|NTERH0LE6ULAR 0N0|NC - VAN 0ER wAAL8 F0R6E8

Tr|s page exp|a|rs lre or|g|r ol lre lWo Wea|er lorrs ol |rlerro|ecu|ar allracl|ors - var der waa|s
d|spers|or lorces ard d|po|e-d|po|e allracl|ors. ll you are a|so |rleresled |r rydroger oord|rg lrere |s a ||r|
al lre oollor ol lre page.

what are |ntermo|ecu|ar attract|ons?

|ntermo|ecu|ar versus |ntramo|ecu|ar bonds
lntermolecular allracl|ors are allracl|ors oelWeer ore ro|ecu|e ard a re|groour|rg ro|ecu|e. Tre lorces
ol allracl|or Wr|cr ro|d ar |rd|v|dua| ro|ecu|e logelrer (lor exarp|e, lre cova|erl oords) are |roWr as
intramolecular allracl|ors. Trese lWo Words are so corlus|rg|y s|r||ar lral |l |s saler lo aoardor ore ol
lrer ard rever use |l. Tre lerr |rlraro|ecu|ar Wor'l oe used aga|r or lr|s s|le.
A|| ro|ecu|es exper|erce |rlerro|ecu|ar allracl|ors, a|lrougr |r sore cases lrose allracl|ors are very
Wea|. Ever |r a gas |||e rydroger, l2, |l you s|oW lre ro|ecu|es doWr oy coo||rg lre gas, lre allracl|ors
are |arge erougr lor lre ro|ecu|es lo sl|c| logelrer everlua||y lo lorr a ||qu|d ard lrer a so||d.
lr rydroger's case lre allracl|ors are so Wea| lral lre ro|ecu|es rave lo oe coo|ed lo 21 K (-252C)
oelore lre allracl|ors are erougr lo corderse lre rydroger as a ||qu|d. le||ur's |rlerro|ecu|ar allracl|ors
are ever Wea|er - lre ro|ecu|es Wor'l sl|c| logelrer lo lorr a ||qu|d url|| lre lerperalure drops lo 1 K (-
29C).

van der waa|s forces: d|spers|on forces

0|spers|or lorces (ore ol lre lWo lypes ol var der waa|s lorce We are dea||rg W|lr or lr|s page) are a|so
|roWr as Lordor lorces (rared aller Fr|lz Lordor Wro l|rsl suggesled roW lrey r|grl ar|se).
The or|g|n of van der waa|s d|spers|on forces
%emporary fluctuating dipoles
Allracl|ors are e|eclr|ca| |r ralure. lr a syrrelr|ca| ro|ecu|e |||e rydroger, roWever, lrere doesr'l seer
lo oe ary e|eclr|ca| d|slorl|or lo produce pos|l|ve or regal|ve parls. 8ul lral's or|y lrue or average.

Tre |ozerge-sraped d|agrar represerls a sra|| syrrelr|ca| ro|ecu|e - l2, perraps, or 8r2. Tre ever
srad|rg sroWs lral or average lrere |s ro e|eclr|ca| d|slorl|or.
8ul lre e|eclrors are roo||e, ard al ary ore |rslarl lrey r|grl l|rd lrerse|ves loWards ore erd ol lre
ro|ecu|e, ra||rg lral erd -. Tre olrer erd W||| oe lerporar||y srorl ol e|eclrors ard so oecores .

Note: (read as de|la) rears s||grl|y - so rears s||grl|y pos|l|ve.



Ar |rslarl |aler lre e|eclrors ray We|| rave roved up lo lre olrer erd, revers|rg lre po|ar|ly ol lre
ro|ecu|e.

