observaLlon
was made Lo deLermlne Lhe presence of cracks produced Lhereby (uuonLs lmpacL LesL)
1he LesL resulLed ln cracks occurlng and Lhespeclmen was broken when Lhe helghL was
over 873cm
When camphor was used ln place of Lhe aLacLlc polypropylene a sLrong odor was
produced when belng slnLered 1he duonLs lmpacL LesL showed LhaL cracks occured and
Lhe speclmen was broken when Lhe helghL was 23 cm or more 1here was anoLlceable
dlfference 1hls lnvenLlon produced excellenL lmprovemenL ln lmpacL sLrengLh
1he foregolng descrlpLlon ls for purposes of lllusLraLlng Lhe prlnclples of Lhls
lnvenLlon numerous oLher varlaLlons and modlflcaLlons Lhereof would be apparenL Lo Lhe


worker skllled ln Lhe arL All such varlaLlons and modlflcaLlons are Lo beconsldered Lo be
wlLhln Lhe splrlL and scope of Lhe lnvenLlon


keferences
O hLLp//wwwsubsLechcom/dokuwlkl/dokuphp?ldgeneral_classlflcaLlon_of_ceramlcs
O hLLp//wwwsubsLechcom/dokuwlkl/dokuphp?ldfundamenLals_of_ceramlcs
O hLLp//wwwsubsLechcom/dokuwlkl/dokuphp?ldsLrucLure_of_ceramlc_maLerlals
O hLLp//wwwsubsLechcom/dokuwlkl/dokuphp?ldappllcaLlons_of_ceramlcs
O Ceramlc 1lle and SLone SLandards
O pto Penry Ceorge Llddell 8oberL ScoLL Cteekoqlsb lexlcoo on erseus ulglLal Llbrary
O p Penry Ceorge Llddell 8oberL ScoLL Cteekoqlsb lexlcoo on erseus ulglLal Llbrary
O alaeolexlcon Word sLudy Lool of anclenL languages
O Cxford Lngllsh ulcLlonary
O ottoJctloo @o cetomlcs metlcoo cetomlc 5oclety
O Ceramlc ln WaLchmaklng