Tr|s corslarl s|osr|rg arourd ol lre e|eclrors |r lre ro|ecu|e causes rap|d|y l|uclual|rg d|po|es ever |r
lre rosl syrrelr|ca| ro|ecu|e. ll ever rappers |r roralor|c ro|ecu|es - ro|ecu|es ol roo|e gases, |||e
re||ur, Wr|cr cors|sl ol a s|rg|e alor.
ll oolr lre re||ur e|eclrors rapper lo oe or ore s|de ol lre alor al lre sare l|re, lre ruc|eus |s ro
|orger proper|y covered oy e|eclrors lor lral |rslarl.

ow temporary dipoles give rise to intermolecular attractions

l'r go|rg lo use lre sare |ozerge-sraped d|agrar roW lo represerl ,3 ro|ecu|e Wr|cr cou|d, |r lacl, oe
a rucr rore corp||caled srape. 3rape does raller (see oe|oW), oul |eep|rg lre srape s|rp|e ra|es |l a
|ol eas|er lo oolr draW lre d|agrars ard urderslard Wral |s go|rg or.
lrag|re a ro|ecu|e Wr|cr ras a lerporary po|ar|ly oe|rg approacred oy ore Wr|cr rappers lo oe erl|re|y
ror-po|ar jusl al lral rorerl. (A prelly ur|||e|y everl, oul |l ra|es lre d|agrars rucr eas|er lo draWl lr
rea||ly, ore ol lre ro|ecu|es |s |||e|y lo rave a grealer po|ar|ly lrar lre olrer al lral l|re - ard so W||| oe
lre dor|rarl ore.)

As lre r|grl rard ro|ecu|e approacres, |ls e|eclrors W||| lerd lo oe allracled oy lre s||grl|y pos|l|ve erd ol
lre |ell rard ore.
Tr|s sels up ar induced dipole |r lre approacr|rg ro|ecu|e, Wr|cr |s or|erlaled |r sucr a Way lral lre
erd ol ore |s allracled lo lre - erd ol lre olrer.

Ar |rslarl |aler lre e|eclrors |r lre |ell rard ro|ecu|e ray We|| rave roved up lre olrer erd. lr do|rg so,
lrey W||| repe| lre e|eclrors |r lre r|grl rard ore.

Tre po|ar|ly ol oolr ro|ecu|es reverses, oul you sl||| rave allracl|rg -. As |org as lre ro|ecu|es slay
c|ose lo eacr olrer lre po|ar|l|es W||| corl|rue lo l|ucluale |r syrcrror|sal|or so lral lre allracl|or |s a|Ways
ra|rla|red.

Trere |s ro reasor Wry lr|s ras lo oe reslr|cled lo lWo ro|ecu|es. As |org as lre ro|ecu|es are c|ose
logelrer lr|s syrcrror|sed rovererl ol lre e|eclrors car occur over ruge ruroers ol ro|ecu|es.

Tr|s d|agrar sroWs roW a Wro|e |all|ce ol ro|ecu|es cou|d oe re|d logelrer |r a so||d us|rg var der waa|s
d|spers|or lorces. Ar |rslarl |aler, ol course, you Wou|d rave lo draW a qu|le d|llererl arrargererl ol lre
d|slr|oul|or ol lre e|eclrors as lrey sr|lled arourd - oul a|Ways |r syrcrror|sal|or.

The strength of d|spers|on forces

0|spers|or lorces oelWeer ro|ecu|es are rucr Wea|er lrar lre cova|erl oords W|lr|r ro|ecu|es. ll |sr'l
poss|o|e lo g|ve ary exacl va|ue, oecause lre s|ze ol lre allracl|or var|es cors|derao|y W|lr lre s|ze ol lre
ro|ecu|e ard |ls srape.
ow molecular size affects the strength of the dispersion forces
Tre oo|||rg po|rls ol lre roo|e gases are
re||ur

-29C
reor

-21C
argor

-18C
|ryplor

-152C
xeror

-108C
rador

-2C
A|| ol lrese e|ererls rave roralor|c ro|ecu|es.
Tre reasor lral lre oo|||rg po|rls |rcrease as you go doWr lre group |s lral lre ruroer ol e|eclrors
|rcreases, ard so a|so does lre rad|us ol lre alor. Tre rore e|eclrors you rave, ard lre rore d|slarce
over Wr|cr lrey car rove, lre o|gger lre poss|o|e lerporary d|po|es ard lrerelore lre o|gger lre
d|spers|or lorces.

8ecause ol lre grealer lerporary d|po|es, xeror ro|ecu|es are sl|c||er lrar reor ro|ecu|es. Neor
ro|ecu|es W||| orea| aWay lror eacr olrer al rucr |oWer lerperalures lrar xeror ro|ecu|es - rerce
reor ras lre |oWer oo|||rg po|rl.
Tr|s |s lre reasor lral (a|| olrer lr|rgs oe|rg equa|) o|gger ro|ecu|es rave r|grer oo|||rg po|rls lrar sra||
ores. 8|gger ro|ecu|es rave rore e|eclrors ard rore d|slarce over Wr|cr lerporary d|po|es car deve|op
- ard so lre o|gger ro|ecu|es are sl|c||er.

ow molecular shape affects the strength of the dispersion forces

Tre srapes ol lre ro|ecu|es a|so raller. Lorg lr|r ro|ecu|es car deve|op o|gger lerporary d|po|es due lo
e|eclror rovererl lrar srorl lal ores corla|r|rg lre sare ruroers ol e|eclrors.
Lorg lr|r ro|ecu|es car a|so ||e c|oser logelrer - lrese allracl|ors are al lre|r rosl ellecl|ve |l lre
ro|ecu|es are rea||y c|ose.
For exarp|e, lre rydrocaroor ro|ecu|es oulare ard 2-relry|propare oolr rave a ro|ecu|ar lorru|a
C1l10, oul lre alors are arrarged d|llererl|y. lr oulare lre caroor alors are arrarged |r a s|rg|e cra|r,
oul 2-relry|propare |s a srorler cra|r W|lr a orarcr.

8ulare ras a r|grer oo|||rg po|rl oecause lre d|spers|or lorces are grealer. Tre ro|ecu|es are |orger (ard
so sel up o|gger lerporary d|po|es) ard car ||e c|oser logelrer lrar lre srorler, laller 2-relry|propare
ro|ecu|es.

van der waa|s forces: d|po|e-d|po|e |nteract|ons

warn|ng! Trere's a o|l ol a proo|er rere W|lr roderr sy||aouses. Tre rajor|ly ol lre sy||aouses la|| as |l d|po|e-d|po|e
|rleracl|ors Were qu|le d|sl|rcl lror var der waa|s lorces. 3ucr a sy||aous W||| la|| aooul var der waa|s lorces (rear|rg
d|spers|or lorces) ard, separale|y, d|po|e-d|po|e |rleracl|ors.
|rlerro|ecu|ar allracl|ors are |roWr co||ecl|ve|y as var der waa|s lorces. Tre var|ous d|llererl lypes Were l|rsl exp|a|red oy
d|llererl peop|e al d|llererl l|res. 0|spers|or lorces, lor exarp|e, Were descr|oed oy Lordor |r 1930; d|po|e-d|po|e |rleracl|ors
oy Keesor |r 1912.
Tr|s odd|ly |r lre sy||aouses doesr'l raller |r lre |easl as lar as urderslard|rg |s corcerred - oul you oov|ous|y rusl |roW Wral
your parl|cu|ar exar|rers rear oy lre lerrs lrey use |r lre quesl|ors. Crec| your sy||aous.
ll you are Wor||rg lo a uK-oased sy||aous lor 1 - 18 year o|ds, oul dor'l rave a copy ol |l, lo||oW lr|s ||r| lo l|rd oul roW lo gel
ore.


A ro|ecu|e |||e lC| ras a perrarerl d|po|e oecause cr|or|re |s rore e|eclroregal|ve lrar rydroger.
Trese perrarerl, |r-ou||l d|po|es W||| cause lre ro|ecu|es lo allracl eacr olrer ralrer rore lrar lrey
olrerW|se Wou|d |l lrey rad lo re|y or|y or d|spers|or lorces.

Note: ll you arer'l rappy aooul e|eclroregal|v|ly ard po|ar ro|ecu|es, lo||oW lr|s ||r| oelore you go or.


ll's |rporlarl lo rea||se lral a|| ro|ecu|es exper|erce d|spers|or lorces. 0|po|e-d|po|e |rleracl|ors are rol
ar a|lerral|ve lo d|spers|or lorces - lrey occur |r add|l|or lo lrer. Vo|ecu|es Wr|cr rave perrarerl
d|po|es W||| lrerelore rave oo|||rg po|rls ralrer r|grer lrar ro|ecu|es Wr|cr or|y rave lerporary
l|uclual|rg d|po|es.
3urpr|s|rg|y d|po|e-d|po|e allracl|ors are la|r|y r|ror corpared W|lr d|spers|or lorces, ard lre|r ellecl car
or|y rea||y oe seer |l you corpare lWo ro|ecu|es W|lr lre sare ruroer ol e|eclrors ard lre sare s|ze.
For exarp|e, lre oo|||rg po|rls ol elrare, Cl3Cl3, ard l|uororelrare, Cl3F, are

wry croose lrese lWo ro|ecu|es lo corpare? 8olr rave |derl|ca| ruroers ol e|eclrors, ard |l you rade
rode|s you Wou|d l|rd lral lre s|zes Were s|r||ar - as you car see |r lre d|agrars. Tral rears lral lre
d|spers|or lorces |r oolr ro|ecu|es srou|d oe rucr lre sare.
Tre r|grer oo|||rg po|rl ol l|uororelrare |s due lo lre |arge perrarerl d|po|e or lre ro|ecu|e oecause ol
lre r|gr e|eclroregal|v|ly ol l|uor|re. loWever, ever g|ver lre |arge perrarerl po|ar|ly ol lre ro|ecu|e, lre
oo|||rg po|rl ras or|y oeer |rcreased oy sore 10.

lere |s arolrer exarp|e sroW|rg lre dor|rarce ol lre d|spers|or lorces.

Tr|cr|ororelrare, ClC|3, |s a r|gr|y po|ar ro|ecu|e oecause ol lre
e|eclroregal|v|ly ol lre lrree cr|or|res. Trere W||| oe qu|le slrorg d|po|e-d|po|e
allracl|ors oelWeer ore ro|ecu|e ard |ls re|groours.


0r lre olrer rard, lelracr|ororelrare, CC|1, |s ror-po|ar. Tre ouls|de ol lre ro|ecu|e |s ur|lorr|y - |r a||
d|recl|ors. CC|1 ras lo re|y or|y or d|spers|or lorces.


3o Wr|cr ras lre r|gresl oo|||rg po|rl? CC|1 does, oecause |l |s a o|gger ro|ecu|e W|lr rore e|eclrors.
Tre |rcrease |r lre d|spers|or lorces rore lrar corpersales lor lre |oss ol d|po|e-d|po|e |rleracl|ors.
Tre oo|||rg po|rls are:
ClC|3

1.2C
CC|1

Z.8C
|NTERH0LE6ULAR 0N0|NC - hY0R0CEN 0N08

Tr|s page exp|a|rs lre or|g|r ol rydroger oord|rg - a re|al|ve|y slrorg lorr ol |rlerro|ecu|ar allracl|or. ll
you are a|so |rleresled |r lre Wea|er |rlerro|ecu|ar lorces (var der waa|s d|spers|or lorces ard d|po|e-
d|po|e |rleracl|ors), lrere |s a ||r| al lre oollor ol lre page.

The ev|dence for hydrogen bond|ng

Vary e|ererls lorr corpourds W|lr rydroger. ll you p|ol lre oo|||rg po|rls ol lre corpourds ol lre
0roup 1 e|ererls W|lr rydroger, you l|rd lral lre oo|||rg po|rls |rcrease as you go doWr lre group.

Tre |rcrease |r oo|||rg po|rl rappers oecause lre ro|ecu|es are gell|rg |arger W|lr rore e|eclrors, ard so
var der waa|s d|spers|or lorces oecore grealer.

Note: ll you arer'l sure aooul var der waa|s d|spers|or lorces, |l Wou|d pay you lo lo||oW lr|s ||r| oelore you go or.


ll you repeal lr|s exerc|se W|lr lre corpourds ol lre e|ererls |r 0roups 5, ard Z W|lr rydroger,
sorelr|rg odd rappers.

A|lrougr lor lre rosl parl lre lrerd |s exacl|y lre sare as |r group 1 (lor exacl|y lre sare reasors), lre
oo|||rg po|rl ol lre corpourd ol rydroger W|lr lre l|rsl e|ererl |r eacr group |s aororra||y r|gr.
lr lre cases ol Nl3, l20 ard lF lrere rusl oe sore add|l|ora| |rlerro|ecu|ar lorces ol allracl|or,
requ|r|rg s|gr|l|carl|y rore real erergy lo orea|. Trese re|al|ve|y poWerlu| |rlerro|ecu|ar lorces are
descr|oed as hydrogen bonds.

The or|g|n of hydrogen bond|ng

Tre ro|ecu|es Wr|cr rave lr|s exlra oord|rg are:


Note: Tre so||d ||re represerls a oord |r lre p|are ol lre screer or paper. 0olled oords are go|rg oac| |rlo lre screer or paper
aWay lror you, ard Wedge-sraped ores are cor|rg oul loWards you.


Nol|ce lral |r eacr ol lrese ro|ecu|es:
O Tre rydroger |s allacred d|recl|y lo ore ol lre rosl e|eclroregal|ve e|ererls, caus|rg lre
rydroger lo acqu|re a s|gr|l|carl arourl ol pos|l|ve crarge.
O Eacr ol lre e|ererls lo Wr|cr lre rydroger |s allacred |s rol or|y s|gr|l|carl|y regal|ve, oul a|so
ras al |easl ore acl|ve |ore pa|r.
Lore pa|rs al lre 2-|eve| rave lre e|eclrors corla|red |r a re|al|ve|y sra|| vo|ure ol space Wr|cr
lrerelore ras a r|gr ders|ly ol regal|ve crarge. Lore pa|rs al r|grer |eve|s are rore d|lluse ard
rol so allracl|ve lo pos|l|ve lr|rgs.

Note: ll you arer'l rappy aooul e|eclroregal|v|ly, you srou|d lo||oW lr|s ||r| oelore you go or.


Cors|der lWo Waler ro|ecu|es cor|rg c|ose logelrer.

Tre rydroger |s so slrorg|y allracled lo lre |ore pa|r lral |l |s a|rosl as |l you Were oeg|rr|rg lo lorr a
co-ord|rale (dal|ve cova|erl) oord. ll doesr'l go lral lar, oul lre allracl|or |s s|gr|l|carl|y slrorger lrar ar
ord|rary d|po|e-d|po|e |rleracl|or.
lydroger oords rave aooul a lerlr ol lre slrerglr ol ar average cova|erl oord, ard are oe|rg corslarl|y
oro|er ard relorred |r ||qu|d Waler. ll you |||er lre cova|erl oord oelWeer lre oxyger ard rydroger lo a
slao|e rarr|age, lre rydroger oord ras jusl good lr|erds slalus. 0r lre sare sca|e, var der waa|s
allracl|ors represerl rere pass|rg acqua|rlarcesl
water as a "perfect" examp|e of hydrogen bond|ng
Nol|ce lral eacr Waler ro|ecu|e car polerl|a||y lorr lour rydroger oords W|lr surrourd|rg Waler
ro|ecu|es. Trere are exacl|y lre r|grl ruroers ol rydrogers ard |ore pa|rs so lral every ore ol lrer
car oe |rvo|ved |r rydroger oord|rg.
Tr|s |s Wry lre oo|||rg po|rl ol Waler |s r|grer lrar lral ol arror|a or rydroger l|uor|de. lr lre case ol
arror|a, lre arourl ol rydroger oord|rg |s ||r|led oy lre lacl lral eacr r|lroger or|y ras ore |ore pa|r.
lr a group ol arror|a ro|ecu|es, lrere arer'l erougr |ore pa|rs lo go arourd lo sal|sly a|| lre rydrogers.
lr rydroger l|uor|de, lre proo|er |s a srorlage ol rydrogers. lr Waler, lrere are exacl|y lre r|grl ruroer ol
eacr. waler cou|d oe cors|dered as lre perlecl rydroger oorded sysler.

Note: ou W||| l|rd rore d|scuss|or or lre ellecl ol rydroger oord|rg or lre properl|es ol Waler |r lre page or ro|ecu|ar
slruclures.

Hore comp|ex examp|es of hydrogen bond|ng

The hydrat|on of negat|ve |ons
wrer ar |or|c suoslarce d|sso|ves |r Waler, Waler ro|ecu|es c|usler arourd lre separaled |ors. Tr|s
process |s ca||ed rydral|or.
waler lrequerl|y allacres lo pos|l|ve |ors oy co-ord|rale (dal|ve cova|erl) oords. ll oords lo regal|ve |ors
us|rg rydroger oords.

Note: ll you are |rleresled |r lre oord|rg |r rydraled pos|l|ve |ors, you cou|d lo||oW lr|s ||r| lo co-ord|rale (dal|ve cova|erl)
oord|rg.


Tre d|agrar sroWs lre polerl|a| rydroger oords lorred lo a cr|or|de |or, C|
-
. A|lrougr lre |ore pa|rs |r
lre cr|or|de |or are al lre 3-|eve| ard Wou|dr'l rorra||y oe acl|ve erougr lo lorr rydroger oords, |r lr|s
case lrey are rade rore allracl|ve oy lre lu|| regal|ve crarge or lre cr|or|re.

loWever corp||caled lre regal|ve |or, lrere W||| a|Ways oe |ore pa|rs lral lre rydroger alors lror lre
Waler ro|ecu|es car rydroger oord lo.

hydrogen bond|ng |n a|coho|s

Ar a|coro| |s ar orgar|c ro|ecu|e corla|r|rg ar -0-l group.
Ary ro|ecu|e Wr|cr ras a rydroger alor allacred d|recl|y lo ar oxyger or a r|lroger |s capao|e ol
rydroger oord|rg. 3ucr ro|ecu|es W||| a|Ways rave r|grer oo|||rg po|rls lrar s|r||ar|y s|zed ro|ecu|es
Wr|cr dor'l rave ar -0-l or ar -N-l group. Tre rydroger oord|rg ra|es lre ro|ecu|es sl|c||er, ard
rore real |s recessary lo separale lrer.
Elraro|, Cl3Cl2-0-l, ard relroxyrelrare, Cl3-0-Cl3, oolr rave lre sare ro|ecu|ar lorru|a, C2l0.


Note: ll you raver'l dore ary orgar|c crer|slry yel, dor'l Worry aooul lre rares.


Trey rave lre sare ruroer ol e|eclrors, ard a s|r||ar |erglr lo lre ro|ecu|e. Tre var der waa|s
allracl|ors (oolr d|spers|or lorces ard d|po|e-d|po|e allracl|ors) |r eacr W||| oe rucr lre sare.
loWever, elraro| ras a rydroger alor allacred d|recl|y lo ar oxyger - ard lral oxyger sl||| ras exacl|y
lre sare lWo |ore pa|rs as |r a Waler ro|ecu|e. lydroger oord|rg car occur oelWeer elraro| ro|ecu|es,
a|lrougr rol as ellecl|ve|y as |r Waler. Tre rydroger oord|rg |s ||r|led oy lre lacl lral lrere |s or|y ore
rydroger |r eacr elraro| ro|ecu|e W|lr sull|c|erl crarge.
lr relroxyrelrare, lre |ore pa|rs or lre oxyger are sl||| lrere, oul lre rydrogers arer'l sull|c|erl|y lor
rydroger oords lo lorr. Excepl |r sore ralrer urusua| cases, lre rydroger alor ras lo oe allacred
/70.9lo lre very e|eclroregal|ve e|ererl lor rydroger oord|rg lo occur.
Tre oo|||rg po|rls ol elraro| ard relroxyrelrare sroW lre draral|c ellecl lral lre rydroger oord|rg ras
or lre sl|c||ress ol lre elraro| ro|ecu|es:
elraro| (W|lr rydroger oord|rg)

Z8.5C
relroxyrelrare (W|lroul rydroger oord|rg)

-21.8C
Tre rydroger oord|rg |r lre elraro| ras ||lled |ls oo|||rg po|rl aooul 100C.

ll |s |rporlarl lo rea||se lral rydroger oord|rg ex|sls 3,//943lo var der waa|s allracl|ors. For exarp|e,
a|| lre lo||oW|rg ro|ecu|es corla|r lre sare ruroer ol e|eclrors, ard lre l|rsl lWo are rucr lre sare
|erglr. Tre r|grer oo|||rg po|rl ol lre oular-1-o| |s due lo lre add|l|ora| rydroger oord|rg.

Corpar|rg lre lWo a|coro|s (corla|r|rg -0l groups), oolr oo|||rg po|rls are r|gr oecause ol lre add|l|ora|
rydroger oord|rg due lo lre rydroger allacred d|recl|y lo lre oxyger - oul lrey arer'l lre sare.
Tre oo|||rg po|rl ol lre 2-relry|propar-1-o| |sr'l as r|gr as lre oular-1-o| oecause lre orarcr|rg |r lre
ro|ecu|e ra|es lre var der waa|s allracl|ors |ess ellecl|ve lrar |r lre |orger oular-1-o|.

hydrogen bond|ng |n organ|c mo|ecu|es conta|n|ng n|trogen

lydroger oord|rg a|so occurs |r orgar|c ro|ecu|es corla|r|rg N-l groups - |r lre sare sorl ol Way lral |l
occurs |r arror|a. Exarp|es rarge lror s|rp|e ro|ecu|es |||e Cl3Nl2 (relry|ar|re) lo |arge ro|ecu|es
|||e prole|rs ard 0NA.
Tre lWo slrards ol lre larous douo|e re||x |r 0NA are re|d logelrer oy rydroger oords oelWeer
rydroger alors allacred lo r|lroger or ore slrard, ard |ore pa|rs or arolrer r|lroger or ar oxyger or
lre olrer ore.

Home

Chapter 11: States oI Matter and Intermolecular
Forces

Concept Review with Key
Terms


Concept Review with Key Terms
11.1 Intermolecular Forces and the States of Matter: A Chapter Previewases, solids, and
liquids comprise the three states of matter. When a substance underoes a chane Irom one
state to another, it is said to undero a phase change. Intermolecular forces are Iorces between
molecules that determine the physical properties oI liquids and solids.

11.2 Vaporization and Vapor Pressure vaporization is the conversion oI a liquid to a as
(vapor), and the quantity oI heat associated with this phase chane is known as the enthalpy
(heat) of vaporization. Condensation is the conversion oI a as (vapor) to a liquid, and dynamic
equilibrium is established when vaporization and condensation occur at the same rate in a closed
system. The partial pressure oI the vapor under these conditions is called the vapor pressure, a
temperature-dependent property. A plot oI vapor pressure versus temperature produces a vapor
pressure curve. The boiling point oI a liquid is the temperature at which its vapor pressure is
equal to the prevailin atmospheric pressure; a liquid`s boilin point at 1 atm is called the
normal boiling point. The critical temperature, %
.
is the hihest temperature at which a liquid
and its vapor can coexist, and the pressure-temperature point correspondin to this condition is
the critical point. Above the critical point, the sinle phase that exists is called a supercritical
fluid.

11.3 Phase Changes Involving Solidsthe conversion oI a solid to a liquid is called either
fusion or melting; the temperature at which this chane occurs is the melting point. The
quantity oI heat required to melt a iven amount oI a solid is the enthalpy (heat) of fusion. A
plot oI temperature versus time as a solid is slowly heated is known as a heatin curve; a similar
plot Ior a liquid that is slowly cooled is known as a coolin curve. In some cases, it is possible to
cool a liquid below its Ireezin point without havin a solid Iorm, a process known as
supercooling. The conversion oI a solid directly to a as (vapor) is called sublimation. A plot oI
the vapor pressure oI a solid versus temperature is known as a sublimation curve. The quantity
oI heat required to convert a iven amount oI solid directly to a as is the enthalpy (heat) of
sublimation, which is equal to the sum oI the enthalpy oI Iusion and the enthalpy oI
vaporization:
A
subln
A
fusion
+ A
vapn

The triple point oI a substance is the unique temperature and pressure at which the solid, liquid,
and vapor states oI the substance coexist.
11.4 Phase Diagramsa phase diagram is a plot showin the phases oI a substance at various
temperatures and pressures. Curves represent two-phase equilibria in the diaram: the
vaporization (vapor pressure) curve, the sublimation curve, and the Iusion curve. Polymorphism
describes the existence oI a solid, such as HI
2
(s), in two or more diIIerent solid phases.

11.5 Intermolecular Forces of the van der Waals TypeIluctuations in electron chare
density in a molecule produce an instantaneous dipole, which in turn creates induced dipoles in
neihborin molecules. The ease with which this occurs in a substance is known as its
polarizability. Attractions between instantaneous and induced dipoles, called dispersion forces,
are Iound in all substances. Polar molecules also have dipoledipole and dipole-induced dipole
intermolecular Iorces, arisin Irom permanent dipoles in the molecules. Collectively known as
van der Waals forces, dispersion Iorces, dipole-dipole Iorces, and dipoleinduced dipole Iorces
aIIect such physical properties as meltin points and boilin points. A series oI compounds with
reularly varyin structures and Iormulas also has reularly varyin properties; this is the
principle oI homology.

11.6 Hydrogen Bondsa stron intermolecular Iorcethe hydrogen bondIorms when a H
atom covalently bonded to an O, a N, or a F atom oI one molecule is simultaneously attracted to
an O, a N, or a F atom oI another molecule. Hydroen bondin accounts Ior some oI the unusual
properties oI water (Ior example, an unusually hih boilin point and the Iact that the density oI
liquid water is reater than the density oI ice). Hydroen bondin also overns aspects oI the
behavior oI bioloical molecules such as proteins and the nucleic acids.

11.7 Intermolecular Forces and Two Liquid Properties surface tension () is deIined as
the amount oI work required to increase the surIace area oI a liquid and is related to the cohesive
forces between liquid molecules. When a liquid drop is placed on a solid surIace, the relative
strenths oI cohesive Iorces (those between like molecules) and adhesive forces (those between
unlike molecules) determine the deree to which the drop will spread. At the interIace oI a liquid
and its container, these Iorces ive rise to a meniscus, or curvature oI the liquid surIace. The
intermolecular Iorces in a liquid partially determine its viscosity, or resistance to Ilow.

11.8 Network Covalent Solidsin some solids, covalent bonds extend throuhout a crystal.
Such solids, known as network covalent solids, enerally are harder, have much hiher meltin
points, and are less volatile than other molecular solids. Diamond and raphite, two allotropes oI
carbon, are examples oI these solids.

11.9 Ionic Bonds as ~Intermolecular Forcesin ionic solids, interionic attractions bind all
the ions toether in a crystal. The strenths oI these attractions depend primarily on the ionic
chares and the sizes oI the ions and partly determine physical properties, such as meltin points.
11.10 The Structure of Crystalsthe structure oI a crystal, which is a solid substance
composed oI an extended periodic array oI atoms, is described by a three-dimensional pattern
called a lattice. There are three types oI cubic lattices: simple cubic cell, body-centered cubic
(bcc), and face-centered cubic (fcc).

A unit cell, when repeated in three dimensions, enerates the entire crystal lattice. Unit cell
properties and dimensions, oIten measured by X-ray crystalloraphy, can be used to Iind atomic
radii and the densities oI crystalline substances. The crystal structures oI metals can be described
as the packin oI spheres. The two types oI close-packin oI spheres, hexagonal close-packed
(hcp) and cubic close-packed (ccp), both reduce to the smallest possible Iraction the volume
occupied by holes or voids. A model in which cations occupy the voids present amon a close-
packed array oI anions enerally works well Ior the crystal structures oI ionic substances